Kushan Empire

TheKushan Empire(c. 30–c. 375AD)was asyncreticempire formed by theYuezhiin theBactrianterritories in the early 1st century. It spread to encompass much of what is nowTajikistan,Uzbekistan,Afghanistan,Pakistan,Eastern IranandNorthern India,at least as far asSaketaandSarnath,nearVaranasi,where inscriptions have been found dating to the era of the Kushan emperorKanishka the Great.

Kushan Empire कुषाणसाम्राज्यम्(Sanskrit) Κοϸανο(Bactrian) Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν(Ancient Greek)
30–375
A map of India in the 2nd century AD showing the extent of the Kushan Empire (in green) during the reign ofKanishka.Most historians consider the empire to have variously extended as far east as the middle Ganges plain,to Varanasi in the easternGangetic plain,or probably evenPataliputra.
Capital	Puruṣapura Takṣaśilā Mathurā
Common languages	Greek(official untilc. 127) Bactrian(official fromc. 127) Gandhari Prakrit HybridSanskrit
Religion	Hinduism Buddhism Zoroastrianism
Demonym(s)	Kushanas (Yuezhi)
Government	Monarchy
Emperor
• 30–80	Kujula Kadphises(first)
• 350–375	Kipunada(last)
Historical era	Classical Antiquity
•Kujula KadphisesunitesYuezhitribes into a confederation	30
• Subjugated by theSasanians,GuptasandHepthalites	375
Area
• Total	4,000,000 km2(1,500,000 sq mi)
Currency	Kushan dinara
Preceded by Succeeded by Indo-Greek Kingdom Indo-Parthian Kingdom Indo-Scythians Northern Satraps Western Satraps Maha-meghavahanas Sasanian Empire Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom Nagas of Padmavati Kidarites Nagas of Vindhyatabi Gupta Empire

The Kushans were most probably one of five branches of theYuezhiconfederation,anIndo-Europeannomadic people of possibleTocharianorigin,who migrated from northwestern China (Xin gian g and Gansu) and settled in ancient Bactria.The founder of the dynasty,Kujula Kadphises,followed Greek cultural ideas and iconography after theGreco-Bactriantradition and was a follower of theShaivitesect ofHinduism.Two later Kushan kings,Vima KadphisesandVasudeva II,were also patrons of Hinduism. The Kushans in general were also great patrons ofBuddhism,and, starting with Emperor Kanishka, they employed elements ofZoroastrianismin their pantheon.They played an important role in the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and China, ushering in a period of relative peace for 200 years, sometimes described as "Pax Kushana".

The Kushans possibly used theGreek languageinitially for administrative purposes but soon began to use theBactrian language.Kanishka sent his armies north of theKarakorammountains. A direct road fromGandharato China remained under Kushan control for more than a century, encouraged travel across the Karakoram, and facilitated thespread of Mahayana Buddhismto China. The Kushan dynasty had diplomatic contacts with theRoman Empire,Sasanian Persia,theAksumite Empire,and theHan dynastyof China. The Kushan Empire was at the center of trade relations between the Roman Empire and China: according toAlain Daniélou,"for a time, the Kushana Empire was the centerpoint of the major civilizations".While much philosophy, art, and science was created within its borders, the only textual record of the empire's history today comes from inscriptions and accounts in other languages, particularly Chinese.

The Kushan Empire fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms in the 3rd century AD, which fell to the Sasanians invading from the west and establishing theKushano-Sasanian Kingdomin the areas ofSogdiana,Bactria, and Gandhara. In the 4th century, theGuptas,another Indian dynasty, also pressed from the east. The last of the Kushan and Kushano-Sasanian kingdoms were eventually overwhelmed by invaders from the north, known as theKidarites,and later theHephthalites.

Origins

Yuezhinobleman and priest over a fire altar.Noin-Ula.

Chinese sources describe theGuìshuāng(Quý sương,Old Chinese:*kuj-s [s]raŋ),i.e.the Kushans, as one of the five aristocratic tribes of theYuezhi.Many scholars believe that the Yuezhi were a people ofIndo-Europeanorigin.A specificallyTocharianorigin of the Yuezhi is often suggested.AnIranian,specificallySakaorigin, has also been suggested by some scholars.

The Yuezhi were described in theRecords of the Great Historianand theBook of Hanas living in the grasslands of eastern Xin gian g and northwestern part ofGansu,in the northwest of modern-day China, until their King was beheaded by theXiongnu( Hung nô ) who were also at war with China, which eventually forced them to migrate west in 176–160 BC.The five tribes constituting the Yuezhi are known in Chinese history asXiūmì( hưu mật ),Guìshuāng( quý sương ),Shuāngmǐ( song mĩ ),Xìdùn( hật đốn ), andDūmì( đều mật ).

Theethnonym"KOϷϷANO "(Koshshano,"Kushan" ) inGreek Alpha bet(with the addition of the letterϷ,"Sh") on a coin of the first known Kushan rulerHeraios(1st century AD).

The Yuezhi reached the Hellenic kingdom ofGreco-Bactria(in northern Afghanistan and Uzbekistan) around 135 BC. The displaced Greek dynasties resettled to the southeast in areas of theHindu Kush(in present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan) and theIndusbasin (in present-day Pakistan and India), occupying the western part of theIndo-Greek Kingdom.

InSouth Asia,Kushan emperors regularly used the dynastic nameΚΟϷΑΝΟ( "Koshano" ) on their coinage.Several inscriptions inSanskritin theBrahmi script,such as theMathurainscription of the statue ofVima Kadphises,refer to the Kushan Emperor as,Ku-ṣā-ṇa( "Kushana" ).Some later Indian literary sources referred to the Kushans asTurushka,a name which in later Sanskrit sourceswas confused withTurk,"probably due to the fact thatTukharistanpassed into the hands of thewestern Turksin the seventh century ".According toJohn M. Rosenfield,Turushka,TukhāraorTukhāraare variations of the wordTokhariin Indian writings.Yet, according to Wink, "nowadays no historian considers them to be Turkish-Mongoloid or" Hun ", although there is no doubt about their Central-Asian origin."

