Wikipedia

TNT equivalent

(Redirected fromKilotonne)
"Kiloton" redirects here. For the similarly named weight measurements, seeTonne.

TNT equivalentis a convention for expressingenergy,typically used to describe the energy released in an explosion. Theton ofTNTis aunit of energydefined by convention to be4.184gigajoules(1gigacalorie),[1]which is the approximate energy released in the detonation of ametric ton(1,000 kilograms) ofTNT.In other words, for each gram of TNT exploded,4.184kilojoules(or 4184joules) of energy are released.

TNT equivalent
The explosion from a 14-kiloton nuclear test at theNevada Test Site,in 1951
General information
Unit systemNon-standard
Unit ofEnergy
Symbolt, ton of TNT
Conversions
1 tin...... is equal to...
SI base units≈ 4.184 gigajoules
CGS109calories

This convention intends to compare the destructiveness of an event with that of conventionalexplosive materials,of which TNT is a typical example, although other conventional explosives such asdynamitecontain more energy.

Kiloton and megaton

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The "kiloton(of TNT equivalent) "is a unit of energy equal to 4.184terajoules(4.184×1012J).[2]A kiloton of TNT can be visualized as a cube of TNT 8.46 metres (27.8 ft) on a side.

The "megaton(of TNT equivalent) "is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 petajoules (4.184×1015J).[3]

The kiloton and megaton of TNT equivalent have traditionally been used to describe the energy output, and hence the destructive power, of anuclear weapon.The TNT equivalent appears in variousnuclear weapon control treaties,and has been used to characterize the energy released inasteroid impacts.[4]

Historical derivation of the value

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Alternative values for TNT equivalency can be calculated according to which property is being compared and when in the two detonation processes the values are measured.[5][6][7][8]

Where for example the comparison is by energy yield, an explosive's energy is normally expressed for chemical purposes as thethermodynamic workproduced by its detonation. For TNT this has been accurately measured as 4,686 J/g from a large sample of air blast experiments, and theoretically calculated to be 4,853 J/g.[9]

However even on this basis, comparing the actual energy yields of a large nuclear device and an explosion of TNT can be slightly inaccurate. Small TNT explosions, especially in the open, don't tend to burn the carbon-particle and hydrocarbon products of the explosion. Gas-expansion and pressure-change effects tend to "freeze" the burn rapidly. A large open explosion of TNT may maintain fireball temperatures high enough so that some of those products do burn up with atmospheric oxygen.[10]

Such differences can be substantial. For safety purposes a range as wide as2,673–6,702 Jhas been stated for a gram ofTNTupon explosion.[11]Thus one can state that a nuclear bomb has a yield of 15 kt (6.3×1013J), but the explosion of an actual15,000 tonpile of TNT may yield (for example)8×1013Jdue to additional carbon/hydrocarbon oxidation not present with small open-air charges.[10]

These complications have been sidestepped by convention. The energy released by one gram of TNT was arbitrarily defined as a matter of convention to be 4,184 J,[12]which is exactly onekilocalorie.

Grams TNT Symbol Tons TNT Symbol Energy [joules] Energy [Wh] Corresponding mass loss[a]
milligram of TNT mg nanoton of TNT nt 4.184 Jor 4.184 joules 1.162 mWh 46.55 fg
gram of TNT g microton of TNT μt 4.184×103Jor 4.184 kilojoules 1.162 Wh 46.55 pg
kilogram of TNT kg milliton of TNT mt 4.184×106Jor 4.184 megajoules 1.162 kWh 46.55 ng
megagram of TNT Mg ton of TNT t 4.184×109Jor 4.184 gigajoules 1.162 MWh 46.55 μg
gigagram of TNT Gg kiloton of TNT kt 4.184×1012Jor 4.184 terajoules 1.162 GWh 46.55 mg
teragram of TNT Tg megaton of TNT Mt 4.184×1015Jor 4.184 petajoules 1.162 TWh 46.55 g
petagram of TNT Pg gigaton of TNT Gt 4.184×1018Jor 4.184 exajoules 1.162 PWh 46.55 kg

