Wikipedia

Electric light

(Redirected fromLamp (electrical component))
This is thelatest accepted revision,reviewedon1 December 2024.
For other uses, seeElectric light (disambiguation)."Electric lamp" and "Light bulb" redirect here. For the furniture, seelight fixture.For the album, seeLightbulbs (album).For the film originally titled "Lightbulb", seeIngenious (2009 American film).

Anelectric light,lamp,orlight bulbis anelectrical componentthat produceslight.It is the most common form of artificiallighting.Lamps usually have a base made ofceramic,metal, glass, or plastic which secures the lamp in the socket of alight fixture,which is often called a "lamp" as well. The electrical connection to the socket may be made with a screw-thread base, two metal pins, two metal caps or abayonet mount.

Electric light
Incandescentandcompact fluorescent lamps
TypeDepends on type of light
Working principle‍Luminescencebyelectricity
Inventor1809;215 years ago(1809)byHumphry Davy(arc lamp)
First production1879;145 years ago(1879)byJoseph SwanandThomas Edison(first demo of incandescent bulb)
Pin namesAnodeandcathode
Electronic symbol

The three main categories of electric lights are incandescent lamps, which produce light by afilamentheated white-hot byelectric current,gas-discharge lamps,which produce light by means of anelectric arcthrough a gas, such asfluorescent lamps,andLED lamps,which produce light by a flow of electrons across aband gapin asemiconductor.

Theenergy efficiencyof electric lighting has increased radically since the first demonstration of arc lamps and the incandescent light bulb of the 19th century. Modern electriclight sourcescome in a profusion of types and sizes adapted to many applications. Most modern electric lighting is powered by centrally generated electric power, but lighting may also be powered by mobile or standby electric generators or battery systems.Battery-powered light is often reserved for when and where stationary lights fail, often in the form offlashlightsor electriclanterns,as well as in vehicles.

History

edit

Before electric lighting became common in the early 20th century, people usedcandles,gas lights,oil lamps,andfires.[1]In 1799–1800,Alessandro Voltacreated thevoltaic pile,the first electric battery. Current from these batteries could heat copper wire to incandescence.Vasily Vladimirovich Petrovdeveloped the first persistentelectric arcin 1802, and English chemistHumphry Davygave a practical demonstration of anarc lightin 1806.[2] It took more than a century of continuous and incremental improvement, including numerous designs, patents, and resulting intellectual property disputes, to get from these early experiments to commercially produced incandescent light bulbs in the 1920s.[3][4]

In 1840,Warren de la Rueenclosed a platinum coil in a vacuum tube and passed an electric current through it, thus creating one of the world's firstelectric light bulbs.[5][6][7]The design was based on the concept that the high melting point of platinum would allow it to operate at high temperatures and that the evacuated chamber would contain fewer gas molecules to react with the platinum, improving its longevity. Although it was an efficient design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use.[8]

William Greener,an English inventor, made significant contributions to early electric lighting with his lamp in 1846 (patent specification 11076), laying the groundwork for future innovations such as those by Thomas Edison.

The late 1870s and 1880s were marked by intense competition and innovation, with inventors likeJoseph Swanin the UK andThomas Edisonin the US independently developing functional incandescent lamps. Swan's bulbs, based on designs by William Staite, were successful, but the filaments were too thick. Edison worked to create bulbs with thinner filaments, leading to a better design.[9]The rivalry between Swan and Edison eventually led to a merger, forming theEdison and Swan Electric Light Company.By the early twentieth century these had completely replacedarc lamps.[10][1]

The turn of the century saw further improvements in bulb longevity and efficiency, notably with the introduction of the tungsten filament byWilliam D. Coolidge,who applied for a patent in 1912.[11]This innovation became a standard for incandescent bulbs for many years.