Early Kushans

Kushan portraits

Head of aYuezhiprince (Khalchayanpalace,Uzbekistan)

The first king to call himself "Kushan" on his coinage:Heraios(AD 1–30)

Kushan devotee (2nd century AD).Metropolitan Museum of Art(detail)

Portrait of Kushan emperorVima Kadphises,AD 100-127

Some traces remain of the presence of the Kushans in the area of Bactria andSogdianain the 2nd-1st century BC, where they had displaced theSakas,who moved further south.Archaeological structures are known inTakht-i Sangin,Surkh Kotal(a monumental temple), and in the palace ofKhalchayan.On the ruins of ancient Hellenistic cities such asAi-Khanoum,the Kushans are known to have built fortresses. Various sculptures and friezes from this period are known, representing horse-riding archers,and, significantly, men such as theKushan prince of Khalchayanwithartificially deformed skulls,a practice well attested in nomadic Central Asia.Some of the Khalchayan sculptural scenes are also thought to depict the Kushans fighting against theSakas.In these portrayals, the Yuezhis are shown with a majestic demeanour, whereas the Sakas are typically represented with side-whiskers, and more or less grotesque facial expressions.

The Chinese first referred to these people as the Yuezhi and said they established the Kushan Empire, although the relationship between the Yuezhi and the Kushans is still unclear.Ban Gu'sBook of Hantells us the Kushans (Kuei-shuang) divided up Bactria in 128 BC.Fan Ye'sBook of Later Han"relates how the chief of the Kushans, Ch'iu-shiu-ch'ueh (the Kujula Kadphises of coins), founded by means of the submission of the other Yueh-chih clans the Kushan Empire."

The earliest documented ruler, and the first one to proclaim himself as a Kushan ruler, wasHeraios.He calls himself a "tyrant"inGreekon his coins, and also exhibits skull deformation. He may have been an ally of the Greeks, and he shared the same style of coinage. Heraios may have been the father of the first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises.

The ChineseBook of Later Hanchronicles then gives an account of the formation of the Kushan empire based on a report made by the Chinese generalBan Yongto the Chinese Emperorc. AD 125:

More than a hundred years later [than the conquest of Bactria by the Yuezhi], the prince [xihou] of Guishuang (Badakhshan) established himself as king, and his dynasty was called that of the Guishuang (Kushan) King. He invaded Anxi (Indo-Parthia), and took the Gaofu (Kabul) region. He also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puda (Paktiya) and Jibin (KapishaandGandhara). Qiujiuque (Kujula Kadphises) was more than eighty years old when he died. His son, Yangaozhen [probablyVema Tahk(tu) or, possibly, his brotherSadaṣkaṇa], became king in his place. He defeatedTianzhu[North-western India] and installed Generals to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then became extremely rich. All the kingdoms call [their king] the Guishuang [Kushan] king, but the Han call them by their original name, Da Yuezhi.

— Book of Later Han.

Diverse cultural influences

In the 1st century BC, theGuishuang(Ch: Quý sương ) gained prominence over the other Yuezhi tribes, and welded them into a tight confederation under commander Kujula Kadphises.The nameGuishuangwas adopted in the West and modified intoKushanto designate the confederation, although the Chinese continued to call themYuezhi.

Gradually wresting control of the area from theScythiantribes, the Kushans expanded south into the region traditionally known asGandhara(an area primarily inPakistan'sPothowarandKhyber Pakhtunkhwaregion) and established twin capitals inBegramandCharsadda,then known as Kapisa and Pushklavati respectively.

Greek Alpha bet(narrow columns) with Kushan script (wide columns)

The Kushans adopted elements of theHellenisticculture of Bactria. They adopted theGreek Alpha betto suit their own language (with the additional development of the letter Þ "sh", as in "Kushan" ) and soon began minting coinage on the Greek model. On their coins they used Greek language legends combined with Pali legends (in theKharoshthiscript), until the first few years of the reign of Kanishka. After the middle of Kanishka's reign, they used Kushan language legends (in an adapted Greek script), combined with legends in Greek (Greek script) and legends in Prakrit (Kharoshthi script).

Interestingly there is evidence for the collaboration between Greek populations and the Kushans in the 2nd century AD. Apparently the main architect of the Kushan temple atSurkh Kotalwas a Greek named Palamedes. A Greek inscription has been found which could be read as: ΔΙΑ ΠΑΛΑΜΕΔΟΥΣ, i.e.dia Palamedous,meaning "through or by Palamedes". This proves that Hellenistic populations still remained in Bactria up into the Kushan era, and also explains how the Greek Alpha bet could have been applied to the Bactrian language.

Early gold coin of Kanishka I with Greek language legend and Hellenistic divinityHelios.(c. AD 120).
Obverse:Kanishka standing, clad in heavy Kushan coat and long boots, flames emanating from shoulders, holding a standard in his left hand, and making a sacrifice over an altar. Greek legend:

ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΚΑΝΗϷΚΟΥ
Basileus Basileon Kanishkoy
"[Coin] of Kanishka, king of kings".

Reverse:Standing Helios in Hellenistic style, forming a benediction gesture with the right hand. Legend in Greek script:

ΗΛΙΟΣHelios

Kanishka monogram (tamgha) to the left.

The Kushans "adopted many local beliefs and customs, includingZoroastrianismand the two rising religions in the region, the Greek cults andBuddhism".From the time ofVima Takto,many Kushans started adopting aspects ofBuddhistculture, and like the Egyptians, they absorbed the strong remnants of the Greek culture of the Hellenistic Kingdoms, becoming at least partlyHellenised.The great Kushan emperorVima Kadphises,father ofKanishka,embracedShaivism,a sect ofHinduism,as surmised by coins minted during the period.The following Kushan emperors represented a wide variety of faiths includingBuddhism,Zoroastrianism andHindu Shaivism.

