Wikipedia

Lamia

For other uses, seeLamia (disambiguation).

Lamia(/ˈleɪmiə/;Ancient Greek:Λάμια,romanized:Lámia), in ancientGreek mythology,was a child-eating monster and, in later tradition, was regarded as a type of night-haunting spirit or "daimon".

The Kiss of the Enchantress(Isobel Lilian Gloag,c. 1890), inspired by Keats's "Lamia",depicts Lamia as half-serpent, half-woman

In the earliest stories, Lamia was a beautiful queen ofancient Libyawho had an affair withZeus.Upon learning this, Zeus's wifeHerarobbed Lamia of her children, the offspring of her affair with Zeus, either by kidnapping or by killing them. The loss of her children drove Lamia insane, and in vengeance and despair, Lamia snatched up any children she could find anddevoured them.Because of her cruel acts, her physical appearance changed to become ugly and monstrous. Zeus gave Lamia the power ofprophecyand the ability to take out and reinsert her eyes, possibly because she was cursed by Hera withinsomniaor because she could no longer close her eyes, so that she was forced to always obsess over her lost children.[1]

Thelamiai(Ancient Greek:λάμιαι,romanized:lámiai) also became a type of phantom, synonymous with theempusaiwho seduced young men to satisfy their sexual appetite and fed on their flesh afterward. An account ofApollonius of Tyana's defeat of a lamia-seductress inspired the poem "Lamia"byJohn Keats.

Lamia has been ascribed serpentine qualities, which some commentators believe can be firmly traced to mythology from antiquity; they have found analogues in ancient texts that could be designated aslamiai,which are part-snakebeings. These include the half-woman, half-snake beasts of the "Libyan myth" told byDio Chrysostom,and the monster sent toArgosbyApolloto avengePsamathe, daughter of King Crotopos.

In previous centuries, Lamia was used in Greece as abogeymanto frighten children into obedience, similar to the way parents in Spain, Portugal and Latin America used theCoco.

Etymology

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AscholiasttoAristophanesclaimed that Lamia's name derived from her having a large throat orgullet(λαιμός;laimós).[3]Modern scholarship reconstructs aProto-Indo-Europeanstem *lem-,"nocturnal spirit", whence also comeslemures.[4]

Classical mythology

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In themyth,the Lamia was originally a beautiful woman beloved ofZeus,but Zeus's jealous wifeHerarobbed her of her children, either by kidnapping and hiding them away, killing them, or causing Lamia herself to kill her own offspring.[7]She became disfigured from the torment, transforming into a terrifying being who hunted and killed the children of others.[8]

Aristotle'sNicomachean Ethics(vii.5) refers to the lore of some beastly lifeform in the shape of a woman, which tears the bellies of pregnant mothers and devours their fetuses. An anonymous commentator on the passage states this is a reference to the Lamia, but muddlingly combines this with Aristotle's subsequent comments and describes her as a Scythian of thePontus(Black Sea) area.[9][10]

According to one myth, Hera deprived Lamia of the ability to sleep, making her constantly grieve over the loss of her children, and Zeus provided relief by endowing her with removable eyes. He also gifted her with ashapeshiftingability in the process.[11][12]

De-mythologized

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Diodorus Siculus(fl. 1st century BC) gave a de-mythologized account of Lamia as a queen of Libya who ordered her soldiers to snatch children from their mothers and kill them, and whose beauty gave way to bestial appearance due to her savageness. The queen, as related by Diodorus, was born in a cave.[13][14]Heraclitus Paradoxographus(2nd century) also gave a rationalizing account.[15]

Diodorus's rationalization was that the Libyan queen in herdrunken statewas as if she could not see, allowing her citizens free rein for any conduct without supervision, giving rise to the folk myth that she places her eyes in a vessel.[13]Heraclitus'seuhemerizedaccount explains that Hera, consort of Zeus, gouged the eyes out of the beautiful Lamia.[16]

Genealogy

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Lamia was the daughter born between KingBelusof Egypt andLybie,according to one source.[a][11][17]

According to the same source, Lamia was taken by Zeus to Italy, and that Lamos, the city of the man-eatingLaestrygonians,was named after her.[11]A different authority remarks that Lamia was once queen of the Laestrygonians.[19][b][c]

Aristophanes

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Aristophaneswrote in two plays an identically worded list of foul-smelling objects which included the "Lamia's testicles", thus making Lamia's gender ambiguous.[21][d]This was later incorporated intoEdward Topsell's 17th-century envisioning of the lamia.[22]

