Wikipedia

Kimchi

This article is about the Korean side dish. For people with this surname, seeKimhi.For other uses, seeKimchi (disambiguation).
Not to be confused withKim Chiu.

Kimchi(/ˈkɪmtʃiː/;Korean:김치;RR:gimchi,IPA:[kim.tɕʰi]) is a traditional Korean side dish (banchan) consisting of salted andfermentedvegetables, most oftennapa cabbageorKorean radish.A wide selection of seasonings are used, includinggochugaru(Korean chili powder),spring onions,garlic,ginger,andjeotgal(a salted seafood).[1][2]Kimchi is also used in a variety of soups and stews. Kimchi is astaple foodinKorean cuisineand is eaten as a side dish with almost every Korean meal.[3]

Kimchi
Clockwise from top-left:kkakdugi,pa-kimchi,yeolmu-kimchi,dongchimi,nabak-kimchi,mul-kimchi
CourseBanchan
Place of originKorea
AssociatedcuisineKorean cuisine
Serving temperatureCold or at room temperature
Main ingredientsVarious vegetables includingnapa cabbageandKorean radish
Ingredients generally usedChili
VariationsBaechu-kimchi,baek-kimchi,dongchimi,kkakdugi,nabak-kimchi,pa-kimchi,yeolmu-kimchi,morkovcha
Korean name
Hangul
김치
Revised Romanizationgimchi
McCune–Reischauerkimch'i
IPA[kim.tɕʰi]

There are hundreds of different types of kimchi made with different vegetables as the main ingredients.[2]Traditionally, winter kimchi, calledgimjang,was stored in large earthenware fermentation vessels, calledonggi,in the ground to prevent freezing during the winter months and to keep it cool enough to slow down the fermentation process during summer months.[4]The process of making kimchi was called kimjang and was a way for the whole village to participate. The vessels are also kept outdoors in special terraces calledjangdokdae.In contemporary times, householdkimchi refrigeratorsare more commonly used.[2]

Etymology

edit

Ji

edit

The termji(지), which has its origins in archaic Koreandihi(디히), has been used to refer to kimchi since ancient times.[5]Thesound changecan be roughly described as:[6]

  • dihi(디히) >di(디) >ji(지)

TheMiddle Koreanformdihiis found in several books from theJoseonperiod (1392–1897).[7][8]InModern Korean,the word remains as the suffix-jiin thestandard language(as injjanji,seokbak-ji),[9][10]and as the suffix-jias well as the nounjiinGyeongsangandJeolla dialects.[11]The unpalatalized formdiis preserved inP'yŏngan dialect.[12]

Kimchi

edit

Kimchi(김치) is the accepted word in bothNorthandSouth Koreanstandard languages. Earlier forms of the word includethimchoy(팀ᄎᆡ), aMiddle Koreantranscription of theSino-KoreanwordThẩmĐồ ăn(literally "submerged vegetable" ).Thimchoyappears inSohak Eonhae,[13]the 16th century Korean rendition of the Chinese book,Xiaoxue.[14]Sound changes from Middle Korean to Modern Korean regarding the word can be described as:[15]

  • thimchoy(팀ᄎᆡ;Thẩm đồ ăn) >timchoy(딤ᄎᆡ) >cimchoy(짐ᄎᆡ) >cimchuy(짐츼) >kimchi(김치)

Theaspiratedfirst consonant ofthimchoybecame unaspirated intimchoy,then underwentpalatalizationincimchoy.The word then becamecimchuywith the loss of the vowelo(ㆍ) in Korean language, thenkimchi,with the depalatalized word-initial consonant. In Modern Korean, thehanjacharactersThẩm đồ ănare pronouncedchimchae(침채), and are not used to refer to kimchi, or anything else. The wordkimchiis not considered as aSino-Korean word.[15]Older forms of the word are retained in many regional dialects:jimchae(Jeolla,Hamgyŏng dialects),[16]jimchi(Chungcheong,Gangwon,Gyeonggi,Gyeongsang, Hamgyŏng, Jeolla dialects),[17]anddimchi(P'yŏngan dialect).[18]

The English word "kimchi" perhaps originated fromkimch'i,theMcCune–Reischauertranscription of the Korean wordkimchi(김치).

History

edit

Early history

edit

Samguk Sagi,a historical record of theThree Kingdoms of Korea,mentions thepickle jarused to ferment vegetables, which indicates that fermented vegetables were commonly eaten during this time.[19][20]Attributed with the earliest kimchi, theGoguryeopeople were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food.[21]During theSilla dynasty(57 BCE – CE 935), kimchi became prevalent asBuddhismcaught on throughout the nation and fostered a vegetarian lifestyle.[22]

The pickling of vegetables was an ideal method, prior to refrigerators, that helped to preserve the lifespan of foods. In Korea, kimchi was made during the winter by fermenting vegetables, and burying it in the ground in traditional brown ceramic pots calledonggi.This labor further allowed a bonding among women within the family.[22]A poem onKorean radishwritten by Yi Gyubo, a 13th-century literatus, shows that radish kimchi was common inGoryeo(918–1392).[23][24][25]

Pickled radish slices make a good summer side-dish,
Radish preserved in salt is a winter side-dish from start to end.
The roots in the earth grow plumper every day,
Harvesting after the frost, a slice cut by a knife tastes like a pear.

— Yi Gyubo,Donggukisanggukjip(translated by Michael J. Pettid, inKorean cuisine: An Illustrated History)

Kimchi has been a staple in Korean culture, but historical versions were not a spicy dish.[26]Early records of kimchi do not mention garlic orchili pepper.[27]Chili peppers, now a standard ingredient in kimchi, had been unknown in Korea until the early seventeenth century due to its being aNew Worldcrop.[28]Chili peppers, originally native to the Americas, were introduced to East Asia by Portuguese traders.[27][29][30]The first mention of chili pepper is found inJibong yuseol,an encyclopedia published in 1614.[19][31]Sallim gyeongje,a 17‒18th century book on farm management, wrote on kimchi with chili peppers.[19][32]However, it was not until the 19th century that the use of chili peppers in kimchi became widespread.[33]Recipes from the early 19th century closely resemble today's kimchi.[34][35]

A 1766 book,Jeungbo sallim gyeongje,reports kimchi varieties made with myriad ingredients, includingchonggak-kimchi(kimchi made withchonggak radish),oi-sobagi(with cucumber),seokbak-ji(withjogi-jeot), anddongchimi.[19][36]However,napa cabbagewas introduced to Korea only at the end of 19th century,[33]and whole-cabbage kimchi similar to its current form is described inSiuijeonseo,a cookbook published around that time.[37]

Modern history

edit

During South Korea's involvement in theVietnam Warthe industrialization and commercialization of kimchi production became increasingly important because the Korean government wanted to provide rations for its troops. The Korean government requested American help to ensure that South Korean troops, reportedly "desperate" for the food, could obtain it in the field.[38][39]

In 2008, South Korean scientists created a special low-calorie, vitamin-rich "space kimchi" forYi So-yeon,the first Korean astronaut, to take to space. It was bacteria-free, unlike normal kimchi in which bacteria are essential for fermentation. It was feared that cosmic rays might mutate the bacteria.[40]

South Korea developed programs for adultKorean adopteesto return to South Korea and learn about what it means to be Korean. One of these programs was learning how to make kimchi.[41]

1996 kimchi standard dispute with Japan

edit

In 1996, Korea protested against Japanese commercial production of kimchi arguing that the Japanese-produced product (kimuchi,キムチ) was different from kimchi. In particular, Japanese kimchi was not fermented and was more similar toasazuke.Korea lobbied for an international standard from theCodex Alimentarius,an organization associated with the World Health Organization that defines voluntary standards for food preparation for international trade purposes.[42][43]In 2001, the Codex Alimentarius published a voluntary standard defining kimchi as "a fermented food that uses salted napa cabbages as its main ingredient mixed with seasonings, and goes through a lactic acid production process at a low temperature", but which neither specified a minimum amount of fermentation nor forbade the use of any additives.[44]Following the inclusion of the kimchi standard, kimchi exports in Korea did increase, but so did the production of kimchi in China and the import of Chinese kimchi into Korea.[39]

