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Lakota people

For other uses, seeLakota.

TheLakota([laˈkˣota];Lakota:Lakȟóta/Lakhóta) are aNative Americanpeople. Also known as theTeton Sioux(fromThítȟuŋwaŋ), they are one of the three prominentsubculturesof theSiouxpeople, with the Eastern Dakota (Santee) and Western Dakota (Wičhíyena). Their current lands are inNorthandSouth Dakota.They speakLakȟótiyapi—the Lakota language,the westernmost of three closely related languages that belong to theSiouan languagefamily.

Lakota
Sitting Bull,aHunkpapaLakota chief andholy man,c. 1831– December 15, 1890
Total population
115,000+ enrolled members[1][2][3][4][5](2015 census)
Regions with significant populations
United States
(North DakotaandSouth Dakota)
Canada
(ManitobaandSaskatchewan)
Languages
English,Lakota
Religion
Wocekiye,Lakota religion
Related ethnic groups
OtherSiouxpeoples (Santee,Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate,Yankton,Yanktonai)[6]
Lakota
transl.  "ally" or "friend"
PeopleLakȟóta Oyáte
LanguageLakȟótiyapi
Wíyutȟapi
CountryLakȟóta Makóce,Očhéthi Šakówiŋ

The seven bands or "sub-tribes" of the Lakota are:

Notable Lakota persons include Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake (Sitting Bull) from the Húnkpapȟa, Maȟpíya Ičáȟtagya (Touch the Clouds) from the Miniconjou; Heȟáka Sápa (Black Elk), Maȟpíya Lúta (Red Cloud), and Tamakhóčhe Theȟíla (Billy Mills) - all Oglála; Tȟašúŋke Witkó (Crazy Horse) from the Oglála and Miniconjou, and Siŋté Glešká (Spotted Tail) from the Brulé. Activists from the late twentieth century to present includeRussell Means(Oglála), andWilliam Hawk Birdshead(Hunkpapa, Oglala, Cheyenne, and Arapaho)

History

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Scenes of battle and horse raiding decorate amuslinLakotatipifrom the late 19th or early 20th century

Siouan languagespeakers may have originated in the lowerMississippi Riverregion and then migrated to or originated in theOhio Valley.They were agriculturalists and may have been part of theMound Builder civilizationduring the 9th–12th centuries CE.[7]Lakota legend and other sources state they originally lived near theGreat Lakes: "The tribes of the Dakota before European contact in the 1600s lived in the region aroundLake Superior.In this forest environment, they lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild rice. They also grew some corn, but their locale was near the limit of where corn could be grown. "[8]

In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Dakota-Lakota speakers lived in the upper Mississippi Region in territory now organized as the states ofMinnesota,Wisconsin,Iowa,andthe Dakotas.Conflicts withAnishnaabeandCree peoplespushed the Lakota west onto theGreat Plainsin the mid- to late-17th century.[7]

Early Lakota history is recorded in theirwinter counts(Lakota:waníyetu wówapi), pictorial calendars painted on hides, or later recorded on paper. The 'Battiste Good winter count' records Lakota history to 900 CE whenWhite Buffalo Calf Womangave the Lakota people the White Buffalo Calf Pipe.[9]

Around 1730Cheyenne peopleintroduced the Lakota tohorses,[10]which they calledšuŋkawakaŋ( "dog [of] power/mystery/wonder" ). After they adoptedhorse culture,Lakota society centered on thebuffalohunt on horseback. In 1660 French explorers estimated the total population of the Sioux (Lakota,Santee,Yankton,andYanktonai) at 28,000.

The Lakota population was estimated at 8,500 in 1805; it grew steadily and reached 16,110 in 1881. They were one of the few Native American tribes to increase in population in the 19th century, a time of widespread disease and warfare. By 2010 the number of Lakota had increased to more than 170,000,[11]of whom about 2,000 still spoke theLakota language (Lakȟótiyapi).[12]

After 1720, the Lakota branch of the Seven Council Fires split into two major sects, the Saône, who moved to theLake Traversearea on the South Dakota–North Dakota–Minnesota border, and the Oglála-Sičháŋǧu, who occupied theJames Rivervalley. However, by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of theMissouri River,followed 10 years later by the Oglála and Brulé (Sičháŋǧu).