It is somewhat uncertain if this refers to the one Lamia[23]or to "a Lamia" among many, as given in some translations of the two plays;[24]a generic lamia is also supported by the definition as some sort of a "wild beast" in theSuda.[25]

Hellenistic folklore

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As children's bogey

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The "Lamia" was abogeymanorbugbearterm, invoked by a mother or anannyto frighten children into good behavior.[18][26]Such practices are recorded by the 1st century Diodorus,[13]and other sources in antiquity.[11][27]

Numerous sources attest to the Lamia being a "child-devourer", one of them beingHorace.[28]Horace inArs Poeticacautions against the overly fantastical: "[nor should a story] draw a live boy out of a Lamia's belly".[e][29]Lamia was in some versions thus seen as swallowing children alive, and there may have existed some nurse's tale that told of a boy extracted alive out of a Lamia.[30]

The Byzantine lexiconSuda(10th century) gave an entry forlamía,with definitions and sources much as already described.[31]The lexicon also has an entry undermormo(Μορμώ), stating that Mormo and the equivalentμορμολυκεῖονmormolykeion[f]are called lamía, and that all these refer to frightful beings.[32][33][34]

"Lamia" has as synonyms "Mormo" and "Gello"according to thescholiato Theocritus.[19]

Other bogeys have been listed in conjunction with "Lamia", for instance,the Gorgo(ἡ Γοργώ), the eyeless giant Ephialtes, aMormolyce(μορμολύκηnamed byStrabo.[35]

As a seductress

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In later classical periods, around the 1st century A. D.,[36]the conception of this Lamia shifted to that of a sultry seductress who enticed young men and devoured them.[37][36]

Apollonius of Tyana

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A representative example isPhilostratus's novelistic biographyLife of Apollonius of Tyana.[37]

It purports to give a full account of the capture of "Lamia ofCorinth"by Apollonius, as the general populace referred to the legend.[39]An apparition (phasmaφάσμα[40][g]) which in the assumed guise of a woman seduced one of Apollonius's young pupils.

Here, Lamia is the common vulgar term andempousathe proper term. For Apollonius in speech declares that the seductress is "one of theempousai,which most other people would calllamiaiandmormolykeia".[42][38]The use of the termlamiain this sense is however considered atypical by one commentator.[43]

Regarding the seductress, Apollonius further warned, "you are warming a snake (ophis) on your bosom, and it is a snake that warms you ".[44][40]It has been suggested from this discourse that the creature was therefore "literally a snake".[45][h]Theempousaadmits in the end to fattening up her victim (Menippus of Lycia) to be consumed, as she was in the habit of targeting young men for food "because their blood was fresh and pure".[38]The last statement has led to the surmise that this lamia/empusa was a sort of blood-sucking vampiress.[46]

Another aspect of her powers is that this empusa/lamia is able to create an illusion of a sumptuous mansion, with all the accoutrements and even servants. But once Apollonius reveals her false identity at the wedding, the illusion fails her and vanishes.[40]

Lamia the courtesan

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A longstanding joke makes a word play between Lamia the monster andLamia of Athens,the notorioushetairacourtesan who captivatedDemetrius Poliorcetes(d. 283 BC). Thedouble-entendresarcasm was uttered by Demetrius's father, among others.[i][47][48]The same joke was used in theatricalGreek comedy,[49]and generally.[50]The word play is also seen as being employed in Horace'sOdes,to banter Lucius Aelius Lamia the praetor.[j][51]

Golden Ass

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InApuleius'sThe Golden Ass[k]appear twoThessalian "witches",[l]Meroe and her sister Panthia, who are calledlamiaein one instance.[54][55][m][n]

Meroe has seduced a man named Socrates, but when he plots to escape, the two witches raid his bed, thrust a knife in the neck to tap the blood into a skin bag, eviscerate his heart, and stuff the hole back withsponge.[58]

Some commentators, despite the absence of actual blood-sucking, find these witches to share "vampiric" qualities of thelamiae(lamiai) in Philostratus's narrative, thus offering it up for comparison.[59]

Kindreds

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Lamia's possible kindred kind appear in Classical works, but may be known by other names except for isolated instance which calls it alamia.Or they may be simply unnamed or differently named. And those analogues that exhibit a serpentine form or nature have been especially noted.

Poine of Argos

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One such possible lamia is the avenging monster sent byApolloagainst the city ofArgosand killed byCoroebus.It is referred to asPoineorKer[60]in classical sources, but later in the Medieval period, one source does call it a lamia (First Vatican Mythographer,c. 9th to 11thcentury).[61][62]

The story surrounds the tragedy of the daughter of KingCrotopusof Argos namedPsamathe,whose child byApollodies and she is executed for suspected promiscuity. Apollo as punishment then sends the child-devouring monster to Argos.