In 1910,Georges Claudeintroduced the first neon light, paving the way for neon signs which would become ubiquitous in advertising.[12][13][14]

In 1934,Arthur Compton,a renowned physicist and GE consultant, reported to the GE lamp department on successful experiments with fluorescent lighting atGeneral Electric Co., Ltd.in Great Britain (unrelated to General Electric in the United States). Stimulated by this report, and with all of the key elements available, a team led by George E. Inman built a prototype fluorescent lamp in 1934 atGeneral Electric'sNela Park(Ohio) engineering laboratory. This was not a trivial exercise; as noted by Arthur A. Bright, "A great deal of experimentation had to be done on lamp sizes and shapes, cathode construction, gas pressures of both argon and mercury vapor, colors of fluorescent powders, methods of attaching them to the inside of the tube, and other details of the lamp and its auxiliaries before the new device was ready for the public."[15]

The first practical LED arrived in 1962.[16]

U.S. transition to LED bulbs

edit

In theUnited States,incandescent light bulbs including halogen bulbs stopped being sold as of August 1, 2023,[needs update]because they do not meet minimum lumens per watt performance metrics established by theU.S. Department of Energy.[17][needs update]Compact fluorescent bulbs are also banned despite their lumens per watt performance because of their toxic mercury that can be released into the home if broken and widespread problems with proper disposal of mercury-containing bulbs.

Types

edit

Incandescent

edit
Main article:Incandescent light bulb
Sign with instructions on the use of light bulbs
A tablet atSt John the Baptist Church, Hagleycommemorates the installation of electric light in 1934.

In its modern form, the incandescent light bulb consists of a coiled filament oftungstensealed in a globular glass chamber, either a vacuum or full of aninert gassuch asargon.When an electric current is connected, the tungsten is heated to 2,000 to 3,300 K (1,730 to 3,030 °C; 3,140 to 5,480 °F) and glows, emitting light that approximates acontinuous spectrum.

Incandescent bulbs are highly inefficient, in that just 2–5% of the energy consumed is emitted asvisible, usable light.The remaining 95% is lost asheat.[18]In warmer climates, the emitted heat must then be removed, putting additional pressure onventilationorair conditioningsystems.[19]In colder weather, the heat byproduct has some value, and has been successfully harnessed for warming in devices such asheat lamps.Incandescent bulbs are nonetheless beingphased outin favor of technologies likeCFLsandLED bulbsin many countries due to their low energy efficiency. TheEuropean Commissionestimated in 2012 that a complete ban on incandescent bulbs would contribute 5 to 10 billion euros to the economy and save 15 billion metric tonnes ofcarbon dioxide emissions.[20]

Halogen

edit
Main article:Halogen lamp

Halogen lamps are usually much smaller than standard incandescent lamps, because for successful operation a bulb temperature over 200 °C is generally necessary. For this reason, most have a bulb of fused silica (quartz) or aluminosilicate glass. This is often sealed inside an additional layer of glass. The outer glass is a safety precaution, to reduce ultraviolet emission and to contain hot glass shards should the inner envelope explode during operation.[21]Oily residue fromfingerprintsmay cause a hot quartz envelope to shatter due to excessive heat buildup at the contamination site.[22]The risk of burns or fire is also greater with bare bulbs, leading to their prohibition in some places, unless enclosed by the luminaire.

Those designed for 12- or 24-volt operation have compact filaments, useful for good optical control. Also, they have higher efficacies (lumens per watt) and longer lives than non-halogen types. The light output remains almost constant throughout their life.

Fluorescent

edit
Main article:Fluorescent lamp
Top, two compact fluorescent lamps. Bottom, two fluorescent tube lamps. A matchstick, left, is shown for scale.

Fluorescent lampsconsist of a glass tube that contains mercury vapour or argon under low pressure. Electricity flowing through the tube causes the gases to give off ultraviolet energy. The inside of the tubes are coated withphosphorsthat give off visible light when struck by ultravioletphotons.[23]They have much higher efficiency than incandescent lamps. For the same amount of light generated, they typically use around one-quarter to one-third the power of an incandescent. The typicalluminous efficacyof fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with comparable light output. Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps, because they require aballastto regulate thecurrentthrough the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost.Compact fluorescent lampsare available in the same popular sizes as incandescent lamps and are used as anenergy-savingalternative in homes. Because they contain mercury, many fluorescent lamps are classified ashazardous waste.TheUnited States Environmental Protection Agencyrecommends that fluorescent lamps be segregated from general waste forrecyclingor safe disposal, and some jurisdictions require recycling of them.[24]