The large and powerfulArikara,Mandan,andHidatsavillages had long prevented the Lakota from crossing theMissouri River.However, the greatsmallpoxepidemicof 1772–1780 destroyed three-quarters of the members of these tribes. The Lakota crossed the river into the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains. These newcomers were the Saône, well-mounted and increasingly confident, who spread out quickly. In 1765, a Saône exploring and raiding party led by ChiefStanding Beardiscovered theBlack Hills(thePaha Sapa), then the territory of theCheyenne.[13]Ten years later, the Oglála and Brulé also crossed the Missouri. Under pressure from the Lakota, the Cheyenne moved west to the Powder River country.[10]The Lakota made the Black Hills their home.

Native peace commissioners in council with the Northern Cheyenne and Northern Arapaho, Fort Laramie, Wyoming

Initial United States contact with the Lakota during theLewis and Clark Expeditionof 1804–1806 was marked by a standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow the explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, which never came.[14]

Some bands of Lakota became the first indigenous people to help the United States Army in an inter-tribal war west of the Missouri, during theArikara Warin 1823.[15]

In 1843, the southern Lakota attacked the village of Pawnee Chief Blue Coat near theLoupin Nebraska, killing many and burning half of the earth lodges.[16]The next time the Lakota inflicted a blow so severe to the Pawnee would be in 1873, during theMassacre Canyonbattle near Republican River.[17]

Lakota 1851 treaty territory (Area 408, 516, 584, 597, 598 and 632)

Nearly half a century later, after the United States had builtFort Laramiewithout permission on Lakota land, it negotiated theFort Laramie Treaty of 1851to protect European-American travelers on theOregon Trail.The Cheyenne and Lakota had previously attacked emigrant parties in a competition for resources, and also because some settlers had encroached on their lands.[18]The Fort Laramie Treaty acknowledged Lakota sovereignty over theGreat Plainsin exchange for free passage for European Americans on theOregon Trailfor "as long as the river flows and the eagle flies".[19]

The U.S. government did not enforce the treaty restriction against unauthorized settlement, and Lakota and other bands attacked settlers and even emigrant trains as part of their resistance to this encroachment. Public pressure increased for the U.S. Army to punish them. On September 3, 1855, 700 soldiers under U.S. Brevet Major GeneralWilliam S. Harneyavenged theGrattan massacreby attacking a Lakota village inNebraska,killing about 100 men, women, and children. A series of short "wars" followed, and in 1862–1864, as Native American refugees from the "Dakota War of 1862"in Minnesota fled west to their allies inMontanaand Dakota Territory. After theAmerican Civil Warincreasing illegal settlement by whites on the Plains resulted in war again with the Lakota.

The Black Hills were considered sacred by the Lakota, and they objected tomining.Between 1866 and 1868 the U.S. Army fought the Lakota and their allies along theBozeman Trailover U.S. forts built to protect miners traveling along the trail. Oglala Chief Red Cloud led his people to victory inRed Cloud's War.In 1868, the United States signed theFort Laramie Treaty of 1868,exempting the Black Hills from all white settlement forever. But four years latergoldwas discovered there, and prospectors descended on the area.

The Lakota attacks on settlers and miners were met by military force conducted by such army commanders as Lieutenant ColonelGeorge Armstrong Custer.GeneralPhilip Sheridanencouraged his troops to hunt and kill the buffalo as a means of "destroying the Indians' commissary."[20]

The allied Lakota andArapahobands and the unifiedNorthern Cheyennewere involved in much of the warfare after 1860. They fought a successful delaying action against GeneralGeorge Crook's army at theBattle of the Rosebud,preventing Crook from locating and attacking their camp.

A week later they defeated theU.S. 7th Cavalryin 1876 at theBattle of the Little Bighornat theCrow Indian Reservation(1868 boundaries).[21]Custer attacked an encampment of several tribes, which was much larger than he realized. Their combined forces, led by ChiefCrazy Horse,killed 258 soldiers, wiping out the entire Custer battalion and inflicting more than 50% casualties on the regiment.