InStatius' version, the monster had a woman's face and breasts, and a hissing snake protruding from the cleft of her rusty-colored forehead, and it would slide into children's bedrooms to snatch them.[63]According to a scholiast to Ovid, it had a serpent's body carrying a human face.[64]

InPausanias's version, the monster is calledPoinē(ποινή), meaning "punishment" or "vengeance", but there is nothing about a snake on her forehead.[65][66]

One evidence this may be a double of the Lamia comes from Plutarch, who equates the wordempousawithpoinē.[67]

Libyan myth

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A second example is a colony of man-eating monsters in Libya, described byDio Chrysostom.These monsters had a woman's torso and beastly hands, and "all the lower part was snake, ending in the snake's baleful head".[68][69][o]The idea that these creatures werelamiaiseems to originate with Alex Scobie (1977),[71]and to be accepted by other commentators.[72]

Middle Ages

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By theEarly Middle Ages,lamia(pl.lamiaiorlamiae) was being glossed as a general term referring to a class of beings.Hesychius of Alexandria's lexicon (c. 500 A.D.) glossedlamiaias apparations, or even fish.[p][15]Isidore of Sevilledefined them as beings that snatched babies and ripped them apart.[15]

TheVulgateused "lamia" inIsaiah34:14 to translate "Lilith" of the Hebrew Bible.[73]Pope Gregory I(d. 604)'s exegesis on theBook of Jobexplains that the lamia represented eitherheresyorhypocrisy.[73]

Christian writers also warned against the seductive potential oflamiae.In his 9th-centurytreatise on divorce,Hincmar,archbishop of Reims,listedlamiaeamong the supernatural dangers that threatened marriages, and identified them withgeniciales feminae,[74]female reproductive spirits.[75]

Interpretations

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Lamia(first version) byJohn William Waterhouse(1905).[q]
Lamia(second version), with snakeskin on her lap,John William Waterhouse(1909)

This Lamia of Libya has her double in Lamia-Sybarisof the legend aroundDelphi,both indirectly associated with serpents. Strong parallel with theMedusahas also been noted. These, and other considerations have prompted modern commentators to suggest she is a dragoness.[76][77]

Another double of the Libyan Lamia may beLamia, daughter of Poseidon.Lamia by Zeus gave birth to a Sibyl according to Pausanias, and this would have to be the Libyan Lamia, yet there is a tradition that Lamia the daughter of Poseidon was the mother of a Sibyl.[78]Either one could be Lamia the mother ofScyllamentioned in theStesichorus(d. 555 BC) fragment, and other sources.[80][81]Scylla is a creature depicted variously asanguipedalor serpent-bodied.

Identification as a serpent-woman

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Diodorus Siculus(fl. 1st century BC), for instance, describes Lamia of Libya as having nothing more than a beastly appearance.[13]Diodorus,Duris of Samosand other sources which comprise the sources for building an "archetypal" picture of Lamia do not designate her as a dragoness, or give her explicit serpentine descriptions.[82]

In the 1st-centuryLife of Apollonius of Tyanathe femaleempousa-lamiais also called "a snake",[40]which may seem to the modern reader to be just a metaphorical expression, but whichDaniel Ogdeninsists is a literal snake.[45]Philostratus's tale was reworked by Keats in his poemLamia,[83]where it is made clear she bears the guise of a snake, which she wants to relinquish in return for human appearance.

Modern commentators have also tried to establish that she may have originally been a dragoness, by inference.[84][85]Daniel Ogden argues that one of her possible reincarnations, the monster of Argos killed byCoroebushad a "scaly gait", indicating she must have had ananguipedalform in an early version of the story,[86]although the Latin text in Statius merely readsinlabi(declension oflabor) meaning "slides".[63]

One of the doubles of Lamia of Libya is the Lamia-Sybaris,which is described only as a giant beast byAntoninus Liberalis(2nd century).[87][88]It is noted that this character terrorizedDelphi,just as the dragonPythonhad.[88]

Close comparison is also made with the serpentineMedusa.Not only is Medusa identified with Libya, she also had dealings with the threeGraeaewho had the removable eye shared between them. In some versions, the removable eye belonged to the threeGorgons,Medusa and her sisters.[89]

Hecate

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Some commentators have also equated Lamia withHecate.The basis of this identification is the variant maternities ofScylla,sometimes ascribed to Lamia (as already mentioned), and sometimes to Hecate.[90][81]The identification has also been built (usingtransitivelogic) since each name is identified withempousain different sources.[45][92]

Stench of a lamia

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A foul odor has been pointed out as a possible common motif or attribute of the lamiai. The examples are Aristophanes's reference to the "lamia's testicles", the scent of the monsters in the Libyan myth which allowed the humans to track down their lair, and the terrible stench of their urine that lingered in the clothing of Aristomenes, which they showered upon him after carving out his friend Sophocles's heart.[93]

Mesopotamian connection

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Lamia may originate from the Mesopotamian demonessLamashtu.[94]

Modern age

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A lamia-like creature on the cover ofOther Worlds,November 1949.

