TheJurassic(/dʒʊˈræsɪk/juurr-ASS-ik[2]) is ageologic periodandstratigraphic systemthat spanned from the end of theTriassicPeriod 201.4 million years ago (Mya) to the beginning of theCretaceousPeriod, approximately 145 Mya. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of theMesozoic Eraas well as the eighth period of thePhanerozoic Eonand is named after theJura Mountains,wherelimestonestrata from the period were first identified.
| Jurassic | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 A map of Earth as it appeared 170 million years ago during the Middle Jurassic Epoch | |||||||||
| Chronology | |||||||||
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| Etymology | |||||||||
| Name formality | Formal | ||||||||
| Usage information | |||||||||
| Regional usage | Global (ICS) | ||||||||
| Time scale(s) used | ICS Time Scale | ||||||||
| Definition | |||||||||
| Chronological unit | Period | ||||||||
| Stratigraphic unit | System | ||||||||
| Time span formality | Formal | ||||||||
| Lower boundary definition | First appearance of theammonitePsiloceras spelae tirolicum. | ||||||||
| Lower boundary GSSP | Kuhjoch section,Karwendel mountains,Northern Calcareous Alps,Austria 47°29′02″N11°31′50″E/ 47.4839°N 11.5306°E | ||||||||
| Lower GSSP ratified | 2010 | ||||||||
| Upper boundary definition | Not formally defined | ||||||||
| Upper boundary definition candidates |
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| Upper boundary GSSP candidate section(s) | None | ||||||||
The start of the Jurassic was marked by the majorTriassic–Jurassic extinction event,associated with the eruption of theCentral Atlantic Magmatic Province(CAMP). The beginning of theToarcianAge started around 183 million years ago and is marked by theToarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event,a global episode ofoceanic anoxia,ocean acidification,and elevated global temperatures associated with extinctions, likely caused by the eruption of theKaroo-Ferrar large igneous provinces.The end of the Jurassic, however, has no clear, definitive boundary with the Cretaceous and is the only boundary between geological periods to remain formally undefined.
By the beginning of the Jurassic, thesupercontinentPangaeahad begunriftinginto two landmasses:Laurasiato the north andGondwanato the south. The climate of the Jurassic was warmer than the present, and there were noice caps.Forests grew close to the poles, with large arid expanses in the lower latitudes.
On land, the fauna transitioned from the Triassic fauna, dominated jointly bydinosauromorphandpseudosuchianarchosaurs,to one dominated bydinosaursalone. The firststem-groupbirds appeared during the Jurassic, evolving from a branch oftheropoddinosaurs. Other major events include the appearance of the earliestcrabsand modernfrogs,salamandersandlizards.Mammaliaformes,one of the fewcynodontlineages to survive the end of the Triassic, continued to diversify throughout the period, with the Jurassic seeing the emergence of the firstcrown groupmammals.Crocodylomorphsmade the transition from a terrestrial to an aquatic life. The oceans were inhabited bymarine reptilessuch asichthyosaursandplesiosaurs,whilepterosaurswere the dominant flyingvertebrates.Modern sharks and rays first appeared and diversified during the period, while the first known crown-groupteleostfish appeared near the end of the period. The flora was dominated byfernsandgymnosperms,includingconifers,of which many modern groups made their first appearance during the period, as well as other groups like the extinctBennettitales.
Etymology and history
edit
Thechronostratigraphicterm "Jurassic" is linked to theJura Mountains,a forestedmountain rangethat mainly follows theFrance–Switzerland border.The name "Jura" is derived from theCelticroot*jorviaGaulish*iuris"wooded mountain", which was borrowed intoLatinas a name of a place and evolved intoJuriaand finallyJura.
During a tour of the region in 1795, GermannaturalistAlexander von Humboldtrecognizedcarbonatedeposits within the Jura Mountains as geologically distinct from theTriassicagedMuschelkalkof southernGermany,but he erroneously concluded that they were older. He then named themJura-Kalkstein('Jura limestone') in 1799.[3]
In 1829, the French naturalistAlexandre Brongniartpublished a book entitledDescription of the Terrains that Constitute the Crust of the Earth or Essay on the Structure of the Known Lands of the Earth.In this book, Brongniart used the phraseterrains jurassiqueswhen correlating the "Jura-Kalkstein" of Humboldt with similarly agedoolitic limestonesin Britain, thus coining and publishing the term "Jurassic".[4][3]
The German geologistLeopold von Buchin 1839 established the three-fold division of the Jurassic, originally named from oldest to the youngest: theBlack Jurassic,Brown Jurassic,andWhite Jurassic.[5]The term "Lias"had previously been used for strata of equivalent age to the Black Jurassic in England byWilliam ConybeareandWilliam Phillipsin 1822. William Phillips, the geologist, worked with William Conybeare to find out more about the Black Jurassic in England.
The FrenchpalaeontologistAlcide d'Orbignyin papers between 1842 and 1852 divided the Jurassic into ten stages based onammoniteand other fossil assemblages in England and France, of which seven are still used, but none has retained its original definition. The German geologist and palaeontologistFriedrich August von Quenstedtin 1858 divided the three series of von Buch in theSwabian Jurainto six subdivisions defined by ammonites and other fossils.
The German palaeontologistAlbert Oppelin his studies between 1856 and 1858 altered d'Orbigny's original scheme and further subdivided the stages intobiostratigraphiczones, based primarily on ammonites. Most of the modern stages of the Jurassic were formalized at the Colloque du Jurassique à Luxembourg in 1962.[3]
Geology
editThe Jurassic Period is divided into threeepochs:Early, Middle, and Late. Similarly, instratigraphy,the Jurassic is divided into theLower Jurassic,Middle Jurassic,andUpper Jurassicseries.Geologists divide the rocks of the Jurassic into astratigraphicset of units calledstages,each formed during corresponding time intervals called ages.
Stages can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, theInternational Commission on Stratigraphy(ICS) ratify global stages based on aGlobal Boundary Stratotype Section and Point(GSSP) from a singleformation(astratotype) identifying the lower boundary of the stage.[3]The ages of the Jurassic from youngest to oldest are as follows:[6]
| Series/epoch | Stage/age | Lower boundary |
| Early Cretaceous | Berriasian | ~145 Mya |
| Upper/Late Jurassic | Tithonian | 149.2 ± 0.7 Mya |
| Kimmeridgian | 154.8 ± 0.8 Mya | |
| Oxfordian | 161.5 ± 1.0 Mya | |
| Middle Jurassic | Callovian | 165.3 ± 1.1 Mya |
| Bathonian | 168.2 ± 1.2 Mya | |
| Bajocian | 170.9 ± 0.8 Mya | |
| Aalenian | 174.7 ± 0.8 Mya | |
| Lower/Early Jurassic | Toarcian | 184.2 ± 0.3 Mya |
| Pliensbachian | 192.9 ± 0.3 Mya | |
| Sinemurian | 199.5 ± 0.3 Mya | |
| Hettangian | 201.4 ± 0.2 Mya |
Stratigraphy
edit
Jurassic stratigraphy is primarily based on the use of ammonites asindex fossils.Thefirst appearance datumof specific ammonitetaxais used to mark the beginnings of stages, as well as smaller timespans within stages, referred to as "ammonite zones"; these, in turn, are also sometimes subdivided further into subzones. Global stratigraphy is based on standard European ammonite zones, with other regions being calibrated to the European successions.[3]
Early Jurassic
editThe oldest part of the Jurassic Period has historically been referred to as the Lias or Liassic, roughly equivalent in extent to the Early Jurassic, but also including part of the precedingRhaetian.The Hettangian Stage was named by Swiss palaeontologistEugène Renevierin 1864 afterHettange-Grandein north-eastern France.[3]The GSSP for the base of the Hettangian is located at the Kuhjoch Pass,Karwendel Mountains,Northern Calcareous Alps,Austria; it was ratified in 2010. The beginning of the Hettangian, and thus the Jurassic as a whole, is marked by thefirst appearanceof the ammonitePsiloceras spelae tirolicumin theKendlbach Formationexposed at Kuhjoch.[7]The base of the Jurassic was previously defined as the first appearance ofPsiloceras planorbisby Albert Oppel in 1856–58, but this was changed as the appearance was seen as too localised an event for an international boundary.[3]
The Sinemurian Stage was first defined and introduced into scientific literature by Alcide d'Orbigny in 1842. It takes its name from the French town ofSemur-en-Auxois,nearDijon.The original definition of Sinemurian included what is now the Hettangian. The GSSP of the Sinemurian is located at a cliff face north of the hamlet ofEast Quantoxhead,6 kilometres east ofWatchet,Somerset,England,within theBlue Lias,and was ratified in 2000. The beginning of the Sinemurian is defined by the first appearance of the ammoniteVermiceras quantoxense.[3][8]
Albert Oppel in 1858 named the Pliensbachian Stage after the hamlet ofPliensbachin the community ofZell unter Aichelbergin theSwabian Alb,nearStuttgart,Germany. The GSSP for the base of the Pliensbachian is found at the Wine Haven locality inRobin Hood's Bay,Yorkshire,England, in theRedcar Mudstone Formation,and was ratified in 2005. The beginning of the Pliensbachian is defined by the first appearance of the ammoniteBifericeras donovani.[9]