LED

edit
Main article:LED lamp
LED lampwith E27Edison screwbase

The solid-statelight-emitting diode(LED) has been popular as an indicator light inconsumer electronicsand professional audio gear since the 1970s. In the 2000s, efficacy and output have risen to the point where LEDs are now being used in lighting applications such as car headlights[25]and brake lights,[25]in flashlights[26]and bicycle lights,[27]as well as in decorative applications, such as holiday lighting.[28]Indicator LEDs are known for their extremely long life, up to 100,000 hours, but lighting LEDs are operated much less conservatively, and consequently have shorter lives. LED technology is useful forlighting designers,because of its low power consumption, low heat generation, instantaneous on/off control, and in the case of single color LEDs, continuity of color throughout the life of the diode and relatively low cost of manufacture.[28]LED lifetime depends strongly on the temperature of the diode.[29]Operating an LED lamp in conditions that increase the internal temperature can greatly shorten the lamp's life. Some lasers have been adapted as an alternative to LEDs to provide highly focused illumination.[30][31]

Carbon arc

edit
Main article:Arc lamp
The 15 kWxenon short-arc lampused in theIMAXprojection system.
Amercuryarc lamp from afluorescence microscope.

Carbon arc lamps consist of two carbon rodelectrodesin open air, supplied by a current-limitingballast.Theelectric arcis struck by touching the rod tips then separating them. The ensuing arc produces a white-hotplasmabetween the rod tips. These lamps have higher efficacy than filament lamps, but the carbon rods are short-lived and require constant adjustment in use, as the intense heat of the arc erodes them.[32]The lamps produce significantultravioletoutput, they require ventilation when used indoors, and due to their intensity they need protection from direct sight.

Invented byHumphry Davyaround 1805, the carbon arc was the first practical electric light.[33][34]It was used commercially beginning in the 1870s for large building and street lighting until it was superseded in the early 20th century by the incandescent light.[33]Carbon arc lamps operate at high power and produce high intensity white light. They also are a point source of light. They remained in use in limited applications that required these properties, such asmovie projectors,stage lighting,andsearchlights,until after World War II.[32]

Discharge

edit
Main article:Gas-discharge lamp

A discharge lamp has a glass or silica envelope containing two metalelectrodesseparated by a gas. Gases used include,neon,argon,xenon,sodium,metal halides,andmercury.The core operating principle is much the same as the carbon arc lamp, but the term "arc lamp" normally refers to carbon arc lamps, with more modern types of gas discharge lamp normally called discharge lamps. With some discharge lamps, very high voltage is used to strike the arc. This requires an electrical circuit called an igniter, which is part of theelectrical ballastcircuitry. After the arc is struck, the internal resistance of the lamp drops to a low level, and the ballast limits the current to the operating current. Without a ballast, excess current would flow, causing rapid destruction of the lamp.

Some lamp types contain a small amount of neon, which permits striking at normal running voltage with no external ignition circuitry.Low-pressure sodium lampsoperate this way. The simplest ballasts are just an inductor, and are chosen where cost is the deciding factor, such as street lighting. More advanced electronic ballasts may be designed to maintain constant light output over the life of the lamp, may drive the lamp with a square wave to maintain completely flicker-free output, and shut down in the event of certain faults.

The most efficient source of electric light is the low-pressure sodium lamp. It produces, for all practical purposes, amonochromaticorange-yellow light, which gives a similarly monochromatic perception of any illuminated scene. For this reason, it is generally reserved for outdoor public lighting applications. Low-pressure sodium lights are favoured for public lighting by astronomers, since thelight pollutionthat they generate can be easily filtered, contrary to broadband or continuous spectra.