Renaissance writerAngelo PolizianowroteLamia(1492), a philosophical work whose title is a disparaging reference to his opponents who dabble in philosophy without competence. It alludes toPlutarch's use of the term inDe curiositate,where the Greek writer suggests that the termLamiais emblematic of meddlesome busybodies in society.[95]Worded another way, Lamia wasemblematicof thehypocrisyof such scholars.[96]

From around the mid-15th century into the 16th century, the lamia came to be regarded exclusively as witches.[97]

Bestiary

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A 17th-century depiction of Lamia fromEdward Topsell'sThe History of Four-Footed Beasts

InEdward Topsell'sHistory of Four-footed Beasts(1607), the lamia is described as having the upper body (i.e., the face and breasts) of a woman, but with goatlikehind quarterswith large and filthy "stones" (testicles) that smell like sea-calves, on authority of Aristophanes. It is covered with scales all over.[22]

Adaptations

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John Keats's "Lamia" in hisLamia and Other Poemsis a reworking of the tale in Apollonius's biography by Philostratus, described above. In Keats's version, the student Lycius replaces Menippus the Lycian. For the descriptions and nature of the Lamia, Keats drew from Burton'sThe Anatomy of Melancholy.[98]August Ennawrote an opera calledLamia.[36]

English composerDorothy Howellcomposed a tone poemLamiawhich was played repeatedly to great acclaim under its dedicateeSir Henry Woodat the London Promenade concerts in the 1920s. It has been recorded more recently byRumon Gambaconducting theBBC Philharmonic OrchestraforChandos Recordsin a 2019 release of British tone poems.

The 1982 novelLamiaby Tristan Travis sees the mythological monster relocated to 1970s Chicago, where she takes bloody vengeance on sex offenders while the cops try to figure out the mystery.[99]

Lamia, also known as Ramia, also appears as aBossin theNintendo DSaction role-playing gameDeep Labyrinth.[100]

Lamia is the main antagonist in the 2009 horror movieDrag Me to Hellvoiced byArt Kimbro.In the film, Lamia is described as "the most feared of all Demons" and having the head and hooves of a goat. A gypsy curse associated with him has Lamia torment the victim for three days before having its minions drag them into Hell to burn in its fires for all eternity.

Lamia appears as an antagonist inRick Riordan'sThe Demigod Diaries,appearing in its fourth short story "The Son of Magic". She is depicted as the daughter ofHecateand as having glowing green eyes with serpentine slits, shriveled-up hands with lizard-like claws on them, and crocodile-like teeth.

In the animeMonster Musume,the character Miia is a lamia.

InGerald Brom'sLost Gods,Lamia serves as the primary antagonist, depicted as an ancient succubus who prolongs her life by drinking the blood of her children and grandchildren.

Lamias are featured in theprogressive rockalbumThe Lamb Lies Down on BroadwaybyGenesison the track "The Lamia". They are depicted as female creatures with "snake-like" bodies and seduce the protagonist Rael in an attempt to devour him, but as soon as they "taste" Rael's body, the blood that enters the lamias' bodies causes their death.

Lamia is mentioned several times in theIron Maidensong "Prodigal Son" from their 1981 albumKillers.The band often refer to mythology and mythical beasts in their compositions.