Although the Lakota beat Custer's army, the Lakota and their allies did not get to enjoy their victory over the U.S. Army for long. The U.S. Congress authorized funds to expand the army by 2,500 men. The reinforced U.S. Army defeated the Lakota bands in a series of battles, finally ending theGreat Sioux Warin 1877. The Lakota were eventually confined to reservations, prevented from hunting buffalo beyond those territories, and forced to accept government food distribution. They were largely distributed amongst North and South Dakota, as well as other places around the United States.[22]

January 17, 1891:They Even Fear His Horsesat camp of Oglala band of Lakota atPine Ridge, South Dakota,3 weeks after theWounded Knee Massacre,when 153 Lakota Sioux and 25 U.S. soldiers died
Oglala Sioux tribal flag

In 1877, some of the Lakota bands signed a treaty that ceded the Black Hills to the United States; however, the nature of this treaty and its passage were controversial. The number of Lakota leaders who backed the treaty is highly disputed. Low-intensity conflicts continued in the Black Hills. Fourteen years later,Sitting Bullwas killed atStanding Rockreservation on December 15, 1890. The U.S. Army attacked Spotted Elk (aka Bigfoot)'s Minicoujou band of Lakota on December 29, 1890, at Pine Ridge, killing 153 Lakota (tribal estimates are higher), including numerous women and children, in theWounded Knee Massacre.

Today, the Lakota are found mostly in the five reservations of western South Dakota:

Lakota also live on theFort Peck Indian Reservationin northeasternMontana,theFort Berthold Indian Reservationof northwestern North Dakota, and several small reserves inSaskatchewanandManitoba.During the Minnesota and Black Hills wars, their ancestors fled for refuge to "Grandmother's [i.e. Queen Victoria's] Land" (Canada).

Large numbers of Lakota live inRapid Cityand other towns in the Black Hills, and in metroDenver.Lakota elders joined theUnrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization(UNPO) to seek protection and recognition for their cultural and land rights.

Government

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United States

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Lakota beaded storage bag, late 19th century, 15 in (38 cm) wide,Cleveland Museum of Art
Lakotaparfleche,c. 1890,Speed Art Museum

Legally and by treaty classified as a "domestic dependent nation" within the United States,[23]the federally recognized Lakota tribes are represented locally by officials elected to councils for the several reservations and communities in the Dakotas, Minnesota, and Nebraska. These tribes have government-to-government relationships with the United States federal government, primarily through the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of Interior.

Assemi-autonomouspolitical entities, tribal governments have certain rights to independent of state laws. For instance, they may operateIndian gamingon their reservation based on theIndian Gaming Regulatory Actof 1988. They operate with the federal government. These relationship are negotiated and contested.[24]

Most Lakota tribal members are also citizens of the United States. They can vote in local, state/provincial and federal elections. They are represented at the state and national level by officials elected from the political districts of their respective states and Congressional Districts.[25]

Tribal members living both on and off the individual reservations are eligible to vote in periodic elections for that tribe. Each tribe has its own requirements for citizenship, as well its own constitution, bylaws, and elections.[26][27]orarticles of incorporation.Most follow a multi-membertribal councilmodel, with a chairman or president electedat-large,directly by the voters.

  • The current president of the Oglala Sioux, the majority tribe of the Lakota located primarily on the Pine Ridge reservation, is Kevin Killer.
  • The president of the Sičháŋǧu Lakota at the Rosebud reservation is Rodney M. Bordeaux.
  • The chairwoman of the Standing Rock reservation, which includes peoples from several Lakota subgroups including the Húŋkpapȟa, is Janet Alkire.
  • The chairman of the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe at the Cheyenne River reservation, comprising the Mnikȟówožu, Itázipčho, Sihá Sápa, and Oóhenuŋpa bands of the Lakota, is Harold Frazier.
  • The chairman of the Lower Brule Sioux Tribe (also known as the Lower Sicangu Lakota), is Boyd I. Gourneau.