2010 Kimchi ingredient price crisis

edit

Due to heavy rainfall shortening the harvesting time for cabbage and other main ingredients for kimchi in 2010, the price of kimchi ingredients and kimchi itself rose greatly. Korean and international newspapers described the rise in prices as a national crisis.[45]Some restaurants stopped offering kimchi as a free side dish, whichThe New York Timescompared to an American hamburger restaurant no longer offering freeketchup.[46]In response to the kimchi price crisis, the South Korean government announced the temporary reduction of tariffs on imported cabbage to coincide with thekimjangseason.[45]

Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity

edit

Kimchi-related items have been inscribed onUNESCO'sRepresentative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanityby both South and North Korea. This makes kimchi the second intangible heritage that was submitted by two countries, the other one being the folk song "Arirang"which was also submitted by both the Koreas.[47]"The culture of kimjang" was the subject of the Intangible Cultural Heritage: kimchi is not registered by itself.

Submitted by South Korea (inscribed 2013)
edit

Kimjang,the tradition of making and sharing kimchi that usually takes place in late autumn, was added to the list as "Gimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea". The practice of Gimjang reaffirms Korean identity and strengthens family cooperation. Gimjang is also an important reminder for many Koreans that human communities need to live in harmony with nature.[48]

Submitted by North Korea (inscribed 2015)
edit

North Korean kimchi-making was inscribed on the list in December 2015[47]as "Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea".[49]North Korean kimchi tends to be less spicy and less red than South Korean kimchi.[50]Seafood is used less often and less salt is added. Additional sugar is used to help with fermentation in the cold climate.[51]

Kimchi Day

edit
Proclamation signed byGovernor of MarylandLarry Hogandeclaring 22 November as 'Kimchi Day' (2022)

In theUnited States,statesCalifornia,Virginia,MarylandandNew York,and capital cityWashington D.C.have issued proclamations declaring 22 November as 'Kimchi Day' to recognize the importance of the dish as part of Korean culture.[52][53]

2012 effective ban by China of Korean kimchi imports

edit

Since 2012, the Chinese government has effectively banned the import of Korean kimchi through government regulations. Ignoring the standards of kimchi outlined by theCodex Alimentarius,China defined kimchi as a derivative of one of its own cuisines, calledpao cai.[54]However, due to significantly different preparation techniques frompao cai,kimchi has significantly more lactic acid bacteria through its fermentation process, which exceeds China's regulations.[55]Since 2012, commercial exports of Korean kimchi to China has reached zero; the only minor amounts of exports accounting for Korean kimchi are exhibition events held in China.[54]

2017 boycott in China

edit

A 2017 article inThe New York Timessaid thatanti-Korean sentiment in Chinahad risen after South Korea's acceptance of the deployment ofTHAADin South Korea. Government-run Chinese news media encouraged the boycott of South Korean goods, and some Chinese nationalists vowed to not eat kimchi.[56]The move was criticized by other Chinese nationalists, who noted that China officially considered Koreans an integral ethnic group in the multinational state, and that kimchi is also indigenous to Korea in theYanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture.[57]

2020 kimchi ISO standard dispute with China

edit

In November 2020, theInternational Organization for Standardization(ISO) posted ISO 24220:2020, new regulations for the making ofpao cai.[58]The same month,BBC Newsreported that Chinese news organizationGlobal Timesclaimed the new ISO standard was "an international standard for the kimchi industry led by China" despite the standard clearly stating "this document does not apply to kimchi".[59]This sparked strong anger from South Korean media and people,[60]as well as the responses from some Chinese people who argued China held the right to claim kimchi as their own.[61]

However clarifications from both countries, later revealed that the controversy was triggered over a misunderstanding of a translation of the Chinese wordpao cai.[62]After the controversy emerged,Global Timesexplained it was simply a "misunderstanding in translation", where they had meant to refer to Chinesepao cai,and their Chinese language article had used the termpao cai,but their English language version had "erroneously" translated it as "kimchi", and that the dispute arose from being innocently "lost in translation".[63][64]They acknowledged that kimchi andpao caiare two different foods, where "Kimchi refers to a kind of fermented cabbage dish that plays an integral role in Korean cuisine, whilepàocài,or Sichuanpàocài,refers to pickled vegetables that are popular originally in Southwest China's Sichuan Province, but now in most parts of northern China. "[63]Global Timesalso reported thatBaidu Baike,a Chinese online encyclopedia, removed the controversial phrase "Korean kimchi originated from China" after the request.[63]

According to Sojin Lim, co-director of the Institute of Korean Studies of theUniversity of Central Lancashire,Korean kimchi is often calledpao caiin China, but China has its ownSichuanesefermented vegetable dish that it also callspao cai.[65]In 2021, the South KoreanMinistry of Culture, Sports and Tourismsubsequently presented the guidelines to set the termxīnqí(Tân kỳ)as the new proper Chinese translation of kimchi, whilepàocàiwas no longer the acceptable translation.[66]However, CNN reported that the new Chinese translation of kimchi was unpopular with both Chinese and Korean netizens, and that some Chinese people complained that they do recognise the difference between dishes, but don't like to be told how to translate Kimchi in Chinese. There were also complaints among Koreans that Korea is appropriating their own traditional culture for the Chinese, by trying to promote a Chinese term for Kimchi which doesn't have an authentic Korean sound.[67]

Ingredients

edit
Basic ingredients for kimchi: napa cabbage, radish, carrot, salt, garlic, fish sauce, chili powder and scallions. A sticky, glutinous paste of rice flour is also needed to make the seasoning of the kimchi.
Salted napa cabbage before making kimchi. Cabbage is usually marinated twice to help maintain the salt in the dish.
Drying chili peppers for kimchi. These peppers are then made intogochugaru,or chili pepper powder. This powder is added to the rice flour paste to make a seasoning paste for spicy kimchi.

Kimchi varieties are determined by the main vegetable ingredients and the mix of seasoning used to flavor the kimchi.

Vegetables

edit

Cabbages (napa cabbages,bomdong,headed cabbages) and radishes (Korean radishes,ponytail radishes,gegeol radishes,yeolmu radishes) are the most commonly used kimchi vegetables.[1][2]Other kimchi vegetables include:aster,balloon flower roots,burdockroots,celery,chamnamul,cilantro,cress,crown daisy greens,cucumber,eggplant,garlic chives,garlicscapes,ginger,Korean angelica-treeshoots,Korean parsley,Korean wild chive,lotus roots,mustard greens,onions,perilla leaves,bamboo shoot,momordica charantia,pumpkins,radish greens,rapeseedleaves,scallions,seaweed,soybean sprouts,spinach,sugar beets,sweet potatovines, andtomatoes.[68]

Seasonings

edit

Brining salt(with a larger grain size compared tokitchen salt) is used mainly for initial salting of kimchi vegetables. Being minimally processed, it serves to help develop flavors in fermented foods.[69]Cabbage is usually salted twice when making spicy kimchi.