The villageThouars(Latin:Toarcium), just south ofSaumurin theLoire ValleyofFrance,lends its name to the Toarcian Stage. The Toarcian was named by Alcide d'Orbigny in 1842, with the original locality being Vrines quarry around 2 km northwest of Thouars. The GSSP for the base of the Toarcian is located atPeniche, Portugal,and was ratified in 2014. The boundary is defined by the first appearance of ammonites belonging to the subgenusDactylioceras(Eodactylites).[10]
Middle Jurassic
editThe Aalenian is named after the city ofAalenin Germany. The Aalenian was defined by Swiss geologistKarl Mayer-Eymarin 1864. The lower boundary was originally between the dark clays of the Black Jurassic and the overlying clayey sandstone andferruginousoolite of the Brown Jurassic sequences of southwestern Germany.[3]The GSSP for the base of the Aalenian is located atFuentelsazin theIberian rangenearGuadalajara, Spain,and was ratified in 2000. The base of the Aalenian is defined by the first appearance of the ammoniteLeioceras opalinum.[11]
Alcide d'Orbigny in 1842 named the Bajocian Stage after the town ofBayeux(Latin:Bajoce) in Normandy, France. The GSSP for the base of the Bajocian is located in the Murtinheira section atCabo Mondego,Portugal; it was ratified in 1997. The base of the Bajocian is defined by the first appearance of the ammoniteHyperlioceras mundum.[12]
The Bathonian is named after the city ofBath,England, introduced by Belgian geologistd'Omalius d'Halloyin 1843, after an incomplete section of oolitic limestones in several quarries in the region. The GSSP for the base of the Bathonian is Ravin du Bès, Bas-Auran area,Alpes de Haute Provence,France; it was ratified in 2009. The base of the Bathonian is defined by the first appearance of the ammoniteGonolkites convergens,at the base of theZigzagiceras zigzagammonite zone.[13]
The Callovian is derived from theLatinizedname of the village ofKellawaysinWiltshire,England, and was named by Alcide d'Orbigny in 1852, originally the base at the contact between theForest Marble Formationand theCornbrash Formation.However, this boundary was later found to be within the upper part of the Bathonian.[3]The base of the Callovian does not yet have a certified GSSP. The working definition for the base of the Callovian is the first appearance of ammonites belonging to the genusKepplerites.[14]
Late Jurassic
editThe Oxfordian is named after the city ofOxfordin England and was named by Alcide d'Orbigny in 1844 in reference to theOxford Clay.The base of the Oxfordian lacks a defined GSSP.W. J. Arkellin studies in 1939 and 1946 placed the lower boundary of the Oxfordian as the first appearance of the ammoniteQuenstedtoceras mariae(then placed in the genusVertumniceras). Subsequent proposals have suggested the first appearance ofCardioceras redcliffenseas the lower boundary.[3][14]
The village ofKimmeridgeon the coast ofDorset,England, is the origin of the name of the Kimmeridgian. The stage was named by Alcide d'Orbigny in 1842 in reference to theKimmeridge Clay.The GSSP for the base of the Kimmeridgian is the Flodigarry section atStaffin Bayon theIsle of Skye,Scotland,[15]which was ratified in 2021. The boundary is defined by the first appearance of ammonites marking the boreal Bauhini Zone and the subboreal Baylei Zone.[14]
The Tithonian was introduced in scientific literature by Albert Oppel in 1865. The name Tithonian is unusual in geological stage names because it is derived fromGreek mythologyrather than a place name.Tithonuswas the son ofLaomedonofTroyand fell in love withEos,the Greek goddess ofdawn.His name was chosen by Albert Oppel for thisstratigraphicalstage because the Tithonian finds itself hand in hand with the dawn of the Cretaceous. The base of the Tithonian currently lacks a GSSP.[3]The working definition for the base of the Tithonian is the first appearance of the ammonite genusGravesia.[14]
The upper boundary of the Jurassic is currently undefined, and the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary is currently the only system boundary to lack a defined GSSP. Placing a GSSP for this boundary has been difficult because of the strong regionality of most biostratigraphic markers, and lack of anychemostratigraphicevents, such asisotopeexcursions (large sudden changes inratios of isotopes), that could be used to define or correlate a boundary.Calpionellids,an Enigma tic group ofplanktonicprotistswith urn-shaped calcitictestsbriefly abundant during the latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous, have been suggested to represent the most promising candidates for fi xing the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary[16]In particular, the first appearanceCalpionella alpina,co-inciding with the base of the eponymous Alpina subzone, has been proposed as the definition of the base of the Cretaceous.[17]The working definition for the boundary has often been placed as the first appearance of the ammoniteStrambergella jacobi,formerly placed in the genusBerriasella,but its use as a stratigraphic indicator has been questioned, as its first appearance does not correlate with that ofC. alpina.[18]
Mineral and hydrocarbon deposits
editThe Kimmeridge Clay and equivalents are the majorsource rockfor theNorth Sea oil.[19]The Arabian Intrashelf Basin, deposited during the Middle and Late Jurassic, is the setting of the world's largest oil reserves, including theGhawar Field,the world's largest oil field.[20]The Jurassic-aged Sargelu[21]and Naokelekan formations[22]are major source rocks foroil in Iraq.Over 1500 gigatons of Jurassic coal reserves are found in north-west China, primarily in theTurpan-Hami Basinand theOrdos Basin.[23]
Impact structures
editMajor impact structures include theMorokweng impact structure,a 70 km diameter impact structure buried beneath the Kalahari desert in northern South Africa. The impact is dated to the Tithonian, approximately 146.06 ± 0.16 Mya.[24]Another major structure is thePuchezh-Katunki crater,40 kilometres in diameter, buried beneathNizhny Novgorod Oblastin western Russia. The impact has been dated to the Sinemurian, 195.9 ± 1.0 Ma.[25]
Paleogeography and tectonics
edit
At the beginning of the Jurassic, all of the world's major landmasses were coalesced into thesupercontinentPangaea,which during the Early Jurassic began to break up into northern supercontinentLaurasiaand the southern supercontinentGondwana.[26]The rifting between North America and Africa was the first to initiate, beginning in the early Jurassic, associated with the emplacement of theCentral Atlantic Magmatic Province.[27]
During the Jurassic, the NorthAtlantic Oceanremained relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the Cretaceous.[28][27]The continents were surrounded byPanthalassa,with theTethys Oceanbetween Gondwana and Asia. At the end of the Triassic, there was amarine transgressionin Europe, flooding most parts of central and western Europe transforming it into an archipelago of islands surrounded by shallow seas.[29]During the Jurassic, both the North and South Pole were covered by oceans.[26]Beginning in the Early Jurassic, the Boreal Ocean was connected to the proto-Atlantic by the "Viking corridor" or Transcontinental Laurasian Seaway, a passage between theBaltic ShieldandGreenlandseveral hundred kilometers wide.[30][31][32]During the Callovian, theTurgai Epicontinental Seaformed, creating a marine barrier between Europe and Asia.[33]
Madagascar and Antarctica began to rift away from Africa during the late Early Jurassic in association with the eruption of theKaroo-Ferrar large igneous provinces,opening the westernIndian Oceanand beginning the fragmentation of Gondwana.[34][35]At the beginning of the Jurassic, North and South America remained connected, but by the beginning of the Late Jurassic they had rifted apart to form the Caribbean Seaway, also known as the Hispanic Corridor, which connected the North Atlantic Ocean with eastern Panthalassa. Palaeontological data suggest that the seaway had been open since the Early Jurassic.[36]
As part of theNevadan orogeny,which began during the Triassic, theCache Creek Oceanclosed, and variousterranesincluding the largeWrangellia Terraneaccretedonto the western margin of North America.[37][38]By the Middle Jurassic theSiberian plateand the North China-Amuria block had collided, resulting in the closure of theMongol-Okhotsk Ocean.[39]
During the Early Jurassic, around 190 million years ago, thePacific Plateoriginated at thetriple junctionof theFarallon,Phoenix,andIzanagitectonic plates,the three mainoceanic platesof Panthalassa. The previously stable triple junction had converted to an unstable arrangement surrounded on all sides bytransform faultsbecause of a kink in one of the plate boundaries, resulting in the formation of the Pacific Plate at the centre of the junction.[40]During the Middle to early Late Jurassic, theSundance Seaway,a shallowepicontinental sea,covered much of northwest North America.[41]
Theeustatic sea levelis estimated to have been close to present levels during the Hettangian and Sinemurian, rising several tens of metres during the late Sinemurian–Pliensbachian before regressing to near present levels by the late Pliensbachian. There seems to have been a gradual rise to a peak of ~75 m above present sea level during the Toarcian. During the latest part of the Toarcian, the sea level again dropped by several tens of metres. It progressively rose from the Aalenian onwards, aside from dips of a few tens of metres in the Bajocian and around the Callovian–Oxfordian boundary, peaking possibly as high as 140 metres above present sea level at the Kimmeridgian–Tithonian boundary. The sea levels falls in the late Tithonian, perhaps to around 100 metres, before rebounding to around 110 metres at the Tithonian–Berriasian boundary.