Characteristics

edit

Form factor

edit
Main articles:Incandescent light bulb § Bulb shapes,andLightbulb socket

Many lamp units, or light bulbs, are specified in standardized shape codes and socket names. Incandescent bulbs and their retrofit replacements are often specified as "A19/A60E26/E27 ", a common size for those kinds of light bulbs. In this example, the" A "parameters describe the bulb size and shape within theA-series light bulbwhile the "E" parameters describe theEdison screwbase size and thread characteristics.[35]

Comparison parameters

edit

Common comparison parameters include:[36]

Less common parameters includecolor rendering index(CRI).

Life expectancy

edit

Life expectancy for many types of lamp is defined as the number of hours of operation at which 50% of them fail, that is themedianlife of the lamps. Production tolerances as low as 1% can create a variance of 25% in lamp life, so in general some lamps will fail well before the rated life expectancy, and some will last much longer. For LEDs, lamp life is defined as the operation time at which 50% of lamps have experienced a 70% decrease in light output. In the 1900s thePhoebus cartelformed in an attempt to reduce the life of electric light bulbs, an example ofplanned obsolescence.[37][38]

Some types of lamp are also sensitive to switching cycles. Rooms with frequent switching, such as bathrooms, can expect much shorter lamp life than what is printed on the box. Compact fluorescent lamps are particularly sensitive to switching cycles.[39]

Uses

edit
A clear glass 60 W light bulb

The total amount of artificial light (especially fromstreet light) is sufficient for cities to be easily visible at night from the air, and from space. External lighting grew at a rate of 3–6 percent for the later half of the 20th century and is the major source oflight pollution[40]that burdensastronomers[41]and others with 80% of the world's population living in areas with night time light pollution.[42]Light pollution has been shown to have a negative effect on some wildlife.[40][43]

Electric lamps can be used as heat sources, for example inincubators,asinfrared lampsinfast foodrestaurants and toys such as the KennerEasy-Bake Oven.[44]

Lamps can also be used forlight therapyto deal with such issues asvitamin D deficiency,[45]skin conditions such asacne[46][47]anddermatitis,[48]skin cancers,[49]andseasonal affective disorder.[50][51][52]Lamps which emit a specific frequency of blue light are also used to treatneonatal jaundice[53]with the treatment which was initially undertaken in hospitals being able to be conducted at home.[54][55]

Electric lamps can also be used as agrow lightto aid in plant growth[56]especially in indoorhydroponicsandaquatic plantswith recent research into the most effective types of light for plant growth.[57]

Due to their nonlinear resistance characteristics, tungsten filament lamps have long been used as fast-actingthermistorsin electronic circuits. Popular uses have included:

Cultural symbolism

edit

In Western culture, a lightbulb — in particular, the appearance of an illuminated lightbulb above a person's head — signifies sudden inspiration.

In theMiddle East,a light bulb symbol has a sexual connotation.[58][failed verification]