Commonly used seasonings includegochugaru(chili powder),scallions,garlic,ginger,andjeotgal(salted seafood)[1][2]Jeotgalcan be replaced with raw seafood in colder Northern parts of theKorean peninsula.[70]If used, mildersaeu-jeot(salted shrimp) orjogi-jeot(salted croaker) is preferred and the amount ofjeotgalis also reduced in Northern and Central regions.[70]In Southern Korea, on the other hand, a generous amount of strongermyeolchi-jeot(salted anchovies) andgalchi-jeot(saltedhairtail) is commonly used.[70]Raw seafood ordaegu-agami-jeot(salted cod gills) are used in the East coast areas.[70]

Salt, scallions, garlic, fish sauce, and sugar are commonly added to flavor the kimchi.[71]

Production

edit

The first step in the making of any kimchi is to slice the cabbage or daikon into smaller, uniform pieces to increase the surface area.[72]The pieces are then coated with salt as a preservative method, as this draws out the water to lower the free water activity. This inhibits the growth of undesirable microorganisms by limiting the water available for them to utilize for growth and metabolism.[72]The salting stage can use 5 to 7% salinity for 12 hours, or 15% for 3 to 7 hours.[73]

The excess water is then drained away, and seasoning ingredients are added.[72]The sugar that is sometimes added also acts to bind free water that still remains, further reducing free water activity. Finally, the brined vegetables are placed into an airtight canning jar and left to sit for 24 to 48 hours at room temperature.[72]The ideal salt concentration during the fermentation process is about 3%.[73]

Since the fermentation process results in the production of carbon dioxide, the jar should be "burped" daily to release the gas.[72]The more fermentation that occurs, the more carbon dioxide will be incorporated, which results in a very carbonated-drink-like effect.

Microorganisms in kimchi

edit

Themicroorganismspresent in kimchi includeBacillus mycoides,B. pseudomycoides,B. subtilis,Lactobacillus brevis,Lb. curvatus,Lb. kimchii,Lb. parabrevis,Lb. pentosus,Lb. plantarum,Lb. sakei,Lb. spicheri,Lactococcus carnosum,Lc. gelidum,Lc. lactis,Leuconostoc carnosum,Ln. citreum,Ln. gasicomitatum,Ln. gelidum,Ln. holzapfelii,Ln. inhae,Ln. kimchii,Ln. lactis,Ln. mesenteroides,Serratia marcescens,Weissella cibaria,W. confusa,W. kandleri,W. kimchii.W. koreensis,andW. soli.[74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81]Archaeaandyeasts,such as Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, and Kluyveromyces are also present in kimchi,[82][83]with the latter being responsible for undesirable white colonies that sometimes form in the product as well as food spoilages and off-flavors.[82][84]

In early fermentation stages, theLeuconostocvariety is found more dominantly in kimchi fermentation because of its lower acid tolerance and microaerophilic properties; theLeuconostocvariety also grows better at low salt concentrations.[82]Throughout the fermentation process, as acidity rises, theLactobacillusandWeissellavariety become dominant because of their higher acid tolerance.Lactobacillusalso grows better in conditions with a higher salt concentration.[82]

These microorganisms are present due to the natural microflora provided by utilizing unsterilized food materials in the production of kimchi.[85][73]The step of salting the raw materials as well as the addition of red pepper powder inhibit the pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria present in the microflora, allowing thelactic acid bacteria(LAB) to flourish and become the dominant microorganism.[85][86]These anaerobic microorganisms steadily increase in number during the middle stages of fermentation, and prefer to be kept at low temperatures of about 10°C, pH of 4.2-4, and remain in the presence of 1.5% – 4% NaCl.[82][85]A faster fermentation at a higher temperature may be chosen as well to accelerate the growth of bacterial cultures for a faster decrease in pH level.[82]

Since the raw cruciferous vegetables themselves are the source of LAB required for fermentation, no starter culture is required for the production of kimchi; rather, spontaneous fermentation occurs.[87]The total population of microorganisms present at the beginning of processing determine the outcome of fermentation, causing the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor.[85]Currently, there are no recommended approaches to control the microbial community during fermentation to predict the outcome.[87]In the industrial production of kimchi, starter cultures made up ofLeu. mesenteroides,Leu. citreum,andLb. plantarumare used, which are often unsuccessful because they fail to outcompete the naturally occurring cultures on the raw materials.[82]

By-products of microorganisms

edit

Thelactic acid bacteria(LAB) producelactic acid,hydrogen peroxide,andcarbon dioxideas by-products during metabolism. Lactic acid quickly lowers the pH, creating an acidic environment that is uninhabitable for most other microorganisms that survived salting.[73]This also modifies the flavor of sub-ingredients and can increase the nutritive value of the raw materials, as the microbial community in the fermentation process can synthesize B vitamins and hydrolyze cellulose in plant tissues to free nutrients that are normally indigestible by the human gastrointestinal tract.[73]Hydrogen peroxide is formed by the oxidation of reducednicotinamide adenine dinucleotide(NADH) and provides an antibiotic to inhibit some undesirable microorganisms.[73]Carbon dioxide functions as a preservative, flushing out oxygen to create an anaerobic environment, as well as creating the desired carbonation in the final product.[73]

Odor

edit

Kimchi is known for its strong, spicy, flavors and odors, although milder varieties exist. Variations in the fermentation process cause the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor.[85]The strong odor is especially tied to the sulfur compounds from garlic and ginger of kimchi, which can be less appealing to non-Koreans. Thus, scientists are experimenting with the types of bacteria used in its production to minimize the odor to increase the appeal for international markets.[88]These efforts are not universally appreciated by lovers of kimchi, as the flavor is affected in the process, and some see that "South Korea's narrative about its own culinary staple" is being manipulated to suit the foreigners' tastes.[89]

Varieties

edit
Tongkimchi,gulgimchi(kimchi with additional oyster) and otherbanchan

Kimchi is one of the most important staples ofKorean cuisine.The Korean term "Kimchi" refers to fermented vegetables, and encompasses salt and seasoned vegetables.[90]It is mainly served as a side dish with every meal, but also can be served as a main dish.[91]Kimchi is mainly recognized as a spicy fermented cabbage dish globally.[22]

New variations of kimchi continue to be created,[92]and the taste can vary depending on the region and season.[93]Conventionally, the secret of kimchi preparation was passed down by mothers to their daughters in a bid to make them suitable wives to their husbands.[94]However, with the current technological advancement and increase in social media use, many individuals worldwide can now access recipes for kimchi preparation.[94]

Kimchi can be categorized by main ingredients, regions or seasons. Korea's northern and southern sections have a considerable temperature difference.[95]There are over 180 recognized varieties of kimchi.[96]The most common kimchi variations are:

  • Baechu-kimchi(배추김치) spicy napa cabbage kimchi, made from whole cabbage leaves
  • Baechu-geotjeori(배추겉절이) unfermented napa cabbage kimchi
  • Bossam-kimchi(보쌈김치) wrapped kimchi
  • Baek-kimchi(백김치) white kimchi, made without chili pepper
  • Dongchimi(동치미) a non-spicy watery kimchi
  • Nabak-kimchi(나박김치) a mildly spicy watery kimchi
  • Chonggak-kimchi(총각김치) cubedchonggak "ponytail" radish,a popular spicy kimchi
  • Kkakdugi(깍두기) spicy cubedKorean radishstrongly-scented kimchi containing fermented shrimp
  • Oi-sobagi(오이소박이) cucumber kimchi that can be stuffed with seafood and chili paste, and is a popular choice during the spring and summer seasons
  • Pa-kimchi(파김치) spicy green onion kimchi
  • Yeolmu-kimchi(열무김치) is also a popular choice during the spring and summer, and is made withyeolmu radishes,and does not necessarily have to be fermented.
  • Gat-kimchi(갓김치), made withIndian mustard
  • Yangbaechu-kimchi(양배추 김치) spicy cabbage kimchi, made from "headed"cabbageleaves (as opposed to napa cabbage)

Kimchi from the northern parts of Korea tends to have less salt and red chili and usually does not include brined seafood for seasoning. Northern kimchi often has a watery consistency. Kimchi made in the southern parts of Korea, such asJeolla ProvinceandGyeongsang Province,uses salt, chili peppers andmyeolchijeot(멸치젓,brinedanchovyallowed to ferment) orsaeujeot(새우젓,brined shrimp allowed to ferment),myeolchiaekjeot(멸치액젓), anchovy fish sauce,kkanariaekjeot(까나리액젓), liquid anchovyjeot,similar tofish sauceused in Southeast Asia, but thicker.