The American TV seriesRaised by Wolvesfeatures a character named Lamia, an android mother, who has removable eyes and the ability to shapeshift.[101]

The 2024 British fantasy TV seriesDomino Day,set in modern-day Manchester, featuresSiena Kellyas the titular lead character, a witch who feeds on the energy of her dating-app hook-ups. She eventually realizes that she is actually a lamia.[102]

Modern folk traditions

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See also:Empusa § Modern Greek folklore,andSlavic dragon § lamia

In modernGreekfolk tradition, the Lamia has survived and retained many of her traditional attributes.[103]John Cuthbert Lawson remarks "the chief characteristics of the Lamiae, apart from their thirst for blood, are their uncleanliness, their gluttony, and their stupidity".[104]The contemporary Greek proverb, "της Λάμιας τα σαρώματα" ( "the Lamia's sweeping" ), epitomises slovenliness;[104]and the common expression, "τό παιδί τό 'πνιξε η Λάμια" ( "the child has been strangled by the Lamia" ), explains the sudden death of young children.[104]

Later traditions referred to manylamiae;these were folkloric monsters similar tovampiresandsuccubithat seduced young men and then fed on their blood.[105]

Fine arts

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The Lamia(1909),[r]a painting byHerbert James Draper

In a 1909 painting byHerbert James Draper,the Lamia who moodily watches the serpent on her forearm appears to represent ahetaera.Although the lower body of Draper's Lamia is human, he alludes to her serpentine history by draping a shed snakeskin about her waist. In Renaissanceemblems,Lamia has the body of aserpentand the breasts and head of a woman, like the image ofhypocrisy.[citation needed]

See also

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Explanatory notes

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  1. ^Making her the granddaughter ofPoseidon.Lybie is a personification of Libya.
  2. ^The same scholium states that Mormo andGelloare equivalent to Lamia, therefore by transference Mormo is queen of the Laestrygonians, hence:Stannish & Doran (2013),p. 118.
  3. ^Horace makes a related joke, referring to the aforementioned Lucius Aelius Lamia the praetor as "Lamus", in this instance regarded as the founding figure of the city of the Laestrygonians.[20]
  4. ^This prompted Henderson (1998) to "humorlessly infer" that the Lamia must have been ahermaphrodite.Ogden (2013a),p. 91, note 117.
  5. ^Neu pransae Lamiae vivum puerum extrahat alvo(v. 340).Alexander Popetranslates the line: Shall Lamia in our sight her sons devour, /and give them back alive the self-same hour?
  6. ^Begins with lower case
  7. ^Thisphasmais a more "generic term for creatures".[41]
  8. ^Keats's reworking makes this Lamia have serpent form for certain, which she wants to lose.
  9. ^Demetrius's fatherAntigonusandDemocharesof Soli.
  10. ^Grandfather of his namesake, the consulLucius Aelius Lamia(d. 33 CE).
  11. ^OrMetamorphoses,thus abbreviated "Apu. Met."
  12. ^They are not strictly speaking "witches", but they are referred to as such by convention.[52]In the Latin text, Meroe is referred to as asaga,a wise woman or soothsayer.[53]
  13. ^It has been cautioned that there may not be great import in the label "lamiae" here beyond derogatory insult,[50]and Apuleius uses the label rather indescriminately elsewhere.[56]
  14. ^The Elizabethan translatorWilliam Adlingtonrenderedlamiaeas "hags".[57]
  15. ^Incidentally, Dio in Oration 37 quotes a Sibyl's song in which the Sibyl (Libyan Sibyl) identifies her mother asLamia (daughter of Poseidon).[70]
  16. ^Aristotle says there is a shark called "lamia".Resnick & Kitchell (2007),p. 83
  17. ^Note the snakeskin wrapped around her arm and waist.
  18. ^Lamia has human legs and asnakeskinaround her waist. There is also a small snake on her right forearm.