The rule of the Kushans linked the seagoing trade of theIndian Oceanwith the commerce of theSilk Roadthrough the long-civilizedIndus Valley.At the height of the dynasty, the Kushans loosely ruled a territory that extended to theAral Seathrough present-dayUzbekistan,Afghanistan,Pakistanandnorthern India.

The loose unity and comparative peace of such a vast expanse encouraged long-distance trade, brought Chinese silks toRome,and created strings of flourishing urban centers.

Territorial expansion

Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan control underKanishka the Great.The extent of Kushan control is notably documented in theRabatak inscription.The northern expansion into theTarim Basinis mainly suggested by coin finds and Chinese chronicles.

Rosenfield notes that archaeological evidence of a Kushan rule of long duration is present in an area stretching from Surkh Kotal,Begram,the summer capital of the Kushans,Peshawar,the capital under Kanishka I,Taxila,andMathura,the winter capital of the Kushans.The Kushans introduced for the first time a form of governance which consisted ofKshatrapas(Brahmi:,Kṣatrapa,"Satraps") andMahakshatrapa(Brahmi:,Mahakṣatrapa,"GreatSatraps").

Other areas of probable rule includeKhwarezmand its capital city ofToprak-Kala,Kausambi(excavations ofAllahabad University),SanchiandSarnath(inscriptions with names and dates of Kushan kings),MalwaandMaharashtra,andOdisha(imitation of Kushan coins, and large Kushan hoards).

Map showing the four empires of Eurasia in the 2nd century AD. "For a time, the Kushan Empire was the centerpoint of the major civilizations".

Kushaninvasionsin the 1st century AD had been given as an explanation for themigrationofIndiansfrom theIndian SubcontinenttowardSoutheast Asiaaccording to proponents of aGreater Indiatheory by 20th-century Indiannationalists.However, there is no evidence to support this hypothesis.

TheRabatak inscription,discovered in 1993, confirms the account of the Hou Hanshu,Weilüe,and inscriptions dated early in the Kanishka era (incept probably AD 127), that large Kushan dominions expanded into the heartland of northern India in the early 2nd century AD.Lines 4 to 7 of the inscription describe the cities which were under the rule of Kanishka,among which six names are identifiable:Ujjain,Kundina,Saketa,Kausambi,Pataliputra,andChampa(although the text is not clear whether Champa was a possession of Kanishka or just beyond it).The Buddhist textŚrīdharmapiṭakanidānasūtra—known via a Chinese translation made in AD 472—refers to the conquest of Pataliputra by Kanishka.A 2nd century stone inscription by a Great Satrap namedRupiammawas discovered inPauni,south of theNarmada river,suggesting that Kushan control extended this far south, although this could alternatively have been controlled by theWestern Satraps.

Eastern reach as far asBengal:Samatatacoinage of king Vira Jadamarah, in imitation of theKushan coinageofKanishka I.The text of the legend is a meaningless imitation.Bengal,circa 2nd-3rd century AD.

In the East, as late as the 3rd century AD, decorated coins of Huvishka were dedicated atBodh Gayatogether with other gold offerings under the "Enlightenment Throne" of the Buddha, suggesting direct Kushan influence in the area during that period.Coins of the Kushans are found in abundance as far asBengal,and the ancient Bengali state ofSamatataissued coins copied from the coinage of Kanishka I, although probably only as a result of commercial influence.Coins in imitation of Kushan coinage have also been found abundantly in the eastern state ofOrissa.

In the West, the Kushan state covered thePārata stateofBalochistan,westernPakistan,Afghanistan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Uzbekistan,andTurkmenistan.Turkmenistanwas known for the Kushan Buddhist city ofMerv.

Northward, in the 1st century AD, theKujula Kadphisessent an army to theTarim Basinto support the city-state ofKucha,which had been resisting the Chinese invasion of the region, but they retreated after minor encounters.In the 2nd century AD, the Kushans under Kanishka made various forays into theTarim Basin,where they had various contacts with the Chinese. Kanishka held areas of theTarim Basinapparently corresponding to the ancient regions held by theYüeh-zhi,the possible ancestors of the Kushan. There was Kushan influence on coinage inKashgar,Yarkand,andKhotan.According to Chinese chronicles, the Kushans (referred to asDa Yuezhiin Chinese sources) requested, but were denied, aHanprincess, even though they had sent presents to the Chinese court. In retaliation, they marched on Ban Chao in AD 90 with a force of 70,000 but were defeated by the smaller Chinese force. Chinese chronicles relate battles between the Kushans and the Chinese generalBan Chao.The Yuezhi retreated and paid tribute to the Chinese Empire. The regions of the Tarim Basin were all ultimately conquered byBan Chao.Later, during theYuánchūperiod (AD 114–120), the Kushans sent a military force to install Chenpan, who had been a hostage among them, as king ofKashgar.

Kushan fortresses

Several Kushan fortresses are known, particularly inBactria,which were often rebuilt on top ofHellenisticfortifications, as inKampir Tepe.They are often characterised by arrow-shapedloopholesfor archers.

• 
  The Kushan fortress ofKampir Tepe
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  The fortress ofAyaz Kala
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  The fortress of Shahr-e Zuhak.
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  The temple and fortress ofSurkh Kotal

History

Kushan rulers are recorded for a period of about three centuries, from circa 30 CE to circa 375 CE, until the invasions of theKidarites.They ruled around the same time as theWestern Satraps,theSatavahanas,and the firstGupta Empirerulers.

Kujula Kadphises (c. 30 – c. 80)

Main article:Kujula Kadphises

...the prince [elavoor] of Guishuang, named thilac [Kujula Kadphises], attacked and exterminated the four other xihou. He established himself as king, and his dynasty was called that of the Guishuang [Kushan] King. He invaded Anxi [Indo-Parthia] and took the Gaofu [Kabul] region. He also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puda [Paktiya] and Jibin [Kapisha and Gandhara]. Qiujiuque [Kujula Kadphises] was more than eighty years old when he died. "

— Hou Hanshu

These conquests byKujula Kadphisesprobably took place sometime between AD 45 and 60 and laid the basis for the Kushan Empire which was rapidly expanded by his descendants.