Canada

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Nine bands of Dakota and Lakota reside inManitobaand southernSaskatchewan,with a total of 6,000 registered members. They are recognized as First Nations but are not considered "treaty Indians". As First Nations they receive rights and entitlements through theCrown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canadadepartment. But because they are not recognized as treaty Indians, they did not participate in the land settlement and natural resource revenues.[28]The Dakota rejected a $60-million land-rights settlement in 2008.[29]

Independence movement

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See also:Republic of Lakotah proposal
Mildred "Midge" Wagner, a Lakota woman, singing at a pow wow in 2015

The Lakota are among tribal nations that have taken actions, participated in occupations, and proposed independence movements, particularly since the era of rising activism since the mid to late 20th century. They filed land claims against the federal government for what they defined as illegal taking of the Black Hills in the nineteenth century.

In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled in their favor and decided inUnited States v. Sioux Nation of Indiansto awardUS$122 million to eight bands of Sioux Indians as compensation for theirBlack Hills land claims.The Sioux have refused the money, because accepting the settlement would legally terminate their demands for return of the Black Hills. The money remains in aBureau of Indian Affairsaccount, accruingcompound interest.As of 2011, the account has grown to over $1 billion.[30][31]

In September 2007, theUnited Nationspassed a non-bindingDeclaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.Canada,[32]the United States, Australia, and New Zealand refused to sign.[33]

On December 20, 2007, a small group of people led byAmerican Indian MovementactivistRussell Means,under the name Lakota Freedom Delegation, traveled to Washington D.C. to announce a withdrawal of the Lakota Sioux from all treaties with the United States government.[34]These activists had no standing under any elected tribal government.

Official Lakota tribal leaders issued public responses to the effect that, in the words ofRosebud Lakotatribal chairman Rodney Bordeaux, "We do not support what Means and his group are doing and they don't have any support from any tribal government I know of. They don't speak for us."[35][36]

Means declared "The Republic of Lakotah", defining it as a sovereign nation with property rights over thousands of square miles in South Dakota, North Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming and Montana.[37]The group stated that they do not act for or represent the tribal governments "set up by the BIA or those Lakota who support the BIA system of government".[38]

"The Lakota Freedom Delegation" did not include any elected leaders from any of the tribes.[35][36]Means had previously run for president of the Oglala Sioux tribe and twice been defeated. Several tribal governments – elected by tribal members – issued statements distancing themselves from the independence declaration. Some said that they were watching the independent movement closely.[35][36]No elected tribal governments endorsed the declaration.[35][36]

Current activism

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The Lakota People made national news whenNPR's "Lost Children, Shattered Families" investigative story aired regarding issues related to foster care for Native American children.[39]It exposed what many critics consider to be the "kidnapping" of Lakota children from their homes by the state of South Dakota's Department of Social Services (D.S.S.). It was noted byNPRthat over half of the children in foster care in South Dakota were of Native descent. Lakota activists such asMadonna Thunder HawkandChase Iron Eyes,along with theLakota People’s Law Project,have alleged that Lakota grandmothers are illegally denied the right to foster their own grandchildren. They are working to redirect federal funding away from the state of South Dakota's D.S.S. to new tribal foster care programs. This would be a historic shift away from the state's traditional control over Lakota foster children.

A short film,Lakota in America,was produced by Square. The film features Genevieve Iron Lightning, a young Lakota dancer on theCheyenne River Reservation,one of the poorest communities in theUnited States.Unemployment,addiction,alcoholism,andsuicideare all challenges for Lakota on the reservation.

Ethnonyms

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The nameLakotacomes from the Lakota autonym,Lakota"feeling affection, friendly, united, allied". The early French historic documents did not distinguish a separate Teton division, instead grouping them with other "Sioux of the West,"SanteeandYanktonbands.

The namesTetonandTetuwancome from the Lakota namethítȟuŋwaŋ,the meaning of which is obscure. This term was used to refer to the Lakota by non-Lakota Sioux groups. Other derivations and spelling variations include: ti tanka, Tintonyanyan, Titon, Tintonha, Thintohas, Tinthenha, Tinton, Thuntotas, Tintones, Tintoner, Tintinhos, Ten-ton-ha, Thinthonha, Tinthonha, Tentouha, Tintonwans, Tindaw, Tinthow, Atintons, Anthontans, Atentons, Atintans, Atrutons, Titoba, Tetongues, Teton Sioux, Teeton, Ti toan, Teetwawn, Teetwans, Ti-t’-wawn, Ti-twans, Tit’wan, Tetans, Tieton, and Teetonwan.