Conversion to other units

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1 ton of TNT equivalent is approximately:

Examples

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Further information:Orders of magnitude (energy)
Energy Description
Megatons of TNT Watt-hours[Wh]
1×10−12 1.162 Wh ≈ 1 foodcalorie(large calorie, kcal), which is the approximate amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of onekilogramof water by one degreeCelsiusat a pressure of oneatmosphere.
1×10−9 1.162 kWh Under controlled conditions one kilogram of TNT can destroy (or even obliterate) a small vehicle.
4.8×10−9 5.6 kWh The energy to burn 1 kilogram of wood.[18]
1×10−8 11.62 kWh The approximate radiant heat energy released during 3-phase, 600 V, 100 kAarcing faultin a 0.5 m × 0.5 m × 0.5 m (20 in × 20 in × 20 in) compartment within a 1-second period.[further explanation needed][citation needed]
1.2×10−8 13.94 kWh Amount of TNT used (12 kg) inCoptic church explosioninCairo,Egypton December 11, 2016 that left 29 dead and 47 injured[19]
1.9×10−6 2.90 MWh The television showMythBustersused 2.5 tons ofANFOto make "homemade" diamonds. (Episode 116.)
2.4×10−7–2.4×10−6 280–2,800 kWh The energy output released by an averagelightningdischarge.[20]
(1–44)×10−6 1.16–51.14 MWh Conventional bombs yield from less than one ton toFOAB's 44 tons. The yield of aTomahawk cruise missileis equivalent to 500 kg of TNT.[21]
4.54×10−4 581 MWh A real 0.454-kiloton-of-TNT (1.90 TJ) charge atOperation Sailor Hat.If the charge were a full sphere, it would be 1 kiloton of TNT (4.2 TJ).
454 tons ofTNT(5 by 10 m (17 by 34 ft)) awaitingdetonationatOperation Sailor Hat.
1.8×10−3 2.088 GWh Estimated yield of theBeirut explosionof 2,750 tons of ammonium nitrate[22]that killed initially 137 at and near a Lebanese port at 6 p.m. local time Tuesday August 4, 2020.[23]An independent study by experts from the Blast and Impact Research Group at theUniversity of Sheffieldpredicts the best estimate of the yield of Beirut explosion to be 0.5 kilotons of TNT and the reasonable bound estimate as 1.12 kilotons of TNT.[24]
(1–2)×10−3 1.16–2.32 GWh Estimated yield of theOppau explosionthat killed more than 500 at a German fertilizer factory in 1921.
2.3×10−3 2.67 GWh Amount ofsolar energyfalling on 4,000 m2(1 acre) of land in a year is 9.5 TJ (2,650 MWh) (an average over the Earth's surface).[25]
2.9×10−3 3.4 GWh TheHalifax Explosionin 1917 was the accidental detonation of 200 tons of TNT and 2,300 tons ofPicric acid[26]
3.2×10−3 3.6 GWh TheOperation Big Bangon April 18, 1947, blasted the bunkers onHeligoland.It accumulated 6700 metric tons of surplus World War II ammunition placed in various locations around the island and set off. The energy released was1.3×1013J,or about 3.2 kilotons of TNT equivalent.[27]
4×10−3 9.3 GWh Minor Scale,a 1985 United States conventional explosion, using 4,744 tons ofANFOexplosive to provide a scaled equivalent airblast of an eight kiloton (33.44 TJ) nuclear device,[28]is believed to be the largest planned detonation of conventional explosives in history.
(1.5–2)×10−2 17.4–23.2 GWh TheLittle Boyatomic bombdropped onHiroshimaon August 6, 1945, exploded with an energy of about 15 kilotons of TNT (63 TJ) killing between 90,000 and 166,000 people,[29]and theFat Manatomic bombdropped onNagasakion August 9, 1945, exploded with an energy of about 20 kilotons of TNT (84 TJ) killing over 60,000.[29]The modern nuclear weapons in the United States arsenal range inyieldfrom 0.3 kt (1.3 TJ) to 1.2 Mt (5.0 PJ) equivalent, for theB83strategic bomb.
>2.4×10−1 280 GWh The typical energy yield of severethunderstorms.[30]
1.5×10−5–6×10−1 20 MWh – 700 GWh The estimatedkinetic energyoftornados.[31]
1 1.16 TWh The energy contained in one megaton of TNT (4.2 PJ) is enough to power the average American household for 103,000 years.[32]The 30 Mt (130 PJ) estimated upper limit blast power of theTunguska eventcould power the same average home for more than 3,100,000 years. The energy of that blast could power the entire United States for 3.27 days.[33]
8.6 10 TWh The energy output that would be released by a typicaltropical cyclonein one minute, primarily from water condensation. Winds constitute 0.25% of that energy.[34]
16 18.6 TWh The approximate radiated surface energy released in a magnitude 8earthquake.[35]
21.5 25 TWh The complete conversion of 1 kg of matter into pure energy would yieldthe theoretical maximum(E=mc2) of 89.8 petajoules, which is equivalent to 21.5 megatons of TNT. No such method of total conversion as combining 500 grams of matter with 500 grams of antimatter has yet been achieved. In the event of proton–antiprotonannihilation,approximately 50% of the released energy will escape in the form ofneutrinos,which are almost undetectable.[36]Electron–positron annihilationevents emit their energy entirely asgamma rays.
24 28 TWh Approximate total yield of the1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.[37]
26.3 30.6 TWh Energy released by the2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.[38]