The sea level within the long-term trends across the Jurassic was cyclical, with 64 fluctuations, 15 of which were over 75 metres. The most notedcyclicityin Jurassic rocks is fourth order, with a periodicity of approximately 410,000 years.[42]
During the Early Jurassic the world's oceans transitioned from anaragonite seato acalcite seachemistry, favouring the dissolution ofaragoniteand precipitation ofcalcite.[43]The rise of calcareousplanktonduring the Middle Jurassic profoundly altered ocean chemistry, with the deposition ofbiomineralizedplankton on the ocean floor acting as abufferagainst large CO2emissions.[44]
Climate
editThe climate of the Jurassic was generally warmer than that of present, by around 5–10 °C (9–18 °F), withatmospheric carbon dioxidelikely about four times higher. Intermittent "cold snap" intervals are known to have occurred during this time period, however, interrupting the otherwise warm greenhouse climate.[45]Forests likely grew near the poles, where they experienced warm summers and cold, sometimes snowy winters; there were unlikely to have been ice sheets given the high summer temperatures that prevented the accumulation of snow, though there may have been mountain glaciers.[46]Dropstonesandglendonitesin northeasternSiberiaduring the Early to Middle Jurassic indicate cold winters.[47]The ocean depths were likely 8 °C (14 °F) warmer than present, andcoral reefsgrew 10° of latitude further north and south. TheIntertropical Convergence Zonelikely existed over the oceans, resulting in large areas of desert and scrubland in the lower latitudes between 40° N and S of the equator.Tropical rainforestandtundrabiomes are likely to have been rare or absent.[46]The Jurassic also witnessed the decline of the Pangaean megamonsoon that had characterised the preceding Permian and Triassic periods.[48]Variation in the frequency ofwildfireactivity in the Jurassic was governed by the 405 kyreccentricitycycle.[49]Thanks to the breakup of Pangaea, the hydrological cycle during the Jurassic was significantly enhanced.[50]
The beginning of the Jurassic was likely marked by a thermal spike corresponding to the Triassic–Jurassic extinction and eruption of the Central Atlantic magmatic province. The first part of the Jurassic was marked by the Early Jurassic Cool Interval between 199 and 183 million years ago.[47]It has been proposed that glaciation was present in the Northern Hemisphere during both the early Pliensbachian[51]and the latest Pliensbachian.[52][53]There was a spike in global temperatures of around 4–8 °C (7–14 °F) during the early part of the Toarcian corresponding to the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event and the eruption of the Karoo-Ferrarlarge igneous provincesin southern Gondwana, with the warm interval extending to the end of the Toarcian around 174 million years ago.[47]During the Toarcian Warm Interval, ocean surface temperatures likely exceeded 30 °C (86 °F), and equatorial and subtropical (30°N–30°S) regions are likely to have been extremely arid, with temperatures in the interior of Pangea likely in excess of 40 °C (104 °F).The Toarcian Warm Interval is followed by the Middle Jurassic Cool Interval (MJCI) between 174 and 164 million years ago,[47]which may have been punctuated by brief, ephemeral icehouse intervals.[54][55]During the Aalenian, precessionally forced climatic changes dictated peatland wildfire magnitude and frequency.[56]The European climate appears to have become noticeably more humid at the Aalenian-Bajocian boundary but then became more arid during the middle Bajocian.[57]A transient ice age possibly occurred in the late Bajocian.[58]The Callovian-Oxfordian boundary at the end of the MJCI witnessed particularly notable global cooling,[59][60]potentially even an ice age.[61]This is followed by the Kimmeridgian Warm Interval (KWI) between 164 and 150 million years ago.[47]Based on fossilwooddistribution, this was one of the wettest intervals of the Jurassic.[62]The Pangaean interior had less severe seasonal swings than in previous warm periods as the expansion of the Central Atlantic and Western Indian Ocean provided new sources of moisture.[47]A prominent drop in temperatures occurred during the Tithonian, known as the Early Tithonian Cooling Event (ETCE).[60]The end of the Jurassic was marked by the Tithonian–early Barremian Cool Interval (TBCI), beginning 150 million years ago and continuing into theEarly Cretaceous.[47]
Climatic events
editToarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event
editThe Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event (TOAE), also known as the Jenkyns Event, was an episode of widespreadoceanic anoxiaduring the early part of the Toarcian Age, c. 183 Mya. It is marked by a globally documented high amplitude negativecarbon isotopeexcursion,[63][64]as well as the deposition of blackshales[65]and the extinction and collapse of carbonate-producing marine organisms, associated with a major rise in global temperatures.[66]
The TOAE is often attributed to the eruption of the Karoo-Ferrar large igneous provinces and the associated increase of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere, as well as the possible associated release ofmethane clathrates.[66]This likely accelerated thehydrological cycleand increasedsilicate weathering,as evidenced by an increased amount of organic matter of terrestrial origin found in marine deposits during the TOAE.[67]Groups affected include ammonites,[68]ostracods,[65][69]foraminifera,[70][71]bivalves,[65]cnidarians,and especiallybrachiopods,[72][73][74]for which the TOAE represented one of the most severe extinctions in their evolutionary history.[75]While the event had significant impact on marine invertebrates, it had little effect on marine reptiles.[76]During the TOAE, theSichuan Basinwas transformed into a giantlake,probably three times the size of modern-dayLake Superior,represented by the Da'anzhai Member of theZiliujing Formation.The lake likelysequestered~460 gigatons (Gt) of organic carbon and ~1,200 Gt of inorganic carbon during the event.[77]SeawaterpH,which had already substantially decreased prior to the event, increased slightly during the early stages of the TOAE, before dropping to its lowest point around the middle of the event.[78]Thisocean acidificationis the probable cause of the collapse of carbonate production.[79][80]Additionally, anoxic conditions were exacerbated by enhanced recycling ofphosphorusback into ocean water as a result of high ocean acidity and temperature inhibiting its mineralisation into apatite; the abundance of phosphorus in marine environments caused further eutrophication and consequent anoxia in a positive feedback loop.[81]
End-Jurassic transition
editThe end-Jurassic transition was originally considered one of eight mass extinctions, but is now considered to be a complex interval of faunal turnover, with the increase in diversity of some groups and decline in others, though the evidence for this is primarily European, probably controlled by changes in eustatic sea level.[82]
Flora
editEnd-Triassic extinction
editThere is no evidence of a mass extinction of plants at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.[83]At the Triassic–Jurassic boundary in Greenland, the sporomorph (pollen and spores) record suggests a complete floral turnover.[84]An analysis of macrofossil floral communities in Europe suggests that changes were mainly due to localecological succession.[85]At the end of the Triassic, thePeltaspermaceaebecame extinct in most parts of the world, withLepidopterispersisting into the Early Jurassic in Patagonia.[86]Dicroidium,acorystospermseed fern that was a dominant part of Gondwanan floral communities during the Triassic, also declined at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, surviving as a relict in Antarctica into the Early Jurassic.[87]
Floral composition
editConifers
edit
Conifersformed a dominant component of Jurassic floras. The Late Triassic and Jurassic was a major time of diversification of conifers, with most modern conifer groups appearing in the fossil record by the end of the Jurassic, having evolved fromvoltzialeanancestors.[88][89]
Araucarianconifers have their first unambiguous records during the Early Jurassic, and members of the modern genusAraucariawere widespread across both hemispheres by the Middle Jurassic.[89][90][91]
Also abundant during the Jurassic is the extinct familyCheirolepidiaceae,often recognised through their highly distinctiveClassopolispollen. Jurassic representatives include the pollen coneClassostrobusand the seed conePararaucaria.Araucarian and Cheirolepidiaceae conifers often occur in association.[92]
The oldest definitive record of the cypress family (Cupressaceae) isAustrohamia minutafrom the Early Jurassic (Pliensbachian) of Patagonia, known from many parts of the plant.[93]The reproductive structures ofAustrohamiahave strong similarities to those of the primitive living cypress generaTaiwaniaandCunninghamia.By the Middle to Late Jurassic Cupressaceae were abundant in warm temperate–tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, most abundantly represented by the genusElatides.[94]The Jurassic also saw the first appearances of some modern genera of cypresses, such asSequoia.[95]