References

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Citations

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  1. ^Bell, Robert E.,Women of Classical Mythology: A Biographical Dictionary(New York: Oxford UP, 1991), s.v. "Lamia" (drawing upon Diodorus Siculus 22.41; Suidas "Lamia"; Plutarch "On Being a Busy-Body" 2; Scholiast on Aristophanes'Peace757; Eustathius onOdyssey1714).
  2. ^West, David R. (1995),Some cults of Greek goddesses and female daemons of Oriental origin,Butzon & Bercker, p. 293,ISBN9783766698438
  3. ^Scholiast onWasps,1035.[2]
  4. ^Polomé, Edgar C.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). "Spirit". In Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (eds.).Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture.Taylor & Francis. p. 538.
  5. ^abJohnston, Sarah Iles, ed. (2013).Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece.Univ of California Press. p. 174.ISBN9780520280182.
  6. ^Ogden (2013b),p. 98: "Because of Hera... she lost [or:destroyed] the children she bore ".
  7. ^Duris of Samos,Libyica,Book 2.[5][6]
  8. ^Duris of Samos(d. 280 B. C.),Libyca,quoted byOgden (2013b),p. 98
  9. ^Aristotle,Nicomachean Ethics1148b.
  10. ^Fisher, Elizabeth A. (2009),"The Anonymous Commentary onNicomachean EthicsVII: Language, Style and Implications ",in Barber, Charles E.; Jenkins, David Todd (eds.),Medieval Greek Commentaries on theNicomachean Ethics,Brill, pp. 147–148,ISBN978-9004173934
  11. ^abcdeScholiumfrom the Byzantine-Hellenistic period to Aristophanes,Peace758, quoted byOgden (2013b),p. 98
  12. ^Bell, Robert E. (1993),Women of Classical Mythology,drawing upon Diodorus Siculus XX.41; Suidas 'Lamia'; Plutarch 'On Being a Busy-Body' 2; Scholiast on Aristophanes'sPeace757; Eustathius onOdyssey1714)
  13. ^abcdDiodorus Siculus(fl. 1st century BC),Library of HistoryXX.41, quoted byOgden (2013b),p. 98
  14. ^Bekker, Immanuel, ed., Diodorus Siculus,Bibliotheca HistoricaXX.41
  15. ^abcOgden (2013b),p. 99.
  16. ^Heraclitus Paradoxographus(2nd century)De Incredibilibus34, quoted byOgden (2013b),p. 98
  17. ^Diodorus Siculus,20.41.3-6, Scholia to Aristophanes,Wasps1035; Commentary 37 to Heraclitus the Allegorist
  18. ^abOgden (2013b),p. 98.
  19. ^abScholium to TheocritusIdylls15.40.[18][5]
  20. ^Mulroy, D. (1994),Horace's Odes and Epodes,University of Michigan Press, p. 86,ISBN978-0472105311
  21. ^Aristophanes,The Wasps,1035;Peace758, cited byOgden (2013a),p. 91, note 117.
  22. ^abTopsell, Edward (1607), "Of the lamia,The historie of foure-footed beastes.
  23. ^viz.Scholiato the passages whose annotations refer to her,[11]
  24. ^"a Lamia's groin" (Benjamin Bickley Rogers, 1874), "a foul Lamia's testicles" (Athenian Society, 1912), "sweaty Crotch of a Lamia" (Paul Roche, 2005).
  25. ^"Lamia",Suda On Line,tr. David Whitehead. 27 May 2008
  26. ^Leinweber (1994),"Witchcraft and Lamiae in 'The Golden Ass'"Folklore105,p. 77.
  27. ^Tertullian,AgainstValentinius(ch. iii)
  28. ^Ogden (2013a),pp. 90–91, note 114.
  29. ^Kilpatrick, Ross Stuart (1990).The Poetry of Criticism: Horace, Epistles II and Ars Poetica.University of Alberta. p. 80.ISBN9780888641465.
  30. ^Member of the university (1894).A literal Translation of Horace's Art of Poetry. With explanatory notes.Cambridge: J. Hall. p. 22.
  31. ^"Lamia",Suda On Line,tr. David Whitehead. 1 April 2008
  32. ^Suidas (1834), Gaisford, Thomas (ed.),Lexicon: post Ludolphum Kusterum ad codices manuscriptos. K - Psi,vol. 2, Typographeo Academico, p. 2523:"Μορμώ: λέγεται καὶ Μορμώ, Μορμοῦς, ὡς Σαπφώ. καὶ Μορμών, Μορμόνος. Ἀριστοφάνης: ἀντιβολῶ σ', ἀπένεγκέ μου τὴν Μορμόνα. ἄπο τὰ φοβερά: φοβερὰ γὰρ ὑπῆρχεν ἡ Μορμώ. καὶ αὖθις Ἀριστοφάνης: Μορμὼ τοῦ θράσους. μορμολύκειον, ἣν λέγουσι Λαμίαν: ἔλεγον δὲ οὕτω καὶ τὰ φοβερά. λείπει δὲ τὸ ὡς, ὡς Μορμώ, ἢ ἐπιρρηματικῶς ἐξενήνεκται, ὡς εἰ ἔλεγε, φεῦ τοῦ θράσους".
  33. ^Ogden (2013a),p. 91, note 114