Early French sources call the LakotaSiouxwith an additional modifier, such as Sioux of the West, West Schious, Sioux des prairies, Sioux occidentaux, Sioux of the Meadows, Nadooessis of the Plains, Prairie Indians, Sioux of the Plain, Maskoutens-Nadouessians, Mascouteins Nadouessi, and Sioux nomades.

Lakota beaded saddle belt, madec. 1850

Today many of the tribes continue to officially call themselvesSioux.In the 19th and 20th centuries, this was the name which the US government applied to all Dakota/Lakota people. However, some tribes have formally or informally adopted traditional names: the Rosebud Sioux Tribe is also known as theSičháŋǧu Oyáte(Brulé Nation), and the Oglala often use the nameOglála Lakȟóta Oyáte,rather than the English "Oglala Sioux Tribe" or OST. (The alternate English spelling of Ogallala is deprecated, even though it is closer to the correct pronunciation.) The Lakota have names for their own subdivisions. The Lakota also are the most western of the three Sioux groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota.

Reservations

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Akta Lakota Museum inChamberlain, South Dakota

Today, one half of all enrolled Sioux live offreservations.

Lakota reservationsrecognized by the U.S. governmentinclude:

Some Lakota also live on other Sioux reservations in eastern South Dakota, Minnesota, and Nebraska:

In addition, several Lakota live on theWood Mountain First Nationreserve, nearWood Mountain Regional Parkin Saskatchewan, Canada.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^"Pine Ridge Agency".U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs.RetrievedApril 7,2019.
  2. ^"Rosebud Agency".U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs.RetrievedApril 7,2019.
  3. ^"Cheyenne River Agency".U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs.RetrievedApril 7,2019.
  4. ^"Standing Rock Agency".U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs.RetrievedApril 7,2019.
  5. ^"Lower Brule Agency".U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs.RetrievedApril 7,2019.
  6. ^Pritzker, 328
  7. ^abPritzker 329
  8. ^"History of the Dakota Tribes".sjsu.edu.RetrievedDecember 10,2020.
  9. ^"Lakota Winter Counts."ArchivedMarch 2, 2012, at theWayback MachineSmithsonian National Museum of Natural History.Retrieved May 28, 2012.
  10. ^abLiberty, Dr. Margot."Cheyenne Primacy: The Tribes' Perspective As Opposed To That Of The United States Army; A Possible Alternative To 'The Great Sioux War Of 1876'".Friends of the Little Bighorn.RetrievedJanuary 13,2008.
  11. ^[1].Census.gov. Retrieved on May 4, 2016.
  12. ^[2]ArchivedMay 2, 2016, at theWayback Machine.Lakhota.org. Retrieved on May 4, 2016.
  13. ^"Kiowas".Encyclopedia of the Great Plains.RetrievedJune 23,2013.
  14. ^The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition,University of Nebraska.
  15. ^Meyer, Roy W.:The Village Indians of the Upper Missouri. The Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras.Lincoln and London, 1977, p. 54.
  16. ^Jensen, Richard E.: "The Pawnee Mission, 1834–1846",Nebraska History,Vol. 75, No. 4 (1994), pp. 301–310, p. 307, column III.
  17. ^Riley, Paul D.: "The Battle of Massacre Canyon", inNebraska History,Vol. 54, No. 2 (1973), pp. 221–249.
  18. ^Brown, Dee (1950)Bury My Heart at Wounded KneeMacmillanISBN0-8050-6669-1,ISBN978-0-8050-6669-2
  19. ^"Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)".National Archives.September 7, 2021.RetrievedFebruary 2,2024.
  20. ^Winona LaDuke,All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life,(Cambridge, MA:South End Press,1999), 141.
  21. ^Kappler, Charles J.:Indian Affairs. Laws and treaties.Washington, 1904. Vol. 2, pp. 998–1004.
  22. ^"History of the Dakota Tribes".sjsu.edu.RetrievedApril 30,2024.
  23. ^"The Indian Reorganization Act".Archived fromthe originalon September 23, 2006.
  24. ^"Indian Country Diaries. History".PBS.RetrievedJanuary 26,2012.
  25. ^"> News > Oglala Sioux Tribe inaugurates Cecilia Fire Thunder".Indianz.Com. December 13, 2004. Archived fromthe originalon March 21, 2013.RetrievedJanuary 26,2012.
  26. ^"Official Site of the Rosebud Sioux Tribe".Archived fromthe originalon November 6, 2008.
  27. ^Our Constitution & By-LawsArchivedJuly 4, 2008, at theWayback Machine
  28. ^Ottawa rejects claims by Dakota, Lakota First Nations,CBC News, August 1, 2007
  29. ^Dakota Nations reject $60.3 M settlement offer from OttawaArchivedSeptember 4, 2015, at theWayback Machine,The Brandon Sun,June 26, 2008
  30. ^"Race: The Price of Penance".Time.May 8, 1989. Archived fromthe originalon December 4, 2008.RetrievedMay 7,2010.
  31. ^Streshinsky, Maria."Saying No to $1 Billion".The Atlantic.RetrievedNovember 25,2017.
  32. ^"Canada votes 'no' as UN native rights declaration passes".CBCNews. September 13, 2007.Canada's UN ambassador, John McNee, said Canada had "significant concerns" over the declaration's wording on provisions addressing lands and resources
  33. ^"UBB Message – ReaderRant".Archived fromthe originalon March 3, 2021.RetrievedJanuary 1,2008.
  34. ^"Descendants of Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse break away from US"ArchivedJune 9, 2007, at theWayback Machine,Agence France-PressenewsArchivedAugust 21, 2008, at theWayback Machine
  35. ^abcdGale Courey Toensing (January 4, 2008)."Withdrawal from US treaties enjoys little support from tribal leaders".Indian Country Today.Archived fromthe originalon May 4, 2016.RetrievedMarch 28,2016.
  36. ^abcdLakota Sioux Have NOT Withdrawn From the US;inThe Daily Kos;December 23, 2007; accessed March 28, 2016
  37. ^Bill Harlan,"Lakota group secedes from U.S."ArchivedAugust 23, 2009, at theWayback Machine,Rapid City Journal,December 20, 2007.
  38. ^"Lakota group pushes for new nation",Argus Leader,Washington Bureau, December 20, 2007
  39. ^"Native Foster Care: Lost Children, Shattered Families".NPR.org.RetrievedDecember 10,2020.