Saeujeot(새우젓) ormyeolchijeotis not added to the kimchi spice-seasoning mixture, but is simmered first to reduce odors, eliminate tannic flavor and fats, and then is mixed with a thickener made of rice or wheat starch (풀). This technique has been falling into disuse in the past 40 years.

Color

edit

White kimchiis neither red nor spicy. It includes whitenapa cabbage kimchiand other varieties such as whiteradishkimchi (dongchimi). Watery white kimchi varieties are sometimes used as an ingredient in a number of dishes such as cold noodles indongchimibrine(dongchimi-guksu).

Age

edit
  • Geotjeori(겉절이): fresh, unfermented kimchi.
  • Mugeun-ji(묵은지), also known asmugeun-kimchi(묵은김치): aged kimchi

Region

edit
Empty traditionaljars(onggi,옹기), used for storing kimchi, gochujang,doenjang,soy sauce and other pickled banchan (side dishes)

The following regional classification dates to the 1960s. Since then, kimchi-making practices and trends in Korea have diverged from it.[95]

  • Pyongan ProvinceNon-traditional ingredients have been adopted in rural areas due to severe food shortages.
  • Hamgyong Province:Due to its proximity to the ocean, people in this particular region use fresh fish and oysters to season their kimchi.
  • Hwanghae Province:The taste of kimchi in Hwanghae Province is not bland but not extremely spicy. Most kimchi from this region has less color since red chili flakes are not used. The typical kimchi for Hwanghae Province is called hobakji (호박지). It is made with pumpkin (bundi).
    Kimchi-buchimgae,a savoury Korean pancake with kimchi
  • Gyeonggi Province
  • Chungcheong Province:Instead of using fermented fish, people in the region rely on salt and fermentation to make savory kimchi. Chungcheong Province has the most varieties of kimchi.
  • Gangwon Province, South Korea/Kangwon Province, North Korea:In Gangwon Province, kimchi is stored for longer periods. Unlike other coastal regions in Korea, kimchi in this area does not contain much salted fish.
  • Jeolla Province:Saltedyellow corvinaand saltedbutterfishare used in this region to create different seasonings for kimchi.
  • Gyeongsang Province:This region's cuisine is saltier and spicier. The most common seasoning components includemyeolchijeot(멸치젓) which produce a briny and savory flavor. They also use oysters in their kimchi.
  • Foreign countries: In some places of the world people sometimes make kimchi with westerncabbageand many other alternative ingredients such asbroccoli.[97][98]

Seasonal variations

edit

Different types of kimchi were traditionally made at different times of the year, based on when various vegetables were in season and also to take advantage of hot and cold seasons before the era of refrigeration. Although the advent of modern refrigeration – includingkimchi refrigeratorsspecifically designed with precise controls to keep different varieties of kimchi at optimal temperatures at various stages of fermentation – has made this seasonality unnecessary, Koreans continue to consume kimchi according to traditional seasonal preferences.[99]

Dongchimi(동치미)is largely served during winter. Dongchimi is also used to make buckwheatnaengmyeon,a popular dish during hot months.

Spring

edit

After a long period of consuminggimjangkimchi(김장김치) during the winter, freshpotherbsand vegetables were used to make kimchi. These kinds of kimchi were not fermented or even stored for long periods of time but were consumed fresh.

Summer

edit
Yeolmu-kimchi,cold, watery kimchi that is usually eaten with oily foods, is consumed mostly in the summer.

Yeolmu radishesand cucumbers are summer vegetables made into kimchi,yeolmu-kimchi(열무김치) which is eaten in several bites. Brined fish or shellfish can be added, and freshly ground dried chili peppers are often used.

Autumn

edit

Baechukimchiis prepared by inserting blended stuffing materials, calledsok(literallyinside), between layers of salted leaves of uncut, wholeNapa cabbage.The ingredients ofsok(속) can vary, depending on the regions and weather conditions. Generally,baechu kimchiused to have a strong salty flavor until the late 1960s, before which a large amount ofmyeolchijeotorsaeujeothad been used.

Gogumasoon Kimchiis made from sweet potato stems.

Winter

edit

Traditionally, the greatest varieties of kimchi were available during the winter. In preparation for the long winter months, many types ofkimjangkimchi (김장 김치) were prepared in early winter and stored in the ground in large kimchi pots. Today, many city residents use modernkimchi refrigeratorsoffering precise temperature controls to store kimjang kimchi. November and December are traditionally when people begin to make kimchi; women often gather together in each other's homes to help with winter kimchi preparations.[46]"Baechu kimchi" is made with saltedbaechufilled with thin strips ofradish,parsley, pine nuts, pears, chestnuts, shredded red pepper,manna lichen(Korean:석이 버섯;RR:seogi beoseot), garlic, and ginger.

Korean preference

edit

As of 2004, the preference of kimchi preparation in Korean households from the most prepared type of kimchi to less prepared types of kimchi was:baechukimchi, being the most prepared type of kimchi, thenkkakdugi,thendongchimiand thenchonggakkimchi.Baechukimchi comprised more than seventy percent of marketed kimchi and radish kimchi comprised about twenty percent of marketed kimchi.[100]

Nutrition

edit
Kimchi jjigae(김치찌개), a stew made of kimchi, vegetables, broth, and other ingredients, is a popular dish during the cold months.

Kimchi is made of various vegetables and contains a high concentration ofdietary fiber,[101]while being low in calories. The vegetables used in kimchi also contribute to intake of vitamin A, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), calcium, and iron.[102][103]

Nutritional composition of typical kimchi[104][not specific enough to verify]
Nutrients per 100 g Nutrients per 100 g
Food energy 32 Moisture 88.4 g
Crude protein 2.0 g Crude lipid 0.6 g
Total sugar 1.3 g Crude fiber 1.2 g
Crude ash 0.5 g Calcium 45 mg
Phosphorus 28 mg Vitamin A 492 IU
Vitamin B1 0.03 mg Vitamin B2 0.06 mg
Niacin 2.1 mg Vitamin C 21 mg
Vitamin contents of common kimchi and average vitamin contents of 4 kimchi during fermentation at 3–7°C
Fermentation
time (week)		 Carotene
(μg%[clarification needed])		 Vitamin
B1(μg%)		 Vitamin
B2(μg%)		 Vitamin
B12(μg%)		 Niacin
(μg%)		 Vitamin C
(mg%)
0 49.5a 41.7 66 0.17 740 28.9
1 44.0 (35.4)b 41.6 (40.1) 47 (54) 0.09 (0.09) 781 (747) 25.0 (25.3)
2 32.0 (30.4) 70.9 (61.9) 110 (99) 0.19 (0.20) 928 (861) 27.8 (28.5)
3 26.6 (26.9) 79.1 (87.5) 230 (157) 0.25 (0.33) 901 (792) 23.6 (22.3)
4 21.0 (25.3) 62.7 (70.8) 35 (95) 0.20 (0.26) 591 (525) 16.7 (16.0)
5 24.2 (20.1) 53.3 (49.1) 40 (37) 0.10 (0.16) 11.16 (11.0)
aNaturally fermented baechu kimchi
bAverage levels of four kimchis; common kimchi +3 different starter inoculated kimchis
Source: Hui et al. (2005)[105]: 740–741, 751 who cited Lee et al. (1960)
General components of kimchi (per 100g of edible portion)
Components Baechu-kimchi Kaktugi Gat-kimchi Pa-kimchi Baek-kimchi Yeolmu-kimchi Dongchimi Nabak-kimchi
Calorie(kcal) 18 33 41 52 8 38 11 9
Moisture(%) 90.8 88.4 83.2 80.7 95.7 84.5 94.2 95.1
Crudeprotein(g) 2 1.6 3.9 3.4 0.7 3.1 0.7 0.8
Crudelipid(g) 0.5 0.3 0.9 0.8 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.1
Crudeash(g) 2.8 2.3 3.5 3.3 1.5 3.2 2 1.5
Carbohydrate(g) 3.9 7.4 8.5 11.8 2 8.6 3 2.5
Dietary fiber(g) 3 2.8 4 5.1 1.4 3.3 0.8 1.5
Source: Tamang (2015)[106]who cited Lee (2006)
Vitamin content of kimchi (per 100g of edible portion)
Vitamins Baechu-kimchi Kaktugi Gat-kimchi Pa-kimchi Baek-kimchi Yeolmu-kimchi Dongchimi Nabak-kimchi
Vitamin A(RE) 48 38 390 352 9 595 15 77
Vitamin A
(β-carotene) (μg) 		290 226 2342 2109 53 3573 88 460
Vitamin B1(mg) 0.06 0.14 0.15 0.14 0.03 0.15 0.02 0.03
Vitamin B2(mg) 0.06 0.05 0.14 0.14 0.02 0.29 0.02 0.06
Niacin(mg) 0.8 0.5 1.3 0.9 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.5
Vitamin C(mg) 14 19 48 19 10 28 9 10
Vitamin B6(mg) 0.19 0.13
Folic acid(μg) 43.3 58.9 74.8
Vitamin E(mg) 0.7 0.2 1.3
Not detected:vitamin A(retinol),pantothenic acid,vitamin B12,vitamin K
Source: Tamang (2015)[106]who cited Lee (2006)