  34. ^"Mormo",Suda On Line,tr. Richard Rodriguez. 11 June 2009.
  35. ^Hamilton, H.C.; Falconer, W. edd., Strabo,GeographyI.2.8
  36. ^abcSkene, Bradley (2016). "Lamia".The Ashgate Encyclopedia of Literary and Cinematic Monsters.Routledge. pp. 369–370.ISBN9781317044260.
  37. ^abSchmitz, Leonhard(1873), Smith, William (ed.),"La'mia",A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology,vol. 2, London: John Murray, pp. 713–714Perseus Project"La'mia".
  38. ^abcPhilostratus (1912)."25".In Honour of Apollonius of Tyana.Vol. 2. Translated by Phillimore, J. S. Clarendon Press. pp. 24–26.
  39. ^This is given in the concluding paragraph of the chapter,Vit. Apollon.4.25. Phillimore tr., p. 26.[38]
  40. ^abcdePhilostratus,Life of Apollonius4.25, quoted byOgden (2013a),pp. 106–107.
  41. ^abFelton (2013),p. 232, n15.
  42. ^In Greek: "μία τῶν ἐμπουσῶν ἐστιν, ἃς λαμίας τε καὶ μορμολυκίας οἱ πολλοὶ ἡγοῦνται",Vit. Apollon.4.25. Where Felton gives "mormolyces",[41]Ogden "renders as" bogey ".[40]
  43. ^Stoneman, Richard (1991). "Vampire".Greek Mythology: An Encyclopedia of Myth and Legend.Aquarian Press. pp. 178–179.ISBN9780850309348.:"Lamia (not the usual application of this term)".
  44. ^Ogden (2013a),p. 90.
  45. ^abcOgden (2013b),p. 107.
  46. ^Schmitz, Leonhard (1849), Smith, William (ed.),"Lamia",A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology,vol. 2, London: John Murray, pp. 713–714Perseus Project"La'mia (2)".
  47. ^Kapparis, Konstantinos (2017),Prostitution in the Ancient Greek World,Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, p. 118,ISBN9783110557954
  48. ^Plutarch,Demetrius19, Perrin, Bernadotte, ed.
  49. ^Kapparis (2017),p. 118, citing Lamia O'Sullivan, Lara (2009), pp. 53–79, esp. p. 69
  50. ^abStannish & Doran (2013),p. 117: "This is a pejorative expression, not a formal classification, but it is still meaningful"; "..labeling of a dangerous woman as alamiawas not uncommon.. Aelian records.. a notorious prostitute.. (Miscellany12.17, 13.8) ".
  51. ^Griffiths, Alan (2002),"The Odes: Just where do you draw the line?",Traditions and Contexts in the Poetry of Horace,Cambridge University Press, p. 72,ISBN9781139439312
  52. ^Frangoulidis, Stavros (2008).Witches, Isis and Narrative: Approaches to Magic in Apuleius' "Metamorphoses".Walter de Gruyter. p. 116.ISBN9783110210033.
  53. ^Apul. Met.1.8
  54. ^Apul. Met. 1.17.Leinweber (1994),p. 78: "Admittedly, Apuleius' use of the term" Lamiae "is an isolated occurrence. Elsewhere, Meroe and her sister are referred to as witches or sorcerer".
  55. ^Leinweber (1994),pp. 77, 79–81.
  56. ^Cupid refers to Psyche's sisters as Lamiae, Apul. Met. 5. 11(Stannish & Doran (2013),p. 117, note 26)
  57. ^[Apuleius] (1989),Metamorphoses,Harvard University Press
  58. ^Apul. Met. 1.12–17(in Latin)
  59. ^Stannish & Doran (2013),pp. 115–118.
  60. ^Greek Anthology7.154, cited byPache (2004),pp. 72–73
  61. ^Pache (2004),p. 70.
  62. ^Ogden (2013a),p. 87.
  63. ^abStatius,Thebaid,I. 562–669, quoted byOgden (2013b),pp. 100–102; Latin text:ThebaisI; Bailey, D. R. Shackleton tr. (2003)Thebaid,Book I.
  64. ^Fontenrose (1959),p. 104.
  65. ^Ogden (2013a),p. 102.
  66. ^Pausanias,translated by Jones, W.H.S.; Ormerod, H.A.,Description of Greece,1. 43. 7 - 8
  67. ^Plutarch,Moralia1101c, cited byOgden (2013b),p. 107.
  68. ^Dio Chrysostom,Orations,5.1, 5–27, quoted byOgden (2013b),pp. 103–104
  69. ^Cohoon, J. W. tr., ed.Orations5 (Loeb Classics).
  70. ^Crosby, Henry Lamar ed., tr.,Orations37.13 (Loeb Classics).
  71. ^Scobie, Alex (1977), "Some Folktales in Graeco-Roman and Far Eastern Sources",Philologus,121:1–23,doi:10.1524/phil.1977.121.1.1,S2CID201808604,cited byResnick & Kitchell (2007),p. 82
  72. ^Felton (2013),pp. 231–232.
  73. ^abLea, Henry Charles(1986) [1939],Materials toward a History of Witchcraft,vol. 1, AMS Press, p. 110,ISBN9780404184209