An animation of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami
45 53 TWh The energy released in the2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunamiwas over 200,000 times the surface energy and was calculated by the USGS at1.9×1017joules,[39][40]slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake. It was estimated at a moment magnitude of 9.0–9.1.
The damage caused by the 2011 Tōhoku tsunami
50–56 58 TWh TheSoviet Uniondeveloped a prototype thermonuclear device, nicknamed theTsar Bomba,which was tested at 50–56 Mt (210–230 PJ), but had a maximum theoretical design yield of 100 Mt (420 PJ).[41]The effective destructive potential of such a weapon varies greatly, depending on such conditions as the altitude at which it is detonated, the characteristics of the target, the terrain, and the physical landscape upon which it is detonated.
61 70.9 TWh The energy released by the2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai volcanic eruption,in the southern Pacific Ocean, is estimated to have been equivalent to 61 Megatons of TNT.[42]
84 97.04 TWh The solar irradiance on Earth every second.[b]
200 230 TWh The total energy released by the1883 eruption of Krakatoain the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia).[43]
540 630 TWh Thetotal energy produced worldwide by all nuclear testing and combatusage combined, from the 1940s to the present, is about 540 megatons.
1,460 1.69 PWh The total global nuclear arsenal is about 15,000 nuclear warheads[44][45][46]with a destructive capacity of around 1460 megatons[47][48][49][50]or 1.46 gigatons (1,460 million tons) of TNT. This is the equivalent of6.11×1018joules of energy
2,680[dubious–discuss] 3 PWh The energy yield of the1960 Valdivia earthquake,was estimated at a moment magnitude of 9.4–9.6. This is the most powerful earthquake recorded in history.[51][52]
The aftermath of the 1960 Valdivia earthquake.
2,870 3.34 PWh The energy released by a hurricane per day during condensation.[53]
33,000 38.53 PWh The total energy released by the1815 eruption of Mount Tamborain the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia. Yielded the equivalent of 2.2 millionLittle Boys(the first atomic bomb to drop onJapan) or one-quarter of the entire world's annual energy consumption.[54]This eruption was 4-10 times more destructive than the1883 Krakatoa eruption.[55]
240,000 280 PWh The approximate total yield of the super-eruption of theLa Garita Calderais 10,000 times more powerful than the1980 Mount St. Helens eruption.[56]It was the second most energetic event to have occurred on Earth since theCretaceous–Paleogene extinction event66 million years ago.
A photo of the La Garita Caldera
301,000 350 PWh The total solar irradiance energy received by Earth in the upper atmosphere per hour.[c][d]
875,000 1.02 EWh Approximate yield of the last eruption of theYellowstone supervolcano.[57]
Image of the Yellowstone supervolcano.
3.61×106 4.2 EWh The solar irradiance of the Sun every 12 hours.[c][e]
6×106 7 EWh The estimated energy at impact when the largest fragment ofComet Shoemaker–Levy 9struckJupiteris equivalent to 6 million megatons (6 trillion tons) of TNT.[58]
The impact site of the Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9
7.2×107 116 EWh Estimates in 2010 show that the kinetic energy of theChicxulub impact eventyielded 72 teratons of TNT equivalent (1 teraton of TNT equals 106megatons of TNT) which caused theK-Pg extinction event,wiping out 75% of all species on Earth.[59][60]This is far more destructive than any natural disaster recorded in history. Such an event would've caused globalvolcanism,earthquakes,megatsunamis,and globalclimate change.[59][61][62][63][64]
The animation of the Chicxulub impact.
>2.4×1010 >28 ZWh The impact energy of Archean asteroids.[65]
9.1×1010 106 ZWh The total energy output of the Sun per second.[66]
2.4×1011 280 ZWh The kinetic energy of theCaloris Planitiaimpactor.[67]
The photo of the Caloris Planitia on Mercury. Taken by theMESSENGERorbiter.
5.972×1015 6.94RWh The explosive energy of a quantity of TNT of themass of Earth.[68]
7.89×1015 9.17RWh Total solar output in all directions per day.[69]
1.98×1021 2.3×1033Wh The explosive energy of a quantity of TNT of themass of the Sun.[70]
(2.4–4.8)×1028 (2.8–5.6)×1040Wh Atype Ia supernovaexplosion gives off 1–2×1044joules of energy, which is about 2.4–4.8 hundred billion yottatons (24–48 octillion (2.4–4.8×1028) megatons) of TNT, equivalent to the explosive force of a quantity of TNT over a trillion (1012) times the mass of the planet Earth. This is the astrophysicalstandard candleused to determine galactic distances.[71]
(2.4–4.8)×1030 (2.8–5.6)×1042Wh The largest type of supernova observed,gamma-ray bursts(GRBs) release more than 1046joules of energy.[72]
1.3×1032 1.5×1044Wh A merger of two black holes, resulting in thefirst observation of gravitational waves,released5.3×1047joules[73]
9.6×1053 1.12×1066Wh Estimated mass-energy of the observable universe.[74]