A 2003 article said that South Koreans consume 18kg (40lbs) of kimchi per person annually.[42]Many credit theKorean Miraclein part to eating the dish.[38]Adult Koreans eat from 50 grams (0.11 lb) to 200 grams (0.44 lb) of kimchi a day.[106]

Trade

edit

South Korea spent around $129 million in 2017 to purchase 275,000 metric tons of foreign kimchi, more than 11 times the amount it exported, according to data released by the Korea Customs Service in 2017.[107]South Korea consumes 1.85 million metric tons of kimchi annually, or 36.1 kg per person.[108]It imports a significant fraction of that, mostly from China, and runs a $47.3 million kimchi trade deficit.[107]

Import and export of kimchi[109]
Year Volume (tons) Value (thousand USD)
Export Import Export Import Surplus
2022 41,121 263,435 140,823 169,400 -28,577
2021 42,540 240,606 159,915 140,742 19,173
2020 39,748 281,187 144,511 152,426 −7,915
2019 29,628 306,050 104,992 130,911 −25,919
2018 28,197 290,742 97,456 138,215 −40,759
2017 24,311 275,631 81,393 128,679 −47,286
2016 23,490 253,432 78,900 121,485 −42,585
2015 23,111 224,124 73,543 113,237 −39,694
2014 24,742 212,938 84,033 104,396 −20,363
2013 25,631 220,218 89277 117,431 −28,154
2012 27,664 218,845 106,608 110,842 −4,234
2011 27,429 230,078 104,577 120,874 −16,297
2010 29,672 192,936 98,360 102,019 −3,659

Consumption

edit

In 2021, Koreans collectively consumed 1,965,000 tons of Kimchi, with average Korean consuming 88.3 grams of Kimchi daily. This average has been steadily declining from 109.9 grams per day in 2010, marking a 19.6% decrease. Males tend to consume more Kimchi than females, with an average of 106.6 grams compared to 70.0 grams.[110]

Annual Kimchi Consumption
Year Total Male Female
2010 109.9 129.0 90.8
2015 96.3 115.1 77.6
2020 88.3 106.6 70.0
CAGR −2.16% −1.89% −2.57%

Food regulations

edit

TheCanadian Food Inspection Agencyhas regulations for the commercial production of kimchi. The final product should have a pH ranging from 4.2 to 4.5.[111]Any low-acidity ingredients with a pH above 4.6, including white daikon and napa cabbage, should not be left under conditions that enable the growth of undesirable microorganisms and require a written illustration of the procedure designed to ensure this is available if requested.[111]This procedural design should include steps that maintain sterility of the equipment and products used, and the details of all sterilization processes.[111]The cutoff pH of 4.6 is a value common to many food safety regulations, initially defined becausebotulism toxinis not produced below this level.[112]

edit
  • Preparation for making kimchi
  • Seokryu kimchinamed after its pomegranate-like shape
  • Jang kimchi,pickled with soy sauce
  • Displayed manufactured kimchi
  • Oi-sobagi(cucumber kimchi)
  • Homemade green kimchi, made withbok choywith a green onion and garlic scape-based chili paste