Kujula issued an extensive series of coins and fathered at least two sons,Sadaṣkaṇa(who is known from only two inscriptions, especially the Rabatak inscription, and apparently never ruled), and seemingly Vima Takto.

Kujula Kadphises was the great-grandfather of Kanishka.

Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (c. 80 – c. 95)

Main article:Vima Takto

Vima Takto(Ancient Chinese: Diêm cao trânYangaozhen) is mentioned in the Rabatak inscription (another son, Sadashkana, is mentioned in an inscription of Senavarman, the King of Odi). He was the predecessor of Vima Kadphises, and Kanishka I. He expanded the Kushan Empire into the northwest of South Asia. The Hou Hanshu says:

"His son, Yangaozhen [probably Vema Tahk (tu) or, possibly, his brother Sadaṣkaṇa], became king in his place. He defeated Tianzhu [North-western India] and installed Generals to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then became extremely rich. All the kingdoms call [their king] the Guishuang [Kushan] king, but the Han call them by their original name, Da Yuezhi."

— Hou Hanshu

Vima Kadphises (c. 95 – c. 127)

Main article:Vima Kadphises

Vima Kadphises(Kushan language: Οοημο Καδφισης) was a Kushan emperor from around AD 95–127, the son of Sadashkana and the grandson of Kujula Kadphises, and the father of Kanishka I, as detailed by the Rabatak inscription.

Vima Kadphises added to the Kushan territory by his conquests in Bactria. He issued an extensive series of coins and inscriptions. He issued gold coins in addition to the existing copper and silver coinage.

Kanishka I (c. 127 – c. 150)

Main article:Kanishka

Mathura statue of Kanishka

Statue ofKanishkain long coat and boots, holding amaceand asword,in theMathura Museum.An inscription runs along the bottom of the coat.

The inscription is in middleBrahmi script:

Mahārāja Rājadhirāja Devaputra Kāṇiṣka
"The Great King, King of Kings, Son of God, Kanishka".
Mathura art,Mathura Museum

The rule ofKanishka the Great,fourth Kushan king, lasted for about 23 years from c. AD 127.Upon his accession, Kanishka ruled a huge territory (virtually all of northern India), south to Ujjain and Kundina and east beyond Pataliputra, according to the Rabatak inscription:

In the year one, it has been proclaimed unto India, unto the whole realm of the governing class, including Koonadeano (Kaundiny,Kundina) and the city of Ozeno (Ozene,Ujjain) and the city of Zageda (Saketa) and the city of Kozambo (Kausambi) and the city of Palabotro (Pataliputra) and as far as the city of Ziri-tambo (Sri-Champa), whatever rulers and other important persons (they might have) he had submitted to (his) will, and he had submitted all India to (his) will.

— Rabatak inscription, Lines 4–8

His territory was administered from two capitals: Purushapura (nowPeshawarin northwesternPakistan) andMathura,in northern India. He is also credited (along withRaja Dab) for building the massive, ancientFort at Bathinda(Qila Mubarak), in the modern city ofBathinda,IndianPunjab.

The Kushans also had a summer capital inBagram(then known as Kapisa), where the "Begram Treasure", comprising works of art from Greece to China, has been found. According to the Rabatak inscription, Kanishka was the son of Vima Kadphises, the grandson of Sadashkana, and the great-grandson of Kujula Kadphises. Kanishka's era is now generally accepted to have begun in 127 on the basis of Harry Falk's ground-breaking research.Kanishka's era was used as a calendar reference by the Kushans for about a century, until the decline of the Kushan realm.

Huvishka (c. 150 – c. 180)

Main article:Huvishka

Huvishka(Kushan: Οοηϸκι, "Ooishki" ) was a Kushan emperor from the death of Kanishka (assumed on the best evidence available to be in 150) until the succession ofVasudeva Iabout thirty years later. His rule was a period of retrenchment and consolidation for the Empire. In particular he devoted time and effort early in his reign to the exertion of greater control over the city of Mathura.

Vasudeva I (c. 190 – c. 230)

Main article:Vasudeva I

Vasudeva I(Kushan: Βαζοδηο "Bazodeo", Chinese: Sóng điều "Bo điểu" ) was the last of the "Great Kushans". Named inscriptions dating from year 64 to 98 of Kanishka's era suggest his reign extended from at least AD 191 to 225. He was the last great Kushan emperor, and the end of his rule coincides with the invasion of theSasaniansas far as northwestern India, and the establishment of theIndo-SasaniansorKushanshahsin what is nowadays Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India from around AD 240.

South Asia
350 CE

YAUDHEYAS

ARJUNAYANAS

MADRAKAS

MALAVAS

ANDHRA IKSHVAKUS

KALABHRAS

WESTERN
GANGAS

TOCHARIANS

KADAMBAS

PALLAVAS

LITTLE
KUSHANS

LICCHAVIS

WESTERN
SATRAPS

SASANIAN
HIND

NAGAS

KAMARUPA

GAUDA

SAMATATAS

DAVAKA

KIDARITES

ABHIRAS

VAKATAKAS

GUPTA
EMPIRE

KUSHANO-
SASANIANS

SAKASTAN

TURAN

MAKRAN

SASANIAN
EMPIRE

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Location of the Little Kushans in the northwestern part of the subcontinent, and contemporary South Asian polities circa 350 CE.

Vāsishka (c. 247 – c. 267)

Main article:Vāsishka

Vāsishkawas a Kushan emperor who seems to have had a 20-year reign followingKanishka II.His rule is recorded atMathura,inGandharaand as far south as Sanchi (nearVidisa), where several inscriptions in his name have been found, dated to the year 22 (the Sanchi inscription of "Vaksushana" – i.e., Vasishka Kushana) and year 28 (the Sanchi inscription of Vasaska – i.e., Vasishka) of a possible second Kanishka era.