Relative effectiveness factor

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The relative effectiveness factor (RE factor) relates an explosive's demolition power to that of TNT, in units of the TNT equivalent/kg (TNTe/kg). The RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is equivalent: The greater the RE, the more powerful the explosive.

This enables engineers to determine the proper masses of different explosives when applying blasting formulas developed specifically for TNT. For example, if a timber-cutting formula calls for a charge of 1 kg of TNT, then based onoctanitrocubane's RE factor of 2.38, it would take only 1.0/2.38 (or 0.42) kg of it to do the same job. UsingPETN,engineers would need 1.0/1.66 (or 0.60) kg to obtain the same effects as 1 kg of TNT. WithANFOorammonium nitrate,they would require 1.0/0.74 (or 1.35) kg or 1.0/0.32 (or 3.125) kg, respectively.

Calculating a single RE factor for an explosive is, however, impossible. It depends on the specific case or use. Given a pair of explosives, one can produce 2× the shockwave output (this depends on the distance of measuring instruments) but the difference in direct metal cutting ability may be 4× higher for one type of metal and 7× higher for another type of metal. The relative differences between two explosives with shaped charges will be even greater. The table below should be taken as an example and not as a precise source of data.

Some relative effectiveness factor examples[citation needed]
Explosive, grade Density
(g/ml) 		Detonation
vel. (m/s) 		Relative
effectiveness
Ammonium nitrate(AN + <0.5% H2O) 0.88 2,700[75] 0.32[76][77]
Mercury(II) fulminate 4.42 4,250 0.51[78]
Black powder(75%KNO3+ 19%C+ 6%S,ancientlow explosive) 1.65 400 0.55[79]
Hexamine dinitrate(HDN) 1.30 5,070 0.60
Dinitrobenzene(DNB) 1.50 6,025 0.60
HMTD(hexamine peroxide) 0.88 4,520 0.74
ANFO(94%AN+ 6% fuel oil) 0.92 4,200 0.74
Urea nitrate 1.67 4,700 0.77
TATP(acetone peroxide) 1.18 5,300 0.80
TovexExtra (ANwater gel) commercial product 1.33 5,690 0.80
Hydromite 600 (ANwateremulsion) commercial product 1.24 5,550 0.80
ANNMAL (66%AN+ 25%NM+ 5%Al+ 3%C+ 1%TETA) 1.16 5,360 0.87
Amatol(50%TNT+ 50%AN) 1.50 6,290 0.91
Nitroguanidine 1.32 6,750 0.95
Trinitrotoluene(TNT) 1.60 6,900 1.00
Hexanitrostilbene(HNS) 1.70 7,080 1.05