A stylized depiction of a light bulb features as the logo of the TurkishAK Party.[59][60]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^abFreebert, Ernest (2014).The Age of Edison: Electric Light and the Invention of Modern America.Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-312444-3.
  2. ^Guarnieri, M. (2015)."Switching the Light: From Chemical to Electrical"(PDF).IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine.9(3): 44–47.doi:10.1109/MIE.2015.2454038.hdl:11577/3164116.S2CID2986686.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2022-02-14.Retrieved2019-09-02.
  3. ^Blake-Coleman, B. C. (Barrie Charles) (1992).Copper Wire and Electrical Conductors – The Shaping of a Technology.Harwood Academic Publishers. p. 127.ISBN3-7186-5200-5.Archivedfrom the original on 6 December 2017.
  4. ^"The History of the Light Bulb".Energy.gov.U.S. Department of Energy.Archivedfrom the original on 20 August 2022.Retrieved19 August2022.
  5. ^"Notes – Obituary".The Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Review.24.The Electrical review, ltd.: 483 26 April 1889.
  6. ^Hannavy, John (2008).Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-century Photography.CRC Press.p. 1222.ISBN978-0-415-97235-2.
  7. ^Kitsinelis, Spiros (1 November 2010).Light Sources: Technologies and Applications.Taylor & Francis US. p. 32.ISBN978-1-4398-2079-7.
  8. ^Levy, Joel (1 March 2003).Really Useful: The Origins of Everyday Things.Firefly Books. p.89.ISBN978-1-55297-622-7.
  9. ^"Who really invented the light bulb?".sciencefocus.
  10. ^Reisert, Sarah (2015)."Let There be Light".Distillations Magazine.1(3): 44–45.Archivedfrom the original on 22 March 2018.Retrieved22 March2018.
  11. ^US 1082933A,William. D. Coolidge, "Tungsten and method of making the same for use as filaments of incandescent electric lamps and for other purposes."
  12. ^van Dulken, Stephen (2002).Inventing the 20th century: 100 inventions that shaped the world: from the airplane to the zipper.New York University Press. p. 42.ISBN978-0-8147-8812-7.
  13. ^The dates of the 1910 Paris Motor Show are incorporated intothis posterfor the show.
  14. ^Testelin, Xavier."Reportage – Il était une fois le néon No. 402".Retrieved2010-12-06.Claude lit theperistyleof theGrand Palaisin Paris with neon tubes; this webpage includes a contemporary photograph that gives an impression of the effect. The webpage is part of an extensive selection of images of neon lighting; see"Reportage – Il était une fois le néon".
  15. ^Bright, Arthur Aaron Jr. (1949).The Electric-Lamp Industry: Technological Change and Economic Development from 1800 to 1947.Macmillan Co. pp. 388–391.
  16. ^Okon, Thomas M.; Biard, James R. (2015)."The First Practical LED"(PDF).EdisonTechCenter.org.Edison Tech Center.Retrieved2016-02-02.
  17. ^Energy Department moves forward with light bulb banfrom News Nation Now on 4/3/2023
  18. ^"High Efficiency Incandescent Lighting | MIT Technology Licensing Office".tlo.mit.edu.Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2022.Retrieved19 August2022.
  19. ^"6 Ways to Save Money on Your Air Conditioning Bill".NOPEC.Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2022.Retrieved19 August2022.
  20. ^"Frequently asked questions about the regulation on ecodesign requirements for non-directional household lamps".European Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 19 August 2022.Retrieved19 August2022.
  21. ^"Tungsten Halogen – Double Jacket".lamptech.co.uk.Retrieved2023-03-06.
  22. ^"Should you not touch halogen capsule bulbs with your fingers?".The Lighting Company.Retrieved2023-03-06.
  23. ^Perkowitz, Sidney; Henry, A. Joseph (23 November 1998).Empire of Light:: A History of Discovery in Science and Art.Joseph Henry Press.ISBN978-0-309-06556-6.Archivedfrom the original on 20 October 2021.Retrieved10 November2020.
  24. ^United States Environmental Protection Agency, OSWER (2015-07-23)."Hazardous Waste".US EPA.Archivedfrom the original on 2015-06-29.Retrieved3 November2018.
  25. ^abLinkov, Jon (6 August 2019)."LED Headlights Can Be Brighter but Often Lack Clear Advantages".Consumer Reports.Retrieved2023-03-06.