References

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  • Andersson, Rani-Henrik & David C. Posthumus (2022). Lakĥóta: An Indigenous History,Norman: University of Oklahoma press.
  • Beck, Paul N. (2013).Columns of Vengeance: Soldiers, Sioux, and the Punitive Expeditions, 1863–1864.Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
  • Christafferson, Dennis M. (2001). "Sioux, 1930–2000". In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.),Handbook of North American Indians: Plains(Vol. 13, Part 2, pp. 821–839). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.ISBN0-16-050400-7.
  • DeMallie, Raymond J. (2001a). "Sioux until 1850". In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.),Handbook of North American Indians: Plains(Vol. 13, Part 2, pp. 718–760). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.ISBN0-16-050400-7.
  • DeMallie, Raymond J. (2001b). "Teton". In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.),Handbook of North American Indians: Plains(Vol. 13, Part 2, pp. 794–820). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.ISBN0-16-050400-7.
  • Hämäläinen, Pekka.(2019).Lakota America: A New History of Indigenous Power,New Haven, CT:Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-21595-3.
  • Matson, William and Frethem, Mark (2006). Producers. "The Authorized Biography of Crazy Horse and His Family Part One: Creation, Spirituality, and the Family Tree". The Crazy Horse family tells their oral history and with explanations of Lakota spirituality and culture on DVD. (Publisher is Reelcontact )
  • Parks, Douglas R.; & Rankin, Robert L. (2001). "The Siouan Languages". In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.),Handbook of North American Indians: Plains(Vol. 13, Part 1, pp. 94–114). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.ISBN978-0-16-050400-6.
  • Pritzker, Barry M.A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.ISBN978-0-19-513877-1.
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