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^abc"Kimchi".Encyclopædia Britannica.1 October 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 13 July 2022.Retrieved23 March2017.
  2. ^abcdeChin, Mei(14 October 2009)."The Art of Kimchi".Saveur.Archivedfrom the original on 25 March 2022.Retrieved9 August2010.
  3. ^Hongu, Nobuko; Kim, Angela S.; Suzuki, Asuka; Wilson, Hope; Tsui, Karen C.; Park, Sunmin (September 2017)."Korean kimchi: promoting healthy meals through cultural tradition".Journal of Ethnic Foods.4(3): 172–180.doi:10.1016/j.jef.2017.08.005.ISSN2352-6181.
  4. ^Jang, Dai-Ja; Chung, Kyung Rhan; Yang, Hye Jeong; Kim, Kang-sung; Kwon, Dae Young (September 2015)."Discussion on the origin of kimchi, representative of Korean unique fermented vegetables".Journal of Ethnic Foods.2(3): 126–136.doi:10.1016/j.jef.2015.08.005.ISSN2352-6181.
  5. ^이, 태영 (23 May 2006)."[고장말탐험] '김치'와 '지'".The Hankyoreh(in Korean).Archivedfrom the original on 27 March 2017.Retrieved27 March2017.
  6. ^Hong, Giok (2016). "Study on the Lexicon Related to Gimchi -Based on Survey of Ethnic Living Words in 2008-".The Journal of Korean Dialectology(24): 61–99.doi:10.19069/kordialect.2016.24.061.
  7. ^Uichim; Jo, Wi; Yu, Yungyeom; Yu, Hyubok; et al., eds. (1632) [1481].Bullyu Du Gongbu si Eonhae분류두공부시언해( phân loại đỗ Công Bộ thơ ngạn giải )[Poems byDu Fu,Korean Translation]. Vol. 3 (reprint ed.). Joseon Korea.Trường An 앳 겨 디히 싀오  고
  8. ^Garye Eonhae가례언해( gia lễ ngạn giải )[Vernacular Edition of the Chia-li]. Vol. 10. Translated by Sin, Sik. Joseon Korea. 1632.Đậu  디히 젓 담 목긔라(from the originalJiālǐGia lễbyZhu Xi)
  9. ^"jjanji"짠지.Standard Korean Language Dictionary(in Korean).National Institute of Korean Language.Archived fromthe originalon 27 March 2017.Retrieved27 March2017.
  10. ^"seokbak-ji"섞박지.Standard Korean Language Dictionary(in Korean).National Institute of Korean Language.Archived fromthe originalon 27 March 2017.Retrieved27 March2017.
  11. ^"ji"지.Standard Korean Language Dictionary(in Korean).National Institute of Korean Language.Archived fromthe originalon 29 September 2018.Retrieved27 March2017.
  12. ^"seobeok-di"서벅디.Standard Korean Language Dictionary(in Korean).National Institute of Korean Language.Archived fromthe originalon 5 May 2018.Retrieved27 March2017.
  13. ^Jeong, Gu; et al. (1586).Sohak Eonhae소학언해( tiểu học ngạn giải )[Vernacular Rendition of the Elementary Learning] (in Korean). Joseon Korea – viaWikisource.
  14. ^Zhū, Xǐ;Liú, Qīngzhī.XiǎoxuéTiểu học[Elementary Learning] (in Chinese). Song China – viaWikisource.
  15. ^ab"Kimchi"김치[kimchi].Standard Korean Language Dictionary(in Korean).National Institute of Korean Language.Archived fromthe originalon 29 September 2018.Retrieved24 March2017.
  16. ^"jimchae"짐채.Standard Korean Language Dictionary(in Korean).National Institute of Korean Language.Archived fromthe originalon 27 March 2017.Retrieved27 March2017.
  17. ^"jimchi"짐치.Standard Korean Language Dictionary(in Korean).National Institute of Korean Language.Archived fromthe originalon 27 March 2017.Retrieved27 March2017.
  18. ^"dimchi"딤치.Standard Korean Language Dictionary(in Korean).National Institute of Korean Language.Archived fromthe originalon 28 March 2017.Retrieved27 March2017.
  19. ^abcdHui, Y. H.; Ghazala, Sue; Graham, Dee M.; Murrell, K. D.; Nip, Wai-Kit, eds. (2004).Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing.New York:Marcel Dekker.pp. 190–191.ISBN978-0824743017.Archivedfrom the original on 17 March 2024.Retrieved2 September2017.
  20. ^Bu-sik, Kim(1145).Samguk Sagi삼국사기( tam quốc sử ký )[History of the Three Kingdoms] (in Korean). Goryeo Korea – viaWikisource.
  21. ^Park, Kun-Young; Cheigh, Hong-Sik (2003). "Kimchi".Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing.CRC Press. p. 190.
  22. ^abcLogarta, Margie T. (September 2013)."In A Pickle".Business Traveller (Asia-Pacific Edition):70–73.Archivedfrom the original on 7 September 2018.Retrieved7 September2018.
  23. ^Pettid, Michael J. (2008).Korean Cuisine: An Illustrated History.London:Reaktion Books.pp. 47–51.ISBN978-1-86189-348-2.Archivedfrom the original on 24 July 2023.Retrieved2 September2017.
  24. ^Yi, Gyubo (1241)."Gapoyugyeong"가포육영( gia phố sáu vịnh ).DonggukIsanggukjip동국이상국집( đông quốc Lý tướng quốc tập )[Collected works of Minister Yi of the Eastern Country] (in Literary Chinese). Goryeo Korea – viaDB of Korean classicsbyITKC.[permanent dead link‍]
  25. ^Breidt, Fred; McFeeters, Roger F.; Pérez-Díaz, Ilenys; Lee, Cherl-Ho (2013)."Fermented Vegetables"(PDF).In Doyle, Michael P.; Buchanan, Robert L. (eds.).Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers(4th ed.). Washington, D.C.:American Society for Microbiology.p. 841.doi:10.1128/9781555818463.ch33.ISBN9781555816261.Archived(PDF)from the original on 28 May 2015.Retrieved26 March2017.
  26. ^Kimchi. (2016). Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1.
  27. ^abGuide to Korean Culture: Korea's cultural heritage(2015 ed.). Seoul:Korean Culture and Information Service,Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism.2015 [1995]. pp. 131–133.ISBN9788973755714.
  28. ^Lee, Dahyeon (8 January 2008)."고추, 마라, 핫소스…'매운맛 문화권'의 확장과 타락 (Red pepper, mara, hot sauce... Expansion and deterioration of the" spicy taste culture ")".shindonga.donga신동아(in Korean).The Dong-a Ilbo.Archivedfrom the original on 18 April 2021.Retrieved18 April2021.
  29. ^Park, Jae Bok (Spring 1999)."Red Pepper and Kichi in Korea"(PDF).Chile Pepper InstituteNewsletter.Vol. 8, no. 1. p. 3. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 7 October 2018.Retrieved20 March2017.
  30. ^Marianski, Stanley; Marianski, Adam (2012).Sauerkraut, Kimchi, Pickles & Relishes.Seminole, FL: Bookmagic. p. 45.ISBN9780983697329.
  31. ^Yi, Sugwang.Jibong yuseol지봉유설( chi phong loại nói )[Topical Discourses of Jibong] (in Korean). Joseon Korea – viaWikisource.
  32. ^Hong, Manseon.Sallim gyeongje산림경제( núi rừng kinh tế )[Farm Management] (in Literary Chinese). Joseon Korea. Archived fromthe originalon 28 March 2017.Retrieved17 February2020– viaDB of Korean classicsbyITKC.
  33. ^abCho, Hong Sik (2006)."Food and Nationalism: Kimchi and Korean National Identity".The Korean Journal of International Studies.4(1): 207–229.doi:10.14731/kjis.2006.12.46.5.207.
  34. ^Jeong, Hakyu."Siwol"시월( mười tháng )[Tenth month].Nongga wollyeongga농가월령가( nông gia thời tiết và thời vụ ca )[The Songs of Monthly Events of Farm Families].Archivedfrom the original on 28 March 2017.Retrieved27 March2017.
  35. ^Hong, Seokmo.Dongguksesigi동국세시기( đông quốc tuổi khi nhớ )[A Record of the Seasonal Customs of the Eastern Kingdom]. Joseon Korea.
  36. ^Yu, Jungrim; Hong, Manseon (1766).Jeungbo sallim gyeongje증보산림경제( tăng thêm núi rừng kinh tế )[Revised and Augmented Farm Management]. Joseon Korea.
  37. ^Unknown (1919) [late 19th century].Siuijeonseo(in Korean). Manuscript by Sim Hwanjin. Sangju, Korea.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)시의전서 là nghị toàn thư.Hansik Archive(in Korean). Archived fromthe originalon 12 March 2017.
  38. ^abChoe, Sang-hun (24 February 2008)."Starship Kimchi: A Bold Taste Goes Where It Has Never Gone Before".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 17 March 2012.Retrieved27 August2012.
  39. ^abKing, Michelle (2019),"Introduction: Culinary Nationalism in Asia",Culinary Nationalism in Asia,Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, pp. 1–20,doi:10.5040/9781350078703.0008,ISBN978-1-350-07870-3,S2CID201328713,archivedfrom the original on 17 March 2024,retrieved4 August2021