Members of the extinct genusSchizolepidopsiswhich likely represent astem-groupto the pine family (Pinaceae), were widely distributed across Eurasia during the Jurassic.[96][97]The oldest unambiguous record of Pinaceae is thepine coneEathiestrobus,known from the Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) of Scotland, which remains the only known unequivocal fossil of the group before the Cretaceous.[98]Despite being the earliest known member of the Pinaceae,Eathiestrobusappears to be a member of thepinoidcladeof the family, suggesting that the initial diversification of Pinaceae occurred earlier than has been found in the fossil record.[99][89]
The earliest record of the yew family (Taxaceae) isPalaeotaxus rediviva,from the Hettangian of Sweden, suggested to be closely related to the livingAustrotaxus,whileMarskea jurassicafrom the Middle Jurassic of Yorkshire, England and material from the Callovian–OxfordianDaohugou Bedin China are thought to be closely related toAmentotaxus,with the latter material assigned to the modern genus, indicating that Taxaceae had substantially diversified by the end of the Jurassic.[100]
The oldest unambiguous members ofPodocarpaceaeare known from the Jurassic, found across both hemispheres, includingScarburgiaandHarrisiocarpusfrom the Middle Jurassic of England, as well as unnamed species from the Middle-Late Jurassic of Patagonia.[101]
During the Early Jurassic, the flora of the mid-latitudes of Eastern Asia were dominated by the extinct deciduous broad leafed coniferPodozamites,which appears to not be closely related to any living family of conifer. Its range extended northwards into polar latitudes of Siberia and then contracted northward in the Middle to Late Jurassic, corresponding to the increasing aridity of the region.[102]
Ginkgoales
edit
Ginkgoales,of which the sole living species isGinkgo biloba,were more diverse during the Jurassic: they were among the most important components of Eurasian Jurassic floras and were adapted to a wide variety of climatic conditions.[103]The earliest representatives of the genusGinkgo,represented byovulateand pollen organs similar to those of the modern species, are known from the Middle Jurassic in the Northern Hemisphere.[103]Several other lineages of ginkgoaleans are known from Jurassic rocks, includingYimaia,Grenana,NagreniaandKarkenia.These lineages are associated withGinkgo-like leaves, but are distinguished from living and fossil representatives ofGinkgoby having differently arranged reproductive structures.[103][104]Umaltolepisfrom the Jurassic of Asia has strap-shaped ginkgo-like leaves with highly distinct reproductive structures with similarities to those of peltasperm and corystosperm seed ferns, has been suggested to be a member of Ginkgoalessensu lato.[105]
Bennettitales
edit
Bennettitales,having first become widespread during the preceding Triassic, were diverse and abundant members of Jurassic floras across both hemispheres.[106]The foliage of Bennettitales bears strong similarities to those of cycads, to such a degree that they cannot be reliably distinguished on the basis of morphology alone. Leaves of Bennettitales can be distinguished from those of cycads their different arrangement ofstomata,and the two groups are not thought to be closely related.[107]Jurassic Bennettitales predominantly belong to the groupWilliamsoniaceae,[106]which grew as shrubs and small trees. The Williamsoniaceae are thought to have had adivaricatebranching habit, similar to that of livingBanksia,and adapted to growing in open habitats with poor soil nutrient conditions.[108]Bennettitales exhibit complex,flower-like reproductive structures some of which are thought to have been pollinated by insects. Several groups of insects that bear long proboscis, including extinct families such askalligrammatidlacewings[109]and extant ones such asacroceridflies,[110]are suggested to have been pollinators of bennettitales, feeding onnectarproduced by bennettitalean cones.
Cycads
editCycadsreached their apex of diversity during the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods.[111]Despite the Mesozoic sometimes being called the "Age of Cycads", cycads are thought to have been a relatively minor component of mid-Mesozoic floras, with the Bennettitales andNilssoniales,which have cycad-like foliage, being dominant.[112]The Nilssoniales have often been considered cycads or cycad relatives, but have been found to be distinct on chemical grounds, and perhaps more closely allied with Bennettitales.[113]The relationships of most Mesozoic cycads to living groups are ambiguous,[112]with no Jurassic cycads belonging to either of the two modern groups of cycads, though some Jurassic cycads possibly representstem-grouprelatives of modernCycadaceae,like the leaf genusParacycasknown Europe, andZamiaceae,like some European species of the leaf genusPseudoctenis.Also widespread during the Jurassic was the extinctCtenislineage, which appears to be distantly related to modern cycads.[114]Modern cycads are pollinated by beetles, and such an association is thought to have formed by the Early Jurassic.[111]
Other seed plants
editAlthough there have been several claimed records, there are no widely accepted Jurassic fossil records offlowering plants,which make up 90% of living plant species, and fossil evidence suggests that the group diversified during the following Cretaceous.[115]
The earliest knowngnetophytes,one of the four main living groups ofgymnosperms,appeared by the end of the Jurassic, with the oldest unequivocal gnetophyte being the seedDayvaultiafrom the Late Jurassic of North America.[116]
"Seed ferns" (Pteridospermatophyta) is a collective term to refer to disparate lineages of fern like plants that produce seeds but have uncertain affinities to livingseed plantgroups. A prominent group of Jurassic seed ferns is theCaytoniales,which reached their zenith during the Jurassic, with widespread records in the Northern Hemisphere, though records in the Southern Hemisphere remain rare. Due to theirberry-like seed-bearing capsules, they have often been suggested to have been closely related or perhaps ancestral to flowering plants, but the evidence for this is inconclusive.[117]Corystosperm-aligned seed ferns, such asPachypterisandKomlopteriswere widespread across both hemispheres during the Jurassic.[118]
Czekanowskiales,also known as Leptostrobales, are a group of seed plants uncertain affinities with persistent heavily dissected leaves borne on deciduous short shoots, subtended by scale-like leaves, known from the Late Triassic (possibly Late Permian[119]) to Cretaceous.[120]They are thought to have had a tree- or shrub-like habit and formed a conspicuous component of Northern Hemisphere Mesozoic temperate and warm-temperate floras.[119]The genusPhoenicopsiswas widespread in Early-Middle Jurassic floras of Eastern Asia and Siberia.[121]
ThePentoxylales,a small but clearly distinct group ofliana-like seed plants of obscure affinities, first appeared during the Jurassic. Their distribution appears to have been confined to Eastern Gondwana.[122]
Ferns and allies
editLiving families of ferns widespread during the Jurassic includeDipteridaceae,Matoniaceae,Gleicheniaceae,OsmundaceaeandMarattiaceae.[123][124]Polypodiales,which make up 80% of living fern diversity, have no record from the Jurassic and are thought to have diversified in the Cretaceous,[125]though the widespread Jurassicherbaceousfern genusConiopteris,historically interpreted as a close relative oftree fernsof the familyDicksoniaceae,has recently been reinterpreted as an early relative of the group.[126]
TheCyatheales,the group containing most modern tree ferns, appeared during the Late Jurassic, represented by members of the genusCyathocaulis,which are suggested to be early members ofCyatheaceaeon the basis of cladistic analysis.[127]Only a handful of possible records exist of theHymenophyllaceaefrom the Jurassic, includingHymenophyllites macrosporangiatusfrom the Russian Jurassic.[128]
The oldest remains of modernhorsetailsof the genusEquisetumfirst appear in the Early Jurassic, represented byEquisetum dimorphumfrom the Early Jurassic of Patagonia[129]andEquisetum lateralefrom the Early to Middle Jurassic of Australia.[130][131]Silicifiedremains ofEquisetum thermalefrom the Late Jurassic of Argentina exhibit all the morphological characters of modern members of the genus.[132]The estimated split betweenEquisetum bogotenseand all other livingEquisetumis estimated to have occurred no later than the Early Jurassic.[131]
Lower plants
editQuillwortsvirtually identical to modern species are known from the Jurassic onwards.Isoetites rolandiifrom the Middle Jurassic of Oregon is the earliest known species to represent all major morphological features of modernIsoetes.More primitive forms such asNathorstiana,which retain an elongated stem, persisted into the Early Cretaceous.[133]
The mossKulindobryumfrom the Middle Jurassic of Russia, which was found associated with dinosaur bones, is thought to be related to theSplachnaceae,which grow on animal caracasses.[134]Bryokhutuliiniafrom the same region is thought to be related toDicranales.[134]Heinrichsiellafrom the Jurassic of Patagonia is thought to belong to eitherPolytrichaceaeorTimmiellaceae.[135]