Nitrourea 1.45 6,860 1.05
Tritonal(80%TNT+ 20%aluminium)[f] 1.70 6,650 1.05
Nickel hydrazine nitrate(NHN) 1.70 7,000 1.05
Amatol(80%TNT+ 20%AN) 1.55 6,570 1.10
Nitrocellulose(13.5% N, NC; AKA guncotton) 1.40 6,400 1.10
Nitromethane(NM) 1.13 6,360 1.10
PBXW-126 (22% NTO, 20%RDX,20%AP,26%Al,12%PU's system)[f] 1.80 6,450 1.10
Diethylene glycol dinitrate(DEGDN) 1.38 6,610 1.17
PBXIH-135 EB (42%HMX,33%Al,25%PCP-TMETN's system)[f] 1.81 7,060 1.17
PBXN-109 (64%RDX,20%Al,16%HTPB's system)[f] 1.68 7,450 1.17
Triaminotrinitrobenzene(TATB) 1.80 7,550 1.17
Picric acid(TNP) 1.71 7,350 1.17
Trinitrobenzene(TNB) 1.60 7,300 1.20
Tetrytol(70%tetryl+ 30%TNT) 1.60 7,370 1.20
Dynamite,Nobel's (75%NG+ 23%diatomite) 1.48 7,200 1.25
Tetryl 1.71 7,770 1.25
Torpex(aka HBX, 41%RDX+ 40%TNT+ 18%Al+ 1%wax)[f] 1.80 7,440 1.30
Composition B(63%RDX+ 36%TNT+ 1%wax) 1.72 7,840 1.33
Composition C-3(78%RDX) 1.60 7,630 1.33
Composition C-4(91%RDX) 1.59 8,040 1.34
Pentolite(56%PETN+ 44%TNT) 1.66 7,520 1.33
Semtex1A (76%PETN+ 6%RDX) 1.55 7,670 1.35
Hexal(76%RDX+ 20%Al+ 4%wax)[f] 1.79 7,640 1.35
RISAL P (50%IPN+ 28%RDX+ 15%Al+ 4%Mg+ 1%Zr+ 2%NC)[f] 1.39 5,980 1.40
Hydrazine nitrate 1.59 8,500 1.42
Mixture: 24%nitrobenzene+ 76%TNM 1.48 8,060 1.50
Mixture: 30%nitrobenzene+ 70%nitrogen tetroxide 1.39 8,290 1.50
Nitroglycerin(NG) 1.59 7,700 1.54
Methyl nitrate(MN) 1.21 7,900 1.54
Octol(80%HMX+ 19%TNT+ 1%DNT) 1.83 8,690 1.54
Nitrotriazolon(NTO) 1.87 8,120 1.60
DADNE (1,1-diamino-2,2-dinitroethene,FOX-7) 1.77 8,330 1.60
Gelignite(92%NG+ 7%nitrocellulose) 1.60 7,970 1.60
Plastics Gel® (in toothpaste tube: 45%PETN+ 45%NG+ 5%DEGDN+ 4%NC) 1.51 7,940 1.60
Composition A-5 (98%RDX+ 2%stearic acid) 1.65 8,470 1.60
Erythritol tetranitrate(ETN) 1.72 8,206 1.60
Hexogen(RDX) 1.78 8,600 1.60
PBXW-11 (96%HMX,1%HyTemp,3%DOA) 1.81 8,720 1.60
Penthrite(PETN) 1.77 8,400 1.66
Ethylene glycol dinitrate(EGDN) 1.49 8,300 1.66
MEDINA (Methylene dinitroamine)[80][81] 1.65 8,700 1.70
Trinitroazetidine(TNAZ) 1.85 9,597 1.70
Octogen(HMXgrade B) 1.86 9,100 1.70
Hexanitrobenzene(HNB) 1.97 9,340 1.80
Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane(HNIW; AKA CL-20) 1.97 9,500 1.90
DDF (4,4’-Dinitro-3,3’-diazenofuroxan) 1.98 10,000 1.95
Heptanitrocubane(HNC)[g] 1.92 9,200 N/A
Octanitrocubane(ONC) 1.95 10,600 2.38
Octaazacubane(OAC)[g] 2.69 15,000 >5.00