  40. ^"History of Kimchi, the Korean soul food. Kimchi fun facts we BAECHU didn't know".Hyphe-Nated. Archived from the original on 9 September 2021.Retrieved9 September2021.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  41. ^Kim, Eleana J. (2013).Adoptees and the Politics of Belonging.The Korea Society. Event occurs at 26:56–28:09.Archivedfrom the original on 6 April 2017.Retrieved2 January2023– via YouTube.Another aspect of the Korean adoptee experience that I explore in my book is their relationship to South Korea, and the South Korean state and one of the things that the South Korean government was, in a way, compelled, to do, in the late 1990s was to recognize adoptees, overseas adoptees, as Koreans, in some way. So by 1998, adult Korean adoptees who were living in Korea petitioned the South Korean state to recognize them as overseas Koreans,Hanguggye dongpo,so that meant that they would be eligible for a special visa status that would allow them to return to South Korea for extended periods of time, and, in line with this, this is an image from the Overseas Korean Foundation summer cultural program for overseas adoptees, and so, they developed these programs to help adult adoptees return to Korea and learn something about what it means to be Korean. So these programs are typically focused on traditional Korean culture adoptees dressing up inhanbokand learning how to make kimchi, such as these images here.
  42. ^abMagnier, Mark (17 June 2003)."In an Age of SARS, Koreans Tout Kimchi Cure".Los Angeles Times.Archivedfrom the original on 27 February 2010.Retrieved7 May2010.
  43. ^Sims, Calvin (5 February 2000)."Cabbage Is Cabbage? Not to Kimchi Lovers; Koreans Take Issue With a Rendition Of Their National Dish Made in Japan".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2021.Retrieved2 January2023.
  44. ^"Codex standard for kimchi"(PDF).The Codex Alimentarius Commission. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 12 December 2005.
  45. ^ab"Of cabbages and Kims".The Economist.7 October 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 17 March 2024.Retrieved28 June2016.
  46. ^abMcDonald, Mark (14 October 2010)."Rising Cost of Kimchi Alarms Koreans".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 26 October 2010.Retrieved16 October2010.
  47. ^ab"UNESCO Adds N. Korea's Kimchi-Making to Cultural Heritage List".KBS. 3 December 2015. Archived fromthe originalon 14 April 2021.Retrieved3 December2015.
  48. ^"Kimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea".UNESCO Intangible Heritage.2013.Archivedfrom the original on 5 February 2021.Retrieved20 November2023.
  49. ^"Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea".Culture Sector – UNESCO.Archivedfrom the original on 23 February 2017.Retrieved3 December2015.
  50. ^North Koreans Want UNESCO Recognition for Their Kimchi Variation.YouTube.Voice of America.2 December 2015. Event occurs at 1:10.Archivedfrom the original on 22 March 2016.Retrieved3 December2015.
  51. ^Jeong, Sophie (2 November 2018)."North Korea's latest peace offering: Kimchi".CNN.Archivedfrom the original on 2 November 2018.Retrieved26 April2020.
  52. ^"Spicy celebration: Nov. 22 marks Kimchi Day in Maryland".CBS News.22 November 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 22 November 2022.Retrieved23 November2022.
  53. ^"Maryland Governor Designates Nov. 22 as 'Kimchi Day'".KBS World.22 November 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 22 November 2022.Retrieved23 November2022.
  54. ^abLee Gyeongju (이경주); Kim Yangjin (김양진) (20 July 2013).Đối 중국 수출 '0'... 한국 김치가 운다.seoul.co.kr(in Korean).Archivedfrom the original on 24 September 2015.Retrieved27 December2014.
  55. ^Choe Mansu (최만수) (15 January 2014).수입만 하고 수출 못하는 Hàn · trung '김치무역' 바꿀 것.hankyung(in Korean). Archived fromthe originalon 24 September 2015.
  56. ^Hernández, Javier C.; Guo, Owen; Mcmorrow, Ryan (9 March 2017)."South Korean Stores Feel China's Wrath as U.S. Missile System Is Deployed".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Archivedfrom the original on 27 May 2022.Retrieved2 January2023.
  57. ^Lankov, Andrei Nikolaevich (3 June 2013)."The 'third Korea' Yanbian in decline".The Asian.Archivedfrom the original on 1 February 2021.Retrieved3 October2021.
  58. ^"ISO 24220:2020".International Organization for Standardization.2020.Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2021.Retrieved21 January2021.
  59. ^"Kimchi ferments cultural feud between South Korea and China".BBC News.30 November 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 18 January 2021.Retrieved20 January2021.
  60. ^
  61. ^Justin McCurry (1 December 2020)."'Stealing our culture': South Koreans upset after China claims kimchi as its own ".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 17 January 2021.Retrieved20 January2021.
  62. ^"Translation Matters! Cultural War Between China and South Korea Over 'Kimichi' and 'Pao Cai' Turns Out to Be Misunderstanding".LatestLY.8 December 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 8 July 2023.Retrieved8 July2023.
  63. ^abcSeol Lee (10 December 2020)."Kimchi and paocai are two different foods,' Chinese state media says".The Dong-a Ilbo.Archivedfrom the original on 8 October 2021.Retrieved8 October2021.
  64. ^Wee Kei Koon (30 May 2022)."How China could have avoided the 'kimchi war' with South Korea".South China Morning Post.Archivedfrom the original on 8 July 2023.Retrieved8 July2023.
  65. ^"How kimchi rekindled a decades-long feud".BBC Travel.17 December 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 8 July 2023.Retrieved8 July2023.
  66. ^"Culture Ministry amends translation guidelines for kimchi".The Korea Herald.23 July 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 7 October 2021.Retrieved8 October2021.
  67. ^Wong, Maggie Hiufu (20 August 2021)."Kimchi's new Chinese name has become the epicenter of a cultural war... again".CNN.Archivedfrom the original on 8 July 2023.Retrieved8 July2023.
  68. ^"Kimchi, sikhae"김치, 식해.Ch'osŏn Ryori(in Korean (North Korea)).Korean Association of Cooks.Archived fromthe originalon 15 June 2020.Retrieved10 April2017.
  69. ^Parks, Cara (16 December 2014)."Shaking Up Salt".Modern Farmer.Archivedfrom the original on 10 January 2017.Retrieved10 April2017.
  70. ^abcd"kimchi"김치.Doopedia.Doosan Corporation.Archivedfrom the original on 7 October 2018.Retrieved10 April2017.
  71. ^"Understanding and Making Kimchi".Farm to Table.Colorado State University.Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2021.Retrieved22 February2021.
  72. ^abcde"Understanding and Making Kimchi".Colorado Farm to Table Food Safety.Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2021.Retrieved22 February2021.
  73. ^abcdefgFoods, National Research Council (US) Panel on the Applications of Biotechnology to Traditional Fermented (1992).Lactic Acid Fermentations.National Academies Press (US).Archivedfrom the original on 1 April 2015.Retrieved8 August2019.
  74. ^Paramithiotis, Spiros; Papoutsis, George; Drosinos, Eleftherios H. (2017). Paramithiotis, Spiros (ed.).Lactic Acid Fermentation of Fruits and Vegetables.Boca Raton, FL:CRC Press.p. 5.ISBN978-1-4987-2690-0.
  75. ^Lee, Jung-Sook; Heo, Gun-Young; Lee, Jun Won; Oh, Yun-Jung; Park, Jeong A.; Park, Yong-Ha; Pyun, Yu-Ryang; Ahn, Jong Seog (2005). "Analysis of kimchi microflora using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis".International Journal of Food Microbiology.102(2): 143–150.doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.12.010.PMID15992614.
  76. ^Cho, Jinhee; Lee, Dongyun; Yang, Changnam; Jeon, Jongin; Kim, Jeongho; Han, Hongui (2006)."Microbial population dynamics of kimchi, a fermented cabbage product".FEMS Microbiology Letters.257(2): 262–267.doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00186.x.PMID16553862.
  77. ^Chang, H.; Kim, K.; Nam, Y.; Roh, S.; Kim, M.; Jeon, C.; Oh, H.; Bae, J. (2008). "Analysis of yeast and archaeal population dynamics in kimchi using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis".International Journal of Food Microbiology.126(1–2): 159–166.doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.05.013.PMID18562030.