Little Kushans (AD 270 – 350)

Following territory losses in the west (Bactrialost to theKushano-Sasanians), and in the east (loss ofMathurato theGupta Empire), several "Little Kushans" are known, who ruled locally in the area ofPunjabwith their capital atTaxila:Vasudeva II(270 – 300),Mahi(300 – 305),Shaka(305 – 335) andKipunada(335 – 350).They probably were vassals of theGupta Empire,until the invasion of theKidaritesdestroyed the last remains of Kushan rule.

Kushan deities

Kumara/Kartikeyawith a Kushan devotee, 2nd century AD

Kushan prince, said to beHuvishka,making a donation to aBoddhisattva.

ShivaLingaworshipped by Kushan devotees, circa 2nd century AD

The Kushan religiouspantheonis extremely varied, as revealed by their coins that were made in gold, silver, and copper. These coins contained more than thirty different gods, belonging mainly to their own Iranian, as well as Greek and Indian worlds as well. Kushan coins had images of Kushan Kings, Buddha, and figures from the Indo-Aryan and Iranian pantheons.Greek deities, with Greek names are represented on early coins. During Kanishka's reign, the language of the coinage changes toBactrian(though it remained in Greek script for all kings). After Huvishka, only two divinities appear on the coins:ArdoxshoandOesho(see details below).

The Iranian entities depicted on coinage include:

• Ardoxsho(Αρδοχþο):Ashi Vanghuhi
• Ashaeixsho(Aþαειχþo, "Best righteousness" ):Asha Vahishta
• Athsho(Αθþο, "The Royal fire" ):Atar
• Pharro(Φαρρο, "Royal splendour" ):Khwarenah
• Lrooaspa(Λροοασπο):Drvaspa
• Manaobago(Μαναοβαγο):Vohu Manah
• Mao(Μαο, the Lunar deity):Mah
• Mithroand variants (Μιθρο, Μιιρο, Μιορο, Μιυρο):Mithra
• Mozdooano(Μοζδοοανο, "Mazda the victorious?" ):Mazda *vana
• Nana(Νανα, Ναναια, Ναναϸαο): variations of pan-AsiaticNana,SogdianNny,Anahita
• Oado(Οαδο):Vata
• Oaxsho(Oαxþo): "Oxus"
• Ooromozdo(Οορομοζδο):Ahura Mazda
• Ořlagno(Οραλαγνο):Verethragna,the Iranian god of war
• Rishti(Ριϸτι, "Uprightness" ):Arshtat
• Shaoreoro(Ϸαορηορο, "Best royal power", Archetypal ruler):Khshathra Vairya
• Tiero(Τιερο):Tir

Representation of entities from Greek mythology and Hellenistic syncretism are:

• Zaoou(Ζαοου):Zeus
• Ēlios(Ηλιος):Helios
• Ēphaēstos(Ηφαηστος):Hephaistos
• Oa nēndo(Οα νηνδο):Nike
• Salēnē(Ϲαληνη):Selene
• Anēmos(Ανημος):Anemos
• Ērakilo(Ηρακιλο):Heracles
• Sarapo(Ϲαραπο): the Greco-Egyptian godSarapis

The Indic entities represented on coinage include:

• Boddo(Βοδδο): theBuddha
• Shakamano Boddho(Ϸακαμανο Βοδδο):Shakyamuni Buddha
• Metrago Boddo(Μετραγο Βοδδο): the bodhisattavaMaitreya
• Maaseno(Μαασηνο):Mahāsena
• Skando-Komaro(Σκανδο-kομαρο):Skanda-Kumara
• Bizago:Viśākha
• Ommo:Umā,the consort of Siva.
• Oesho(Οηϸο): long considered to represent IndicShiva,but also identified asAvestanVayuconflated with Shiva.
• Two copper coins of Huvishka bear a "Ganesa" legend, but instead of depicting the typicaltheriomorphicfigure ofGanesha,have a figure of an archer holding a full-length bow with string inwards and an arrow. This is typically a depiction ofRudra,but in the case of these two coins is generally assumed to represent Shiva.

Images of Kushan worshippers

• 
  Kushan worshipper with Zeus/Serapis/Ohrmazd, Bactria, 3rd century AD.
• 
  Kushan worshipper withPharro,Bactria, 3rd century AD.
• 
  Kushan worshipper with Shiva/Oesho, Bactria, 3rd century AD.
• 
  Shiva-Oesho wall painting with fragment of a worshipper, Bactria, 3rd century AD.

• Deities on Kushan coinage and seals
• 
  Mahasena on a coin of Huvishka
• 
  Four-faced Oesho
• 
  Rishti or Riom
• 
  Manaobago
• 
  Pharro
• 
  Ardochsho
• 
  Oesho or Shiva
• 
  Oesho or Shiva with bull
• 
  Skanda and Visakha
• 
  KushanCarnelianseal representing the "ΑΔϷΟ" (adshoAtar), withtriratanasymbol left, and Kanishka the Great's dynastic mark right
• 
  Coin ofKanishka I,with a depiction of theBuddhaand legend "Boddo" in Greek script
• 
  Herakles.
• 
  Buddha
• 
  Coin ofVima Kadphises.DeityOeshoon the reverse, thought to beShiva,or the ZoroastrianVayu.

Kushans and Buddhism

TheAhin Poshstupa was dedicated in the 2nd century AD under the Kushans, and contained coins of Kushan and Roman Emperors.

Early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee,Maitreya,theBuddha,Avalokitesvara,and a Buddhist monk. 2nd–3rd century,Shotorak.

The Kushans inherited theGreco-Buddhisttraditions of theIndo-Greek Kingdomthey replaced, and their patronage of Buddhist institutions allowed them to grow as a commercial power.Between the mid-1st century and the mid-3rd century, Buddhism, patronised by the Kushans, extended to China and other Asian countries through theSilk Road.