The liverwortPellites hamiensisfrom the Middle JurassicXishanyao Formationof China is the oldest record of the familyPelliaceae.[136]Pallaviciniites sandaolingensisfrom the same deposit is thought to belong to the subclass Pallaviciniineae within thePallaviciniales.[137]Ricciopsis sandaolingensis,also from the same deposit, is the only Jurassic record ofRicciaceae.[138]
Fauna
editReptiles
editCrocodylomorphs
edit
The Triassic–Jurassic extinction decimatedpseudosuchiandiversity, withcrocodylomorphs,which originated during the early Late Triassic, being the only group of pseudosuchians to survive. All other pseudosuchians, including the herbivorousaetosaursand carnivorous "rauisuchians",became extinct.[139]The morphological diversity of crocodylomorphs during the Early Jurassic was around the same as that of Late Triassic pseudosuchians, but they occupied different areas of morphospace, suggesting that they occupied differentecological nichesto their Triassic counterparts and that there was an extensive and rapid radiation of crocodylomorphs during this interval.[140]While livingcrocodiliansare mostly confined to an aquatic ambush predator lifestyle, Jurassic crocodylomorphs exhibited a wide variety of life habits. An unnamedprotosuchidknown from teeth from the Early Jurassic of Arizona represents the earliest known herbivorous crocodylomorph, an adaptation that appeared several times during the Mesozoic.[141]
TheThalattosuchia,a clade of predominantly marine crocodylomorphs, first appeared during the Early Jurassic and became a prominent part of marine ecosystems.[142]Within Thalattosuchia, theMetriorhynchidaebecame highly adapted for life in the open ocean, including the transformation of limbs into flippers, the development of a tail fluke, and smooth, scaleless skin.[143]The morphological diversity of crocodylomorphs during the Early and Middle Jurassic was relatively low compared to that in later time periods and was dominated by terrestrial small-bodied, long-leggedsphenosuchians,earlycrocodyliformsand thalattosuchians.[144][142]TheNeosuchia,a major group of crocodylomorphs, first appeared during the Early to Middle Jurassic. The Neosuchia represents the transition from an ancestrally terrestrial lifestyle to a freshwater aquatic ecology similar to that occupied by modern crocodilians.[145]The timing of the origin of Neosuchia is disputed. The oldest record of Neosuchians has been suggested to beCalsoyasuchus,from the Early Jurassic of Arizona, which in many analyses has been recovered as the earliest branching member of the neosuchian familyGoniopholididae,which radically alters times of diversification for crocodylomorphs. However, this placement has been disputed, with some analyses finding it outside Neosuchia, which would place the oldest records of Neosuchia in the Middle Jurassic.[145]Razanandrongobefrom the Middle Jurassic of Madagascar has been suggested the represent the oldest record ofNotosuchia,a primarily Gondwanan clade of mostly terrestrial crocodylomorphs, otherwise known from the Cretaceous and Cenozoic.[146]
Turtles
edit
Stem-groupturtles (Testudinata) diversified during the Jurassic. Jurassic stem-turtles belong to two progressively more advanced clades, theMesochelydiaandPerichelydia.[147]It is thought that the ancestral condition for mesochelydians is aquatic, as opposed to terrestrial for testudinates.[148]The two modern groups of turtles (Testudines),PleurodiraandCryptodira,diverged by the beginning of the Late Jurassic.[147]The oldest known pleurodires, thePlatychelyidae,are known from the Late Jurassic of Europe and the Americas,[149]while the oldest unambiguous cryptodire,Sinaspideretes,an early relative ofsoftshell turtles,is known from the Late Jurassic of China.[150]TheThalassochelydia,a diverse lineage of marine turtles unrelated to modernsea turtles,are known from the Late Jurassic of Europe and South America.[151]
Lepidosaurs
editRhynchocephalians(the sole living representative being thetuatara) had achieved a global distribution by the beginning of the Jurassic,[152]and represented the dominant group of small reptiles during the Jurassic globally.[153]Rhynchocephalians reached their highest morphological diversity in their evolutionary history during the Jurassic, occupying a wide range of lifestyles, including the aquaticpleurosaurswith long snake-like bodies and reduced limbs, the specialized herbivorouseilenodontines,as well as thesapheosaurswhich had broad tooth plates indicative ofdurophagy.[154]Rhynchocephalians disappeared from Asia after the Early Jurassic.[152]The last common ancestor of livingsquamates(which includeslizardsandsnakes) is estimated to have lived around 190 million years ago during the Early Jurassic, with the major divergences between modern squamate lineages estimated to have occurred during the Early to Middle Jurassic.[155]Squamates first appear in the fossil record during the Middle Jurassic[156]including members of modern clades such asScincomorpha,[157]though many Jurassic squamates have unclear relationships to living groups.[158]Eichstaettisaurusfrom the Late Jurassic of Germany has been suggested to be an early relative ofgeckosand displays adaptations for climbing.[159]Dorsetisaurusfrom the Late Jurassic of North America and Europe represents the oldest widely accepted record ofAnguimorpha.[160]Marmorettafrom the Middle Jurassic of Britain has been suggested to represent a late survivinglepidosauromorphoutside both Rhynchocephalia and Squamata, though some studies have recovered it as a stem-squamate.[161]
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Vadasaurus herzogi,a rynchocephalian from the Upper JurassicSolnhofen Limestoneof Germany -
Homeosaurus maximiliani,a rynchocephalian from the Solnhofen Limestone -
Pleurosaurus,,an aquatic rhynchocephalian from the Late Jurassic of Europe -
Eichstaettisaurus schroederi,,an extinct lizard from the Solnhofen Limestone
Choristoderes
edit
The earliest known remains ofChoristodera,a group of freshwater aquatic reptiles with uncertain affinities to other reptile groups, are found in the Middle Jurassic. Only two genera of choristodere are known from the Jurassic. One is the small lizard-likeCteniogenys,thought to be the most basal known choristodere; it is known from the Middle to Late Jurassic of Europe and Late Jurassic of North America, with similar remains also known from the upper Middle Jurassic of Kyrgyzstan and western Siberia.[162]The other isCoeruleodracofrom the Late Jurassic of China, which is a more advanced choristodere, though still small and lizard-like in morphology.[163]
Ichthyosaurs
edit
Ichthyosaurssuffered anevolutionary bottleneckduring the end-Triassic extinction, with all non-neoichthyosauriansbecoming extinct. Ichthyosaurs reached their apex of species diversity during the Early Jurassic, with an array of morphologies including the hugeapex predatorTemnodontosaurusand swordfish-likeEurhinosaurus,though Early Jurassic ichthyosaurs were significantly less morphologically diverse than their Triassic counterparts.[164][165]At the Early–Middle Jurassic boundary, between the end of the Toarcian and the beginning of the Bajocian, most lineages of ichythosaur appear to have become extinct, with the first appearance of theOphthalmosauridae,the clade that would encompass almost all ichthyosaurs from then on, during the early Bajocian.[166]Ophthalmosaurids were diverse by the Late Jurassic, but failed to fill many of the niches that had been occupied by ichthyosaurs during the Early Jurassic.[166][164][165]
Plesiosaurs
edit
Plesiosaursoriginated at the end of the Triassic (Rhaetian). By the end of the Triassic, all othersauropterygians,includingplacodontsandnothosaurs,had become extinct. At least six lineages of plesiosaur crossed the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.[167]Plesiosaurs were already diverse in the earliest Jurassic, with the majority of plesiosaurs in the Hettangian-aged Blue Lias belonging to theRhomaleosauridae.Early plesiosaurs were generally small-bodied, with body size increasing into the Toarcian.[168]There appears to have been a strong turnover around the Early–Middle Jurassic boundary, withmicrocleididsand rhomaleosaurids becoming extinct and nearly extinct respectively after the end of the Toarcian with the first appearance of the dominant clade of plesiosaurs of the latter half of the Jurassic, theCryptoclididaeduring the Bajocian.[166]The Middle Jurassic saw the evolution of short-necked and large-headedthalassophonean pliosaursfrom ancestrally small-headed, long-necked forms.[169][166]Some thalassophonean pliosaurs, such as some species ofPliosaurus,had skulls up to two metres in length with body lengths estimated around 10–12 meters(32–39 ft), making them the apex predators of Late Jurassic oceans.[170][166]Plesiosaurs invaded freshwater environments during the Jurassic, with indeterminate remains of small-bodied pleisosaurs known from freshwater sediments from the Jurassic of China and Australia.[171][172]