  74. ^Hincmar,De divortio Lotharii( "OnLothar's divorce "), XV Interrogatio,MGH Concilia 4 Supplementum,205, as cited by Bernadotte Filotas,Pagan Survivals, Superstitions and Popular Cultures in Early Medieval Pastoral Literature(Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2005, p. 305.
  75. ^In his 1628Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis,Du Cangemade note of thegeniciales feminae,and associated them with words pertaining to generation and genitalia; entryonline.Archived2011-07-21 at theWayback Machine
  76. ^Ogden (2013b),p. 105.
  77. ^Fontenrose (1959),p. 44, as the female counterpart of thePython,also of Delphi; and passim.
  78. ^Fontenrose (1959),p. 107.
  79. ^abCook, Erwin F. (2006),The Odyssey in Athens: Myths of Cultural Origins,Cornell University Press, p. 89,ISBN0801473357
  80. ^Campbell, David A., ed. (1991),Stesichorus, Frag 220,translated by Campbell, David A., Harvard University Press,ISBN9780674995253,p. 133, and note 2. This fragment = Scholios on Apollonius Rhodius 4.828.[79]
  81. ^abWhileOdyssey12.124 itself says Scylla's mother wasCrataeis,its scholiast mentions the non-Homeric tradition that Lamia was her mother.[79]
  82. ^Ogden (2013b),pp. 98, 99, 105: "Nothing here explicitly declares.. a serpentine element" (Duris and Scholium), p. 98; "nothing here, again, speaks directly of a serpentin nature" (Diodorus andHeraclitus Paradoxographus), p. 98.
  83. ^Stoneman (1991),pp. 178–179 "Vampire"
  84. ^Ogden (2013b),p. 102: "This is not to say that the notion of an archetypal Lamia preceded the notion oflamiaias a category of monster ".
  85. ^Fontenrose (1959).
  86. ^Ogden (2013b),pp. 97, 102.
  87. ^Antoninus Liberalis(2nd century),Metamorphoses8, paraphrasing Nicander, 2nd century B.C., quoted byOgden (2013b),p. 105
  88. ^abFontenrose (1959),pp. 44–45.
  89. ^Fontenrose (1959),pp. 284–287.
  90. ^Odyssey12.124 andscholia,noted byKarl Kerenyi,Gods of the Greeks1951:38 note 71.
  91. ^Scholia to Aristophanes,Frogs393:Rutherford, Willam G., ed. (1896),Scholia Aristophanica,vol. 1, London: Macmillan, pp. 312–313
  92. ^Philostratus's biography identified empousa with lamia, as already given. Empusa is equated with Hecate in a fragment of Aristophanes's lost play,Tagenistae.[91]
  93. ^Ogden (2013a),p. 91.
  94. ^Ogden (2013b),p. 97.
  95. ^Candido, Igor (2010), Celenza, Christopher S. (ed.), "The Role of the Philosopher in Late Quattrocento Florence: Poliziano's Lamia and the Legacy of the Pico-Barbaro Epistolary Controversy",Angelo Poliziano's Lamia: Text, Translation, and Introductory Studies,BRILL, p. 106
  96. ^Fernández-Armesto, Felipe(2011),1492: The Year Our World Began,A&C Black, p. 129,ISBN9781408809501
  97. ^Brauner, Sigrid (2001).Fearless Wives and Frightened Shrews: The Construction of the Witch in Early Modern Germany.University of Massachusetts Press. p. 123.ISBN9781558492974.
  98. ^Keats made a note to this effect at the end of the first page in the fair copy he made: see William E. Harrold, "Keats' 'Lamia' and Peacock's 'Rhododaphne'".The Modern Language Review61.4 (October 1966:579–584). p. 579 and note with bibliography on this point.
  99. ^"Lamia".
  100. ^Deep Labyrinth Instruction Booklet.Atlus.2002. p. 34.RetrievedNovember 25,2022.
  101. ^"Raised by Wolves: Mother's Real Name Has TERRIFYING Implications".CBR.2020-09-03.Retrieved2021-01-04.
  102. ^"Domino Day episode 2 recap: Domino meets the coven".WhatToWatch.2024-02-01.Retrieved2024-02-04.
  103. ^Lamia receives a section in Georgios Megas and Helen Colaclides,Folktales of Greece(Folktales of the World) (University of Chicago Prtes) 1970.
  104. ^abcLawson,Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion: A Study in Survivals(Cambridge University Press) 1910:175ff.
  105. ^Jøn, A. Asbjørn (2003)."Vampire Evolution".METAphor(August): 19–23.

General and cited references

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