Nuclear examples

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Nuclear weapons and the most powerful non-nuclear weapon examples
Weapon Total yield
(kilotons of TNT) 		Mass
(kg) 		Relative
effectiveness
GBU-57 bomb (Massive Ordnance Penetrator,MOP) 0.0035 13,600 0.26
Grand Slam(Earthquake bomb,M110) 0.0065 9,900 0.66
Bomb used in Oklahoma City(ANFObased onracing fuel) 0.0018 2,300 0.78
BLU-82(Daisy Cutter) 0.0075 6,800 1.10
MOAB(non-nuclear bomb, GBU-43) 0.011 9,800 1.13
FOAB(advancedthermobaric bomb,ATBIP) 0.044 9,100 4.83
W54,Mk-54 (Davy Crockett) 0.022 23 1,000
Little Boy(dropped onHiroshima)A-bomb 15 4,400 4,000
Fat Man(dropped onNagasaki)A-bomb 20 4,600 4,500
W54,B54 (SADM) 1.0 23 43,500
Classic (one-stage) fissionA-bomb 22 420 50,000
Hypotheticalsuitcase nuke 2.5 31 80,000
Typical (two-stage)nuclear bomb 500–1000 650–1,120 900,000
W88modern thermonuclear warhead (MIRV) 470 355 1,300,000
Tsar nuclear bomb(three-stage) 50,000–56,000 26,500 2,100,000
B53 nuclear bomb(two-stage) 9,000 4,050 2,200,000
Operation DominicHousatonic[82][83][84](two-stage) 9,960 3,239 3,042,400
W56thermonuclear warhead 1,200 272–308 4,960,000
B41 nuclear bomb(three-stage) 25,000 4,850 5,100,000
Theoreticalantimatter weapon 43,000 1 43,000,000,000

See also

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References

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Footnotes

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  1. ^Mass–energy equivalence.
  2. ^The solar constant of the sun is 1370 watts per square meter and Earth has across-sectionalsurface areaof2.6×1014square meters.
  3. ^abThe solar constant of the sun is 1370 watts per square meter and Earth has a cross-sectional surface area of2.6×1014square meters.
  4. ^1 hour is equivalent to 3600 seconds.
  5. ^1 day is equivalent to 86400 seconds.
  6. ^abcdefgTBX (thermobaric explosives) or EBX (enhanced blast explosives), in a small, confined space, may have over twice the power of destruction. The total power of aluminized mixtures strictly depends on the condition of explosions.
  7. ^abPredicted values