Pterosaurs
edit
Pterosaursfirst appeared in the Late Triassic. A major radiation of Jurassic pterosaurs is theRhamphorhynchidae,which first appeared in the late Early Jurassic (Toarcian);[173]they are thought to beenpiscivorous.[174]Anurognathids,which first appeared in the Middle Jurassic, possessed short heads and densely furred bodies, and are thought to have been insectivores.[174]Derivedmonofenestratanpterosaurs such aswukongopteridsappeared in the late Middle Jurassic. Advanced short-tailedpterodactyloidsfirst appeared at the Middle–Late Jurassic boundary. Jurassic pterodactyloids include thectenochasmatids,likeCtenochasma,which have closely spaced needle-like teeth that were presumably used forfilter feeding.[174]The bizarre Late JurassicctenochasmatoidCycnorhamphushad a jaw with teeth only at the tips, with bent jaws like those of livingopenbill storksthat may have been used to hold and crush hard invertebrates.[174]
Dinosaurs
editDinosaurs,which had morphologically diversified in the Late Triassic, experienced a major increase in diversity and abundance during the Early Jurassic in the aftermath of the end-Triassic extinction and the extinction of other reptile groups, becoming the dominant vertebrates in terrestrial ecosystems.[175][176]Chilesaurus,a morphologically aberrant herbivorous dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of South America, has uncertain relationships to the three main groups of dinosaurs, having been recovered as a member of all three in different analyses.[177]
Theropods
editAdvancedtheropodsbelonging toNeotheropodafirst appeared in the Late Triassic. Basal neotheropods, such ascoelophysoidsanddilophosaurs,persisted into the Early Jurassic, but became extinct by the Middle Jurassic.[178]The earliestaverostransappear during the Early Jurassic, with the earliest known member ofCeratosauriabeingSaltriovenatorfrom the early Sinemurian (199.3–197.5 million years ago) of Italy.[179]The unusual ceratosaurLimusaurusfrom the Late Jurassic of China had a herbivorous diet, with adults havingedentulousbeaked jaws,[180]making it the earliest known theropod to have converted from an ancestrally carnivorous diet.[181]The earliest members of theTetanuraeappeared during the late Early Jurassic or early Middle Jurassic.[182]TheMegalosauridaerepresent the oldest radiation of the Tetanurae, first appearing in Europe during the Bajocian.[183]The oldest member ofAllosauroideahas been suggested to beAsfaltovenatorfrom the Middle Jurassic of South America.[182]Coelurosaursfirst appeared during the Middle Jurassic, including earlytyrannosaurssuch asProceratosaurusfrom the Bathonian of Britain.[184]Some coelurosaurs from the Late Jurassic of China includingShishugounykusandHaplocheirusare suggested to represent earlyalvarezsaurs,[185]however, this has been questioned.[186]Scansoriopterygids,a group of small feathered coelurosaurs with membraneous, bat-like wings for gliding, are known from the Middle to Late Jurassic of China.[187]The oldest record oftroodontidsis suggested to beHesperornithoidesfrom the Late Jurassic of North America. Tooth remains suggested to represent those ofdromaeosaursare known from the Jurassic, but no body remains are known until the Cretaceous.[188]
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Skeleton ofCeratosaurus,a ceratosaurid from the Late Jurassic of North America -
Skeleton ofMonolophosaurus,a basal tetanuran from the Middle Jurassic of China -
Restoration ofYi qi,a scansoriopterygid from the Middle to Late Jurassic of China
Birds
edit
The earliestavialans,which include birds and their ancestors, appear during the Middle to Late Jurassic, definitively represented byArchaeopteryxfrom the Late Jurassic of Germany. Avialans belong to the cladeParaveswithin Coelurosauria, which also includes dromaeosaurs and troodontids. TheAnchiornithidaefrom the Middle-Late Jurassic of Eurasia have frequently suggested to be avialans, but have also alternatively found as a separate lineage of paravians.[189]
Ornithischians
editThe earliest definitiveornithischiansappear during the Early Jurassic, represented by basal ornithischians likeLesothosaurus,heterodontosaurids,and early members ofThyreophora.The earliest members ofAnkylosauriaandStegosauriaappear during the Middle Jurassic.[190]The basalneornithischianKulindadromeusfrom the Middle Jurassic of Russia indicates that at least some ornithischians were covered inprotofeathers.[191]The earliest members ofAnkylopollexia,which become prominent in the Cretaceous, appeared during the Late Jurassic, represented by bipedal forms such asCamptosaurus.[192]Ceratopsiansfirst appeared in the Late Jurassic of China, represented by members ofChaoyangsauridae.[193]
Sauropodomorphs
edit
Sauropodsbecame the dominant large herbivores in terrestrial ecosystems during the Jurassic.[194]Some Jurassic sauropods reached gigantic sizes, becoming the largest organisms to have ever lived on land.[195]
Basalbipedalsauropodomorphs,such asmassospondylids,continued to exist into the Early Jurassic, but became extinct by the beginning of the Middle Jurassic.[194]Quadrupedal sauropomorphs appeared during the Late Triassic. The quadrupedalLedumahadifrom the earliest Jurassic of South Africa reached an estimated weight of 12 tons, far in excess of other known basal sauropodomorphs.[196]Gravisauriansauropods first appeared during the Early Jurassic, with the oldest definitive record beingVulcanodonfrom Zimbabwe, likely of Sinemurian age.[197]Eusauropodsfirst appeared during the late Early Jurassic (Toarcian) and diversified during the Middle Jurassic;[194]these includedcetiosaurids,turiasaurs,[198]andmamenchisaurs.[199]Neosauropodssuch asmacronariansanddiplodocoidsfirst appeared during the Middle Jurassic, before becoming abundant and globally distributed during the Late Jurassic.[200]
Amphibians
edit
The diversity oftemnospondylshad progressively declined through the Late Triassic, with onlybrachyopoidssurviving into the Jurassic and beyond.[201]Members of the familyBrachyopidaeare known from Jurassic deposits in Asia,[202]while thechigutisauridSideropsis known from the Early Jurassic of Australia.[203]Modernlissamphibiansbegan to diversify during the Jurassic. The Early JurassicProsalirusthought to represent the first frog relative with a morphology capable of hopping like living frogs.[204]Morphologically recognisable stem-frogs like the South AmericanNotobatrachusare known from the Middle Jurassic,[205]with modern crown-group frogs likeEnneabatrachusandRhadinosteusappearing by the Late Jurassic.[206]While the earliest salamander-line amphibians are known from the Triassic,[207]crown groupsalamanders first appear during the Middle to Late Jurassic in Eurasia, alongside stem-group relatives. Many Jurassic stem-group salamanders, such asMarmorerpetonandKokartus,are thought to have beenneotenic.[208]Early representatives of crown group salamanders includeChunerpeton,PangerpetonandLinglongtritonfrom the Middle to Late JurassicYanliao Biotaof China. Some of these are suggested to belong toCryptobranchoidea,which contains livingAsiaticandgiant salamanders.[209]Beiyanerpeton,andQinglongtritonfrom the same biota are thought to be early members ofSalamandroidea,the group which contains all other living salamanders.[210][211]Salamanders dispersed into North America by the end of the Jurassic, as evidenced byIridotriton,found in the Late JurassicMorrison Formation.[212]The stem-caecilianEocaeciliais known from the Early Jurassic of Arizona.[213]The fourth group of lissamphibians, the extinct salamander-likealbanerpetontids,first appeared in the Middle Jurassic, represented byAnoualerpeton priscusfrom the Bathonian of Britain, as well as indeterminate remains from equivalently aged sediments in France and theAnoual Formationof Morocco.[214]
Mammaliaformes
editMammaliaformes,includingmammals,having originated fromcynodontsat the end of the Triassic, diversified extensively during the Jurassic.[215]While most Jurassic mammalaliaforms are solely known from isolated teeth and jaw fragments, exceptionally preserved remains have revealed a variety of lifestyles.[215]ThedocodontanCastorocaudawas adapted to aquatic life, similarly to theplatypusandotters.[216]Some members ofHaramiyida[217]and theeutriconodontantribeVolaticotherini[218]had apatagiumakin to those offlying squirrels,allowing them to glide through the air. Theaardvark-like mammalFruitafossor,of uncertain taxonomy, was likely a specialist on colonial insects, similarly to livinganteaters.[219]Australosphenida,a group of mammals possibly related to livingmonotremes,first appeared in the Middle Jurassic of Gondwana.[220]The earliest records ofmultituberculates,of the longest lasting and most successful orders of mammals, are known from the Middle Jurassic.[221]Therianmammals, represented today by livingplacentalsandmarsupials,diversified meteorically during the Middle Jurassic.[222]They have their earliest records during the early Late Jurassic, represented byJuramaia,aeutherianmammal closer to the ancestry of placentals than marsupials.[223]Juramaiais much more advanced than expected for its age, as other therian mammals are not known until the Early Cretaceous, and it has been suggested thatJuramaiamay also originate from the Early Cretaceous instead.[224]Two groups of non-mammaliaform cynodonts persisted beyond the end of the Triassic. The insectiviorousTritheledontidaehas a few records from the Early Jurassic. TheTritylodontidae,a herbiviorous group of cynodonts that first appeared during the Rhaetian, has abundant records from the Jurassic, overwhelmingly from the Northern Hemisphere.[225][226]