  26. ^"How to Choose Flashlights | REI Co-op".REI.Retrieved2023-03-06.
  27. ^"See and Be Seen with The 13 Best Bike Lights for Every Kind of Ride".Bicycling.2022-07-19.Retrieved2023-03-06.
  28. ^ab"LED Lighting".Energy.gov.Retrieved2023-03-06.
  29. ^"The truth about LED lifespan and the longevity of your display".Samsung Business Insights.2022-05-23.Retrieved2023-03-06.
  30. ^"Laser diodes add intensity to narrow-beam lighting".13 May 2019.
  31. ^"Laser Lighting: White-light lasers challenge LEDs in directional lighting applications".22 February 2017.
  32. ^abCenter, Edison Tech."Arc Lamps – How They Work & History".edisontechcenter.org.Archivedfrom the original on 2017-06-17.Retrieved2018-01-13.
  33. ^abWhelan, M. (2013)."Arc Lamps".Resources.Edison Tech Center.Archivedfrom the original on November 10, 2014.RetrievedNovember 22,2014.
  34. ^Sussman, Herbert L. (2009).Victorian Technology: Invention, Innovation, and the Rise of the Machine.ABC-CLIO. p. 124.ISBN978-0275991692.
  35. ^"Light Bulb Sizes, Shapes and Temperatures Charts – Bulb Reference Guide".superiorlighting.Retrieved2022-10-07.
  36. ^"Lighting Facts Labels – LED Lighting".Bulbs.2012-01-01.Retrieved2023-04-10.
  37. ^MacKinnon, J. B. (2016-07-14)."The L.E.D. Quandary: Why There's No Such Thing as" Built to Last "".The New Yorker.ISSN0028-792X.Archivedfrom the original on 2017-11-14.Retrieved2017-11-05.
  38. ^"The Great Lightbulb Conspiracy".IEEE Spectrum.2014-09-24.Retrieved2022-10-07.
  39. ^"When to Turn Off Your Lights".Energy.gov.Retrieved2023-03-06.
  40. ^ab"Artificial lights are eating away at dark nights — and that's not a good thing".Los Angeles Times.2017-11-22.Retrieved2022-10-07.
  41. ^"Light Pollution".sites.astro.caltech.edu.Retrieved2022-10-07.
  42. ^Falchi, Fabio; Cinzano, Pierantonio; Duriscoe, Dan; Kyba, Christopher C. M.; Elvidge, Christopher D.; Baugh, Kimberly; Portnov, Boris A.; Rybnikova, Nataliya A.; Furgoni, Riccardo (2016-06-10)."The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness".Science Advances.2(6): e1600377.arXiv:1609.01041.Bibcode:2016SciA....2E0377F.doi:10.1126/sciadv.1600377.ISSN2375-2548.PMC4928945.PMID27386582.
  43. ^Pain, Stephanie (2018-03-23)."There goes the night".Knowable Magazine | Annual Reviews.doi:10.1146/knowable-032218-043601.
  44. ^"Easy-Bake Oven".The Strong National Museum of Play.Retrieved2022-10-07.
  45. ^Lee, Ernest; Koo, John; Berger, Tim (May 2005)."UVB phototherapy and skin cancer risk: a review of the literature".International Journal of Dermatology.44(5): 355–360.doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2004.02186.x.ISSN0011-9059.PMID15869531.S2CID11332443.
  46. ^Pei, Susan; Inamadar, Arun C.; Adya, Keshavmurthy A.; Tsoukas, Maria M. (May 2015)."Light-based therapies in acne treatment".Indian Dermatology Online Journal.6(3): 145–157.doi:10.4103/2229-5178.156379.ISSN2229-5178.PMC4439741.PMID26009707.
  47. ^Hamilton, F.L.; Car, J.; Lyons, C.; Car, M.; Layton, A.; Majeed, A. (June 2009)."Laser and other light therapies for the treatment of acne vulgaris: systematic review".British Journal of Dermatology.160(6): 1273–1285.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2009.09047.x.PMID19239470.S2CID6902995.
  48. ^Patrizi, Annalisa; Raone, Beatrice; Ravaioli, Giulia Maria (2015-10-05)."Management of atopic dermatitis: safety and efficacy of phototherapy".Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology.8:511–520.doi:10.2147/CCID.S87987.PMC4599569.PMID26491366.
  49. ^Morton, C.A.; Brown, S.B.; Collins, S.; Ibbotson, S.; Jenkinson, H.; Kurwa, H.; Langmack, K.; Mckenna, K.; Moseley, H.; Pearse, A.D.; Stringer, M.; Taylor, D.K.; Wong, G.; Rhodes, L.E. (April 2002)."Guidelines for topical photodynamic therapy: report of a workshop of the British Photodermatology Group".British Journal of Dermatology.146(4): 552–567.doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2002.04719.x.ISSN0007-0963.PMID11966684.S2CID7137209.
  50. ^Thompson, C.; Stinson, D.; Smith, A. (1990-09-22)."Seasonal affective disorder and season-dependent abnormalities of melatonin suppression by light".The Lancet.336(8717): 703–706.doi:10.1016/0140-6736(90)92202-S.ISSN0140-6736.PMID1975891.S2CID34280446.