Kanishka is renowned in Buddhist tradition for having convened agreat Buddhist councilinKashmir.Along with his predecessors in the region, the Indo-Greek kingMenander I(Milinda) and the Indian emperorsAshokaandHarsha Vardhana,Kanishka is considered by Buddhism as one of its greatest benefactors.

During the 1st century AD, Buddhist books were being produced and carried by monks, and their trader patrons. Also, monasteries were being established along these land routes that went from China and other parts of Asia. With the development of Buddhist books, it caused a new written language called Gandhara. Gandhara consists of eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. Scholars are said to have found many Buddhist scrolls that contained the Gandhari language.

The reign of Huvishka corresponds to the first known epigraphic evidence of the BuddhaAmitabha,on the bottom part of a 2nd-century statue which has been found in Govindo-Nagar, and now at theMathuraMuseum. The statue is dated to "the 28th year of the reign of Huvishka", and dedicated to "Amitabha Buddha" by a family of merchants. There is also some evidence that Huvishka himself was a follower ofMahayanaBuddhism. ASanskritmanuscript fragment in theSchøyen Collectiondescribes Huvishka as one who has "set forth in the Mahāyāna."

The 12th century historical chronicleRajataranginimentions in detail the rule of the Kushan kings and their benevolence towards Buddhism:

Then there ruled in this very land the founders of cities called after their own appellations the three kings namedHuska,JuskaandKaniska(...) These kings albeit belonging to the Turkish race found refuge in acts of piety; they constructed in Suskaletra and other placesmonasteries,Caityasand similar edificies. During the glorious period of their regime the kingdom ofKashmirwas for the most part an appanage of the Buddhists who had acquired lustre by renunciation. At this time since the Nirvana of the blessedSakya Simhain this terrestrial world one hundred fifty years, it is said, had elapsed. And a Bodhisattva was in this country the sole supreme ruler of the land; he was the illustriousNagarjunawho dwelt in Sadarhadvana.

— Rajatarangini(I168-I173)

Kushan art

Main articles:Kushan art,Greco-Buddhist art,andArt of Mathura

Portrait of a Kushan prince fromKhalchayan(left), and head of a GandharaBodhisattava(right), said to have similar characteristics (Philadelphia Museum of Art).

The art and culture of Gandhara, at the crossroads of the Kushan hegemony, developed the traditions ofGreco-Buddhist artand are the best known expressions of Kushan influences to Westerners. Several direct depictions of Kushans are known from Gandhara, where they are represented with a tunic, belt and trousers and play the role of devotees to the Buddha, as well as theBodhisattvaand future Buddha Maitreya.

According to Benjamin Rowland, the first expression of Kushan art appears atKhalchayanat the end of the 2nd century BC.It is derived fromHellenistic art,and possibly from the art of the cities ofAi-KhanoumandNysa,and clearly has similarities with the laterArt of Gandhara,and may even have been at the origin of its development.Rowland particularly draws attention to the similarity of the ethnic types represented at Khalchayan and in the art of Gandhara, and also in the style of portraiture itself.For example, Rowland find a great proximity betweenthe famous head of a Yuezhi princefrom Khalchayan, and the head of GandharanBodhisattvas,giving the example of the Gandharan head of a Bodhisattva in thePhiladelphia Museum of Art.The similarity of the Gandhara Bodhisattva with the portrait of the Kushan rulerHeraiosis also striking.According to Rowland the Bactrian art of Khalchayan thus survived for several centuries through its influence in the art of Gandhara, thanks to the patronage of theKushans.

During the Kushan Empire, many images ofGandharashare a strong resemblance to the features of Greek, Syrian, Persian and Indian figures. These Western-looking stylistic signatures often include heavy drapery and curly hair,representing a composite (the Greeks, for example, often possessed curly hair).

As the Kushans took control of the area ofMathuraas well, theArt of Mathuradeveloped considerably, and free-standing statues of theBuddhacame to be mass-produced around this time, possibly encouraged by doctrinal changes in Buddhism allowing to depart from theaniconismthat had prevailed in the Buddhist sculptures at Mathura,BharhutorSanchifrom the end of the 2nd century BC.The artistic cultural influence of kushans declined slowly due to Hellenistic Greek and Indian influences.

• Dated Buddhist statuary under the Kushans
• 
  Kanishka I:
  KosambiBodhisattva, inscribed "Year 2 of Kanishka" (AD 129).
• 
  Kanishka I:
  Bala Bodhisattva,Sarnath,inscribed "Year 3 of Kanishka" (AD 130).
• 
  Kanishka I:
  Kimbell seated Bodhisattva,with inscription "Year 4 of Kanishka" (AD 131).Another similar statue has "Year 32 of Kanishka".
• 
  Kanishka I:
  Buddha fromLoriyan Tangaiwith inscription mentioning the "year 318" of theYavana era(AD 143).
• 
  Vasudeva I:
  HashtnagarBuddha and its piedestal, inscribed with "year 384" of theYavana era(c. AD 209).
• 
  Vasudeva I:
  Mamane Dheri Buddha, inscribed with "Year 89", probably of theKanishkaera (AD 216).
• 
  Kanishka II:
  Statue ofHaritifrom Skarah Dheri,Gandhara,"Year 399" of the Yavana era (AD 244).

Kushan monetary system

Main article:Kushan coinage

Kushan gold ingots, from theDalverzin Tepetreasure, 1st century CE

The Kushans used gold ingots as part of their monetary system, as shown by the gold treasure discovered in 1972 inDalverzin Tepe.The main objects from the treasure were circular and parallelepipedic ingots, followed by various decorative objects and jewellery items.The circular ingots used to be progressively cut up as needed, depending on the amount required for a transaction.On the contrary, the parallelepipedic ingots were used to stock wealth in a not-divisible form; these ingots bear inscriptions inKharoshthimentioning their weight and the godMitra(protector of contractual relations)These ingots are all attributed to the monetary system of the Kushan Empire.