Fish
editJawless fish
edit
The last known species ofconodont,a class ofjawless fishwhose hard, tooth-like elements are key index fossils, finally became extinct during the earliest Jurassic after over 300 million years of evolutionary history, with an asynchronous extinction occurring first in the Tethys and eastern Panthalassa and survivors persisting into the earliest Hettangian of Hungary and central Panthalassa.[227]End-Triassic conodonts were represented by only a handful of species and had been progressively declining through the Middle and Late Triassic.[228]Yanliaomyzonfrom the Middle Jurassic of China represents the oldest post Paleozoiclamprey,and the oldest lamprey to have the toothed feeding apparatus and likely the three stage life cycle typical of modern members of the group.[229]
Sarcopterygii
edit
Lungfish(Dipnoi) were present in freshwater environments of both hemispheres during the Jurassic.[230]Some studies have proposed that the last common ancestor of all living lungfish lived during the Jurassic.[231]Mawsoniids,a marine and freshwater/brackish group ofcoelacanths,which first appeared in North America during the Triassic, expanded into Europe and South America by the end of the Jurassic.[232]The marineLatimeriidae,which contains the living coelacanths of the genusLatimeria,were also present in the Jurassic, having originated in the Triassic, with a number of records from the Jurassic of Europe includingSwenzia,thought to be the closest known relative of living coelacanths.[233]
Actinopterygii
edit
Ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii) were major components of Jurassic freshwater and marine ecosystems. Archaic "palaeoniscoid"fish, which were common in both marine and freshwater habitats during the preceding Triassic declined during the Jurassic, being largely replaced by morederivedactinopterygian lineages.[234]The oldest knownAcipenseriformes,the group that contains livingsturgeonandpaddlefish,are from the Early Jurassic.[235]Amiiformfish (which today only includes thebowfin) first appeared during the Early Jurassic, represented byCaturusfrom the Pliensbachian of Britain; after their appearance in the western Tethys, they expanded to Africa, North America and Southeast and East Asia by the end of the Jurassic,[236]with the modern familyAmiidaeappearing during the Late Jurassic.[237]Pycnodontiformes,which first appeared in the western Tethys during the Late Triassic, expanded to South America and Southeast Asia by the end of the Jurassic, having a high diversity in Europe during the Late Jurassic.[236]During the Jurassic, theGinglymodi,the only living representatives beinggars(Lepisosteidae) were diverse in both freshwater and marine environments. The oldest known representatives of anatomically modern gars appeared during the Late Jurassic.[238]Stem-groupteleosts,which make up over 99% of living Actinopterygii, had first appeared during the Triassic in the western Tethys; they underwent a major diversification beginning in the Late Jurassic, with early representatives of modern teleost clades such asElopomorphaandOsteoglossoideiappearing during this time.[239][240]ThePachycormiformes,a group of marine stem-teleosts, first appeared in the Early Jurassic and included bothtuna-like predatory and filter-feeding forms, the latter included the largest bony fish known to have existed:Leedsichthys,with an estimated maximum length of over 15 metres, known from the late Middle to Late Jurassic.[241]
Chondrichthyes
edit
During the Early Jurassic, the shark-likehybodonts,which represented the dominant group ofchondrichthyansduring the preceding Triassic, were common in both marine and freshwater settings; however, by the Late Jurassic, hybodonts had become minor components of most marine communities, having been largely replaced by modernneoselachians,but remained common in freshwater and restricted marine environments.[242][243]The Neoselachii, which contains all living sharks and rays, radiated beginning in the Early Jurassic.[244]The oldest known ray (Batoidea) isAntiquaobatisfrom the Pliensbachian of Germany.[245]Jurassic batoids known from complete remains retain a conservative,guitarfish-like morphology.[246]The oldest knownHexanchiformesandcarpet sharks(Orectolobiformes) are from the Early Jurassic (Pliensbachian and Toarcian, respectively) of Europe.[247][248]The oldest known members of theHeterodontiformes,the only living members of which are thebullhead shark(Heterodontus), first appeared in the Early Jurassic, with representatives of the living genus appearing during the Late Jurassic.[249]The oldest knownmackerel sharks(Lamniformes) are from the Middle Jurassic, represented by the genusPalaeocarcharias,which has an orectolobiform-like body but shares key similarities in toothhistologywith lamniformes, including the absence of orthodentine.[250]The oldest record of angelsharks (Squatiniformes) isPseudorhinafrom the Late Jurassic (Oxfordian–Tithonian) of Europe, which already has a bodyform similar to members of the only living genus of the order,Squatina.[251]The oldest known remains ofCarcharhiniformes,the largest order of living sharks, first appear in the late Middle Jurassic (Bathonian) of the western Tethys (England and Morocco). Known dental and exceptionally preserved body remains of Jurassic Carchariniformes are similar to those of livingcatsharks.[252]Synechodontiformes,an extinct group of sharks closely related to Neoselachii, were also widespread during the Jurassic.[253]The oldest remains of modernchimaerasare from the Early Jurassic of Europe, with members of the living familyCallorhinchidaeappearing during the Middle Jurassic. Unlike most living chimaeras, Jurassic chimeras are often found in shallow water environments.[254]The closely relatedSqualorajaandmyriacanthoidsare also known from the Jurassic of Europe.[255]
Insects and arachnids
edit
There appears to have been no major extinction of insects at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.[83]Many important insect fossil localities are known from the Jurassic of Eurasia, the most important being theKarabastau Formationof Kazakhstan and the various Yanliao Biota deposits in Inner Mongolia, China, such as the Daohugou Bed, dating to the Callovian–Oxfordian. The diversity of insects stagnated throughout the Early and Middle Jurassic, but during the latter third of the Jurassic origination rates increased substantially while extinction rates remained flat.[256]The increasing diversity of insects in the Middle–Late Jurassic corresponds with a substantial increase in the diversity ofinsect mouthparts.[257]The Middle to Late Jurassic was a time of major diversification forbeetles,[258]particularly for the suborderPolyphaga,which represents 90% of living beetle species but which was rare during the preceding Triassic.[259]Weevilsfirst appear in the fossil record during the Middle to Late Jurassic, but are suspected to have originated during the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic.[260]Orthopterandiversity had declined during the Late Triassic, but recovered during the Early Jurassic,[261]with theHagloidea,a superfamily ofensiferanorthopterans today confined to a few living species, being particularly diverse during the Jurassic.[262]The oldest knownlepidopterans(the group containing butterflies and moths) are known from the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, with wing scales belonging to the suborderGlossataandMicropterigidae-grade moths from the deposits of this age in Germany.[263]Modern representatives of bothdragonfliesanddamselfliesalso first appeared during the Jurassic.[264]Although modern representatives are not known until the Cenozoic,ectoparasiticinsects thought to represent primitivefleas,belonging to the familyPseudopulicidae,are known from the Middle Jurassic of Asia. These insects are substantially different from modern fleas, lacking the specialised morphology of the latter and being larger.[265][266]Parasitoid wasps(Apocrita) first appeared during the Early Jurassic and subsequently became widespread, reshaping terrestrial food webs.[267]The Jurassic saw also saw the first appearances of several other groups of insects, includingPhasmatodea(stick insects),[268]Mantophasmatidae(gladiators),[269]Embioptera(webspinners),[270]andRaphidioptera(snakeflies).[271]The earliestscale insect(Coccomorpha)is known from amber dating to the Late Jurassic, though the group probably originated earlier during the Triassic.[272]