  78. ^Jung, Ji Young; Lee, Se Hee; Jin, Hyun Mi; Hahn, Yoonsoo; Madsen, Eugene L.; Jeon, Che Ok (2013). "Metatranscriptomic analysis of lactic acid bacterial gene expression during kimchi fermentation".International Journal of Food Microbiology.163(2–3): 171–179.doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.02.022.PMID23558201.
  79. ^Jeong, Sang Hyeon; Lee, Se Hee; Jung, Ji Young; Choi, Eun Jin; Jeon, Che Ok (2013). "Microbial Succession and Metabolite Changes during Long-Term Storage of Kimchi".Journal of Food Science.78(5): M763–M769.doi:10.1111/1750-3841.12095.PMID23550842.
  80. ^Jeong, Sang Hyeon; Jung, Ji Young; Lee, Se Hee; Jin, Hyun Mi; Jeon, Che Ok (2013). "Microbial succession and metabolite changes during fermentation of dongchimi, traditional Korean watery kimchi".International Journal of Food Microbiology.164(1): 46–53.doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.03.016.PMID23587713.
  81. ^Hong, Yeun; Yang, H. S.; Chang, H. C.; Kim, H. Y. (2013)."Comparison of Bacterial Community Changes in Fermenting Kimchi at Two Different Temperatures Using a Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis Analysis"(PDF).Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology.23(1): 76–84.doi:10.4014/jmb.1210.10002.PMID23314371.S2CID13462137.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 February 2019.
  82. ^abcdefgJung, Ji Young; Lee, Se Hee; Jeon, Che Ok (14 January 2014)."Kimchi microflora: history, current status, and perspectives for industrial kimchi production".Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.98(6): 2385–2393.doi:10.1007/s00253-014-5513-1.ISSN0175-7598.PMID24419800.S2CID13085302.Archivedfrom the original on 17 March 2024.Retrieved4 August2021.
  83. ^Chang, HW; Kim, KH; Nam, YD; Roh, SW; Kim, MS; Jeon, CO; Oh, HM; Bae, JW (15 August 2008). "Analysis of yeast and archaeal population dynamics in kimchi using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis".International Journal of Food Microbiology.126(1–2): 159–66.doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.05.013.PMID18562030.
  84. ^Kim, JY; Kim, J; Cha, IT; Jung, MY; Song, HS; Kim, YB; Lee, C; Kang, SY; Bae, JW; Choi, YE; Kim, TW; Roh, SW (January 2019). "Community structures and genomic features of undesirable white colony-forming yeasts on fermented vegetables".Journal of Microbiology (Seoul, Korea).57(1): 30–37.doi:10.1007/s12275-019-8487-y.PMID30392155.S2CID53219410.
  85. ^abcdeLee, Mo-Eun; Jang, Ja-Young; Lee, Jong-Hee; Park, Hae-Woong; Choi, Hak-Jong; Kim, Tae-Woon (28 May 2015)."Starter Cultures for Kimchi Fermentation".Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology.25(5): 559–568.doi:10.4014/jmb.1501.01019.ISSN1017-7825.PMID25674806.
  86. ^Park, Kun-Young; Jeong, Ji-Kang; Lee, Young-Eun; Daily, James W. (January 2014). "Health Benefits of Kimchi (Korean Fermented Vegetables) as a Probiotic Food".Journal of Medicinal Food.17(1): 6–20.doi:10.1089/jmf.2013.3083.ISSN1096-620X.PMID24456350.
  87. ^abJung, Ji Young; Lee, Se Hee; Kim, Jeong Myeong; Park, Moon Su; Bae, Jin-Woo; Hahn, Yoonsoo; Madsen, Eugene L.; Jeon, Che Ok (1 April 2011)."Metagenomic Analysis of Kimchi, a Traditional Korean Fermented Food".Applied and Environmental Microbiology.77(7): 2264–2274.Bibcode:2011ApEnM..77.2264J.doi:10.1128/AEM.02157-10.ISSN0099-2240.PMC3067442.PMID21317261.
  88. ^Fifield, Anna (22 June 2017)."To promote kimchi abroad, Korean scientists are trying to get rid of the smell".The Washington Post.Archivedfrom the original on 29 March 2021.Retrieved16 November2021.
  89. ^Herreria Russo, Carla (29 June 2017)."Korean Scientists Are Making Kimchi Less Smelly For Westerners, And People Are Pissed".HuffPost.Archivedfrom the original on 16 November 2021.Retrieved16 November2021.
  90. ^Jang, Dai Ja; Lee, Ae Ja; Kang, Soon-A; Lee, Seung Min; Kwon, Dae Young (2016)."Does siwonhan-mat represent delicious in Korean foods?".Journal of Ethnic Foods.3(2): 159–162.doi:10.1016/j.jef.2016.06.002.
  91. ^Korean Tourism Organization. (2015). Kimchi.
  92. ^di Schino, June (2011). "Kimchi: Ferment at the Heart of Korean Cuisine, from Local Identity to Global Consumption". In Saberi, Helen (ed.).Cured, Smoked, and Fermented: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2010.Devon, UK: Prospect Books. p. 82.ISBN978-1-903018-85-9.
  93. ^Kimchi. (2016). Funk & Wagnall's New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1.
  94. ^abChung, Hae-Kyung; Shin, Dayeon; Chung, Kyung Rhan; Choi, Soe Yeon; Woo, Nariyah (2017)."Recovering the royal cuisine in Chosun Dynasty and its esthetics".Journal of Ethnic Foods.4(4): 242–253.doi:10.1016/j.jef.2017.12.001.
  95. ^ab"Kimchi." Yahoo Korean EncyclopediaArchived24 January 2009 at theWayback Machine
  96. ^"Kimchi".english.visitkorea.or.kr.Archived fromthe originalon 18 January 2020.Retrieved1 April2015.
  97. ^"North Texas Traditional Living"(PDF).Making Kimchi.Archived(PDF)from the original on 24 March 2012.Retrieved14 February2011.
  98. ^"TreeLight".Ultimate Kimchi.Archived fromthe originalon 24 December 2010.Retrieved14 February2011.
  99. ^"High-tech kimchi refrigerators keep Korea's favorite food crisp".Hong Kong Trade Development Council. 14 March 2002. Archived fromthe originalon 29 January 2008.Retrieved14 February2008.
  100. ^Hui, Y. H.; Ghazala, Sue; Graham, Dee M.; Murrell, K. D.; Nip, Wai-Kit, eds. (12 September 2003).Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing.CRC Press. pp. 190–191.ISBN978-0-203-91291-1.
  101. ^"Kimchi by Nancy Berkoff, RD, EdD, CCE".Archived fromthe originalon 19 October 2014.Retrieved13 September2014.
  102. ^"Food in Korea".Asianinfo.Archivedfrom the original on 19 February 2012.Retrieved30 January2007.
  103. ^"Kimchi".Tour2korea.Archived fromthe originalon 30 September 2012.Retrieved30 January2007.
  104. ^Korea Food Research Institute
  105. ^Park, Kim-Young; Cheigh, Hong-Sik (2004). "35. Kimchi". In Hui, Y. H.; Meunier-Goddik, Lisbeth; Josephsen, Jytte; Nip, Wai-Kit; Stanfield, Peggy S. (eds.).Handbook of Food and Beverage Fermentation Technology.Food Science and Technology. Vol. 134. CRC Press. pp. 714–754.ISBN978-0-8247-5122-7.Archivedfrom the original on 2 January 2023.Retrieved2 January2023.
  106. ^abcTamang, Jyoti Prakash (2015).Health Benefits of Fermented Foods and Beverages.CRC Press. pp. 344, 350–351.ISBN978-1-4665-8810-3.Archivedfrom the original on 2 January 2023.Retrieved2 January2023.
  107. ^abHuang, Echo (19 January 2018)."The kimchi you eat outside of Korea is probably made in China".Quartz.Archivedfrom the original on 19 January 2018.Retrieved19 January2018.
  108. ^"Half of kimchi served at South Korean restaurants from China: Institute".The Jakarta Post. 6 October 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 17 June 2020.Retrieved10 May2020.
  109. ^"수출입통계 – 품목별 수출입실적"[Import and export statistics – 품목별 수출입실적 (Import and export performance by item): Item code=20 05 99 1000]. Korea Customs Service.Archivedfrom the original on 22 January 2021.Retrieved15 February2021.
  110. ^"Document Viewer".wikim.re.kr.Archivedfrom the original on 4 October 2023.Retrieved2 October2023.
  111. ^abc"Chapter 5 - Process Products".Processed Products Establishment Inspection Manual.Canadian Food Inspection Agency. 30 August 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 30 January 2019.Retrieved8 August2019.
  112. ^Clark, J. Peter (2014)."The Basics About Acid Levels in Food".Food Technology Magazine (Institude of Food Technology).Archivedfrom the original on 22 November 2022.Retrieved22 November2022.

Further reading

edit
WikibooksCookbookhas a recipe/module on
Wikimedia Commons has media related to김치.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kimchi&oldid=1257819375"