The coinage of the Kushans was abundant and an important tool of propaganda in promoting each Kushan ruler.One of the names for Kushan coins wasDinara,which ultimately came from the Roman nameDenariusaureus.The coinage of the Kushans was copied as far as theKushano-Sasaniansin the west, and the kingdom ofSamatatainBengalto the east. The coinage of theGupta Empirewas also initially derived from the coinage of the Kushan Empire, adopting its weight standard, techniques and designs, following the conquests ofSamudraguptain the northwest.The imagery on Gupta coins then became more Indian in both style and subject matter compared to earlier dynasties, where Greco-Roman and Persian styles were mostly followed.

It has long been suggested that the gold contained in Kushan coins was ultimately of Roman origin, and that Roman coins were imported as a consequence of trade and melted in India to mint Kushan coins. However, a recentarchaeometallurgical studyof trace elements through proton activation analysis has shown that Kushan gold contains high concentrations ofplatinumandpalladium,which rules out the hypothesis of a Roman provenance. To this day, the origin of Kushan gold remains unknown.

Contacts with Rome

Main article:Indo-Roman trade relations

Roman coinage among the Kushans

Coin of the Roman EmperorTrajan,found together with coins of Kanishka the Great at theAhin PoshMonastery

Kushan ring with inscription in theBrahmi script,with portraits of Roman rulersSeptimus SeverusandJulia Domna

Indian imitation of a coin of Septimius Severus. AD 193-211

Several Roman sources describe the visit of ambassadors from the Kings of Bactria and India during the 2nd century, probably referring to the Kushans.

Historia Augusta,speaking ofEmperor Hadrian(117–138) tells:

Greco-Romangladiatoron a glass vessel, Begram, 2nd century

Reges Bactrianorum legatos ad eum, amicitiae petendae causa, supplices miserunt "The kings of the Bactrians sent supplicant ambassadors to him, to seek his friendship."

Also in 138, according toAurelius Victor(Epitome‚ XV, 4), andAppian(Praef.,7),Antoninus Pius,successor to Hadrian, received some Indian, Bactrian, andHyrcanianambassadors.

Some Kushan coins have an effigy of "Roma", suggesting a strong level of awareness and some level of diplomatic relations.

The summer capital of the Kushan Empire in Begram has yielded a considerable amount of goods imported from the Roman Empire—in particular, various types of glassware. The Chinese described the presence of Roman goods in the Kushan realm:

"Precious things fromDa Qin[the Roman Empire] can be found there [in Tianzhu or Northwestern India], as well as finecottoncloths, fine wool carpets, perfumes of all sorts,sugar candy,pepper,ginger,and black salt. "

— Hou Hanshu

Parthamaspates of Parthia,a client of Rome and ruler of the kingdom ofOsroene,is known to have traded with the Kushan Empire, goods being sent by sea and through theIndus River.

Contacts with China

100

WESTERN
SATRAPS

INDO-
PARTHIANS

SABEANS

Sargat

Shule

MEROË

AKSUM

KUCHA

WUSUN

Jushi

LOULAN

Ordos
culture

DONGHU

Tashtyk

Kokel

KANGJU

Khotan

Dinlings

Sarmatians

ROMAN
EMPIRE

PARTHIAN
EMPIRE

KUSHAN
EMPIRE

SATAVA-
HANAS

FUNAN

HAN
DYNASTY

XIONGNU

class=notpageimage|

The Kushan Empire and contemporary polities in continental Asia circa 100 AD.

During the 1st and 2nd century AD, the Kushan Empire expanded militarily to the north, putting them at the center of the profitable Central Asian commerce. They are related to have collaborated militarily with the Chinese against nomadic incursion, particularly when they allied with theHan dynastygeneralBan Chaoagainst the Sogdians in 84, when the latter were trying to support a revolt by the king of Kashgar.Around 85, they also assisted the Chinese general in an attack onTurpan,east of the Tarim Basin.

Kushan coinage in China

A bronze coin of Kanishka the Great found inKhotan,Tarim Basin.

Eastern Haninscriptions on lead ingot, using barbarous Greek Alpha bet in the style of theKushans,excavated inShaanxi,1st–2nd century AD.Gansu Provincial Museum.

In recognition for their support to the Chinese, the Kushans requested a Han princess, but were denied,even after they had sent presents to the Chinese court. In retaliation, they marched on Ban Chao in 86 with a force of 70,000, but were defeated by a smaller Chinese force.The Yuezhi retreated and paid tribute to the Chinese Empire during the reign of emperorHe of Han(89–106).

The Kushans are again recorded to have sent presents to the Chinese court in 158–159 during the reign ofEmperor Huan of Han.

Following these interactions, cultural exchanges further increased, and Kushan Buddhist missionaries, such asLokaksema,became active in the Chinese capital cities ofLuoyangand sometimesNanjing,where they particularly distinguished themselves by their translation work. They were the first recorded promoters of Hinayana and Mahayana scriptures in China, greatly contributing to theSilk Road transmission of Buddhism.

Decline

Kushano-Sassanians

Main article:Kushano-Sasanians

Sasanian control of the Western Kushans

Hormizd I Kushanshah(AD 277–286), king of theIndo-Sasanians,maintainedSasanianrule in former Kushan territories of the northwest.Naqsh-e RustamBahram IIpanel.

The Kushano-Sasanians imitated the Kushans in some of their Bactrian coinage. Coin of Sasanian rulerPeroz I Kushanshah,withBactrianlegend around "Peroz the Great Kushan King"

After the death ofVasudeva Iin 225, the Kushan empire split into western and eastern halves. The Western Kushans (in Afghanistan) were soon subjugated by the PersianSasanian Empireand lostSogdiana,Bactria,andGandharato them. The Sassanian kingShapur I(240–270) claims in hisNaqsh-e Rostaminscription possession of the territory of the Kushans (Kūšān šahr) as far as "Purushapura" (Peshawar), suggesting he controlledBactriaand areas as far as theHindu-Kushor even south of it:

I, the Mazda-worshipping lord, Shapur, king of kings of Iran and An-Iran... (I) am the Master of the Domain of Iran (Ērānšahr) and possess the territory of Persis, Parthian... Hindestan, the Domain of the Kushan up to the limits of Paškabur and up to Kash, Sughd, and Chachestan.

— Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht,Naqsh-e Rostam

This is also confirmed by theRag-i-Bibiinscription in modernAfghanistan.

The Sasanians deposed the Western dynasty and replaced them with Persian vassals known as theKushanshas(inBactrianon their coinage: KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟKoshano Shao)also calledIndo-SasaniansorKushano-Sasanians.The Kushano-Sasanians ultimately became very powerful underHormizd I Kushanshah(277–286) and rebelled against the Sasanian Empire, while continuing many aspects of the Kushan culture, visible in particular in their titulature and their coinage.

"Little Kushans" and Gupta suzerainty

Gupta control over the Eastern Kushans

The expressionDevaputra Shāhi Shāhānu Shāhiin MiddleBrahmiin theAllahabad pillar(Line 23), claimed bySamudraguptato be under his dominion.

Coin minted in thePunjabarea with the name "Samudra" (Sa-mu-dra), thought to be the Gupta rulerSamudragupta.These coins imitate those of the last Kushan rulerKipunada,and precede the coinage of the firstKidarite Hunsin northwestern India. Circa 350-375.

The Eastern Kushan kingdom, also known as the "Little Kushans", was based in the Punjab. Around 270 their territories on the Gangetic plain became independent under local dynasties such as theYaudheyas.Then in the mid-4th century they were subjugated by the Gupta Empire underSamudragupta.In his inscription on theAllahabad pillarSamudragupta proclaims that theDēvaputra-Shāhi-Shāhānushāhi(referring to the last Kushan rulers, being a deformation of the Kushan regnal titlesDevaputra,ShaoandShaonanoshao:"Son of God, King, King of Kings" ) are now under his dominion, and that they were forced to "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces".This suggests that by the time of the Allahabad inscription the Kushans still ruled inPunjab,but under the suzerainty of the Gupta Emperor.

Numimastics indicate that the coinage of the Eastern Kushans was much weakened: silver coinage was abandoned altogether, and gold coinage was debased. This suggests that the Eastern Kushans had lost their central trading role on the trade routes that supplied luxury goods andgold.Still, theBuddhist art of Gandharacontinued to flourish, and cities such asSirsukhnearTaxilawere established.

Sasanian, Kidarite and Alchon invasions

Main articles:Sasanian Empire,Kidarites,andAlchon Huns

In the east around 350, Shapur II regained the upper hand against theKushano-Sasanian Kingdomand took control of large territories in areas now known asAfghanistanandPakistan,possibly as a consequence of the destruction of the Kushano-Sasanians by theChionites.The Kushano-Sasanian still ruled in the north. Important finds of Sasanian coinage beyond theIndus Riverin the city ofTaxilaonly start with the reigns of Shapur II (r.309-379) andShapur III(r.383-388), suggesting that the expansion of Sasanian control beyond the Indus was the result of the wars of Shapur II "with theChionitesand Kushans "in 350-358 as described byAmmianus Marcellinus.They probably maintained control until the rise of theKidaritesunder their rulerKidara.

In 360 aKidarite HunnamedKidaraoverthrew theKushano-Sasaniansand remnants of the old Kushan dynasty, and established theKidarite Kingdom.The Kushan style of Kidarite coins indicates they claimed Kushan heritage. The Kidarite seem to have been rather prosperous, although on a smaller scale than their Kushan predecessors. East of thePunjab,the former eastern territories of the Kushans were controlled by the mightyGupta Empire.

The remnants of Kushan culture under the Kidarites in the northwest were ultimately wiped out in the end of the 5th century by the invasions of theAlchon Huns(sometimes considered as a branch of theHephthalites), and later theNezak Huns.

Rulers

One of the most recent list of rulers with dates is as follows:

• Heraios(c. 1– 30), first king to call himself "Kushan" on his coinage

"Great Kushans";

• Kujula Kadphises(c. 50– c. 90)
• Vima Takto(c. 90– c. 113), alias Soter Megas or "Great Saviour."
• Vima Kadphises(c. 113– c. 127) First great Kushan Emperor
• Kanishka the Great(127 –c. 151)
• Huvishka(c. 151– c. 190)
• Vasudeva I(c. 190– c. 230) Last great Kushan Emperor
• Kanishka II(c. 230– 247)
• Vashishka(c. 247– 267)

"Little Kushans";

• Kanishka III(c. 267– 270)
• Vasudeva II(c. 270– 300)
• Mahi(c. 300– 305)
• Shaka(c. 305– 335)
• Kipunada(c. 335– 350)

See also

• History of Afghanistan
• History of Pakistan
• History of India
• Mathura
• Taxila
• Kucha,another Tocharian-speaking kingdom (witha related etymology)
• Iranians in China
• Kushan script

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Further reading

• Bonmann, Svenja; Halfmann, Jakob; Korobzow, Natalie; Bobomulloev, Bobomullo (12 July 2023)."A Partial Decipherment of the Unknown Kushan Script".Transactions of the Philological Society.121(2): 293–329.doi:10.1111/1467-968X.12269.S2CID259851498.

External links

• Kushan dynastyinEncyclopædia Britannica
• Metropolitan Museum capsule history
• New documents help fix controversial Kushan datingat theWayback Machine(archived 4 February 2005)
• Coins of the Kushans on wildwinds
• Antique Indian Coinsat theLibrary of CongressWeb Archives (archived 7 February 2013)
• Brief Guide to Kushan HistoryArchived25 September 2004 at theWayback Machine
• The CoinIndia Online Catalogue of Kushan Coins
• Dedicated resource to study of Kushan EmpireArchived25 September 2004 at theWayback Machine
• imalayan and Central Asian Studies: Journal of Himalayan Research and Cultural Foundation Volume 5 Issue 2