Only a handful of records of mites are known from the Jurassic, includingJureremus,anoribatidmite belonging to the familyCymbaeremaeidaeknown from the Late Jurassic of Britain and Russia,[273]and a member of the still living orbatid genusHydrozetesfrom the Early Jurassic of Sweden.[274]Spiders diversified through the Jurassic.[275]The Early JurassicSeppo koponenimay represent a stem group toPalpimanoidea.[276]Eoplectreurysfrom the Middle Jurassic of China is considered a stem lineage ofSynspermiata.The oldest member of the familyArchaeidae,Patarchaea,is known from the Middle Jurassic of China.[275]Mongolarachnefrom the Middle Jurassic of China is among the largest known fossil spiders, with legs over 5 centimetres long.[277]The only scorpion known from the Jurassic isLiassoscorpionidesfrom the Early Jurassic of Germany, of uncertain placement.[278]Eupnoiharvestmen (Opiliones) are known from the Middle Jurassic of China, including members of the familySclerosomatidae.[279][280]
Marine invertebrates
editEnd-Triassic extinction
editDuring the end-Triassic extinction, 46%–72% of all marine genera became extinct. The effects of the end Triassic extinction were greatest at tropical latitudes and were more severe in Panthalassa than the Tethys or Boreal oceans. Tropical reef ecosystems collapsed during the event, and would not fully recover until much later in the Jurassic.Sessilefilter feedersandphotosymbioticorganisms were among those most severely affected.[281]
Marine ecosystems
editHaving declined at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, reefs substantially expanded during the Late Jurassic, including bothsponge reefsandscleractiniancoral reefs.Late Jurassic reefs were similar in form to modern reefs but had more microbial carbonates and hypercalcifiedsponges,and had weak biogenic binding. Reefs sharply declined at the close of the Jurassic,[282]which caused an associated drop in diversity indecapodcrustaceans.[283]The earliest planktonic foraminifera, which constitute the suborderGlobigerinina,are known from the late Early Jurassic (mid-Toarcian) of the western Tethys, expanding across the whole Tethys by the Middle Jurassic and becoming globally distributed in tropical latitudes by the Late Jurassic.[284]Coccolithophoresanddinoflagellates,which had first appeared during the Triassic, radiated during the Early to Middle Jurassic, becoming prominent members of thephytoplankton.[285]Microconchidtube worms, the last remaining order ofTentaculita,a group of animals of uncertain affinities that were convergent onSpirorbistube worms, were rare after the Triassic and had become reduced to the single genusPunctaconchus,which became extinct in the late Bathonian.[286]The oldest knowndiatomis from Late Jurassic–aged amber from Thailand, assigned to the living genusHemiaulus.[287]
Echinoderms
editCrinoidsdiversified throughout the Jurassic, reaching their peak Mesozoic diversity during the Late Jurassic, primarily due to the radiation of sessile forms belonging to the ordersCyrtocrinidaandMillericrinida.[288]Echinoids(sea urchins) underwent substantial diversification beginning in the Early Jurassic, primarily driven by the radiation of irregular (asymmetrical) forms, which were adapting to deposit feeding. Rates of diversification sharply dropped during the Late Jurassic.[289]
Crustaceans
edit
The Jurassic was a significant time for the evolution ofdecapods.[283]The first true crabs (Brachyura) are known from the Early Jurassic, with the earliest beingEocarcinus praecursorfrom the early Pliensbachian of England, which lacked the crab-like morphology (carcinisation) of modern crabs,[290]andEoprosopon klugifrom the late Pliensbachian of Germany, which may belong to the living familyHomolodromiidae.[291]Most Jurassic crabs are known only fromcarapacepieces, which makes it difficult to determine their relationships.[292]While rare in the Early and Middle Jurassic, crabs became abundant during the Late Jurassic as they expanded from their ancestral silty sea floor habitat into hard substrate habitats like reefs, with crevices in reefs providing refuge from predators.[292][283]Hermit crabsalso first appeared during the Jurassic, with the earliest known beingSchobertella hoelderifrom the late Hettangian of Germany.[293]Early hermit crabs are associated with ammonite shells rather than those of gastropods.[294]Glypheids,which today are only known from two species, reached their peak diversity during the Jurassic, with around 150 species out of a total fossil record of 250 known from the period.[295]Jurassic barnacles were of low diversity compared to present,[296]but several important evolutionary innovations are known, including the first appearances of calcite shelled forms and species with an epiplanktonic mode of life.[297]
Brachiopods
editBrachiopoddiversity declined during the Triassic–Jurassic extinction. Spire-bearing brachiopods (SpiriferinidaandAthyridida) did not recover their biodiversity, becoming extinct in the TOAE.[298]RhynchonellidaandTerebratulidaalso declined during the Triassic–Jurassic extinction but rebounded during the Early Jurassic; neither clade underwent much morphological variation.[299]Brachiopods substantially declined in the Late Jurassic; the causes are poorly understood. Proposed reasons include increased predation, competition with bivalves, enhancedbioturbationor increasedgrazing pressure.[300]
Bryozoans
editLike the preceding Triassic,bryozoandiversity was relatively low compared to the Paleozoic. The vast majority of Jurassic bryozoans are members ofCyclostomatida,which experienced a radiation during the Middle Jurassic, with all Jurassic representatives belonging to the subordersTubuliporinaandCerioporina.Cheilostomata,the dominant group of modern bryozoans, first appeared during the Late Jurassic.[301]
Molluscs
editGastropods
editMarine gastropods were significantly affected by the T-J extinction, with around 56% of genera going extinct, withNeritimorphabeing particularly strongly effected, whileHeterobranchiasuffered much lower losses than other groups.[302]While present, the diversity offreshwaterandland snailswas much lower during the Jurassic than in contemporary ecosystems, with the diversity of these groups not reaching levels comparable to modern times until the following Cretaceous.[303]
Bivalves
editThe end-Triassic extinction had a severe impact on bivalve diversity, though it had little impact on bivalve ecological diversity. The extinction was selective, having less of an impact on deep burrowers, but there is no evidence of a differential impact between surface-living (epifaunal) and burrowing (infaunal) bivalves.[304]Bivalve family level diversity after the Early Jurassic was static, though genus diversity experienced a gradual increase throughout the period.[305]Rudists,the dominant reef-building organisms of the Cretaceous, first appeared in the Late Jurassic (mid-Oxfordian) in the northern margin of the western Tethys, expanding to the eastern Tethys by the end of the Jurassic.[306]
Cephalopods
edit
Ammonites were devastated by the end-Triassic extinction, with only a handful of genera belonging to the familyPsiloceratidaeof the suborderPhylloceratinasurviving and becoming ancestral to all later Jurassic and Cretaceous ammonites. Ammonites explosively diversified during the Early Jurassic, with the ordersPsiloceratina,Ammonitina,Lytoceratina,Haploceratina,PerisphinctinaandAncyloceratinaall appearing during the Jurassic. Ammonite faunas during the Jurassic were regional, being divided into around 20 distinguishable provinces and subprovinces in two realms, the northern high latitude Pan-Boreal realm, consisting of the Arctic, northern Panthalassa and northern Atlantic regions, and the equatorial–southern Pan-Tethyan realm, which included the Tethys and most of Panthalassa.[307]Ammonite diversifications occurred coevally withmarine transgressions,while their diversity nadirs occurred duringmarine regressions.[308]
The oldest definitive records of the squid-likebelemnitesare from the earliest Jurassic (Hettangian–Sinemurian) of Europe and Japan; they expanded worldwide during the Jurassic.[309]Belemnites were shallow-water dwellers, inhabiting the upper 200 metres of the water column on thecontinental shelvesand in thelittoral zone.They were key components of Jurassic ecosystems, both as predators and prey, as evidenced by the abundance of belemnite guards in Jurassic rocks.[310]
The earliestvampyromorphs,of which the only living member is thevampire squid,first appeared during the Early Jurassic.[311]The earliestoctopusesappeared during the Middle Jurassic, having split from their closest living relatives, the vampyromorphs, during the Triassic to Early Jurassic.[312]All Jurassic octopuses are solely known from the hardgladius.[312][313]Octopuses likely originated from bottom-dwelling (benthic) ancestors which lived in shallow environments.[312]Proteroctopusfrom the late Middle JurassicLa Voulte-sur-Rhône lagerstätte,previously interpreted as an early octopus, is now thought to be a basal taxon outside the clade containing vampyromorphs and octopuses.[314]
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External links
edit- Examples of Jurassic Fossils
- Jurassic (chronostratigraphy scale)
- Jurassic fossils in Harbury, Warwickshire
- Jurassic Microfossils: 65+ images of Foraminifera
- .Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 15 (11th ed.). 1911.With map and table.