Citations

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  2. ^"Convert Megaton to Joule".unitconverters.net.RetrievedMarch 22,2022.
  3. ^"Convert Gigaton to Joule".unitconverters.net.RetrievedMarch 22,2022.
  4. ^"Joules to Megatons Conversion Calculator".unitconversion.org.Archivedfrom the original on November 24, 2009.RetrievedNovember 23,2009.
  5. ^Sorin Bastea, Laurence E. Fried, Kurt R. Glaesemann, W. Michael Howard, P. Clark Souers, Peter A. Vitello, Cheetah 5.0 User's Manual, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 2007.
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  7. ^Maienschein, Jon L. (2002).Tnt equivalency of different explosives – estimation for calculating load limits in heaf firing tanks(Technical report). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. EMPE-02-22.
  8. ^Cunningham, Bruce J. (2001).C-4/tnt equivalency(Technical report). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. EMPE-01-81.
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  10. ^ab Charles E. Needham (October 3, 2017).Blast Waves.Springer. p. 91.ISBN978-3319653822.OCLC1005353847.Archivedfrom the original on December 26, 2018.RetrievedJanuary 25,2019.
  11. ^"Blast effects of external explosions (Section 4.8. Limitations of the TNT equivalent method)".Archived fromthe originalon August 10, 2016.
  12. ^"Appendix B8 – Factors for Units Listed Alphabetically".July 2, 2009.Archivedfrom the original on January 29, 2016.RetrievedMarch 29,2007.InNIST SI Guide 2008
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  15. ^"Convert tons of TNT to BTU - British Thermal Unit | energy conversion".convert-to.RetrievedMarch 22,2022.
  16. ^"Convert tons of TNT to foot pounds | energy conversion".convert-to.RetrievedMarch 22,2022.
  17. ^"Tons Of Tnt to Kilowatt-hours | Kyle's Converter".kylesconverter.RetrievedMarch 22,2022.
  18. ^Timcheck, Jonathan (Fall 2017)."The Energy in Wildfires: The Western United States".large.stanford.edu.Archived fromthe originalon January 17, 2018.RetrievedMarch 31,2022.
  19. ^"Botroseya church bombing death toll rises to 29 victims".Egypt Independent.February 4, 2017.Archivedfrom the original on May 24, 2024.RetrievedJune 8,2024.
  20. ^"How do Thunderstorms and Lightning Work?".thenakedscientists.March 6, 2007.RetrievedMarch 22,2022.
  21. ^Homer-Dixon, Thomas F (2002).The Ingenuity Gap.Knopf Doubleday Publishing. p. 249.ISBN978-0-375-71328-6.Archivedfrom the original on January 14, 2021.RetrievedNovember 7,2020.
  22. ^Fuwad, Ahamad (August 5, 2020)."Beirut Blast: How does yield of 2,750 tonnes of ammonium nitrate compare against Halifax explosion, Hiroshima bombing?".DNA India.Archivedfrom the original on August 6, 2020.RetrievedAugust 7,2020.
  23. ^Staff, W. S. J. (August 6, 2020)."Beirut Explosion: What Happened in Lebanon and Everything Else You Need to Know".Wall Street Journal.ISSN0099-9660.Archivedfrom the original on August 6, 2020.RetrievedAugust 7,2020.
  24. ^Rigby, S. E.; Lodge, T. J.; Alotaibi, S.; Barr, A. D.; Clarke, S. D.;Langdon, G. S.;Tyas, A. (September 22, 2020)."Preliminary yield estimation of the 2020 Beirut explosion using video footage from social media".Shock Waves.30(6): 671–675.Bibcode:2020ShWav..30..671R.doi:10.1007/s00193-020-00970-z.ISSN1432-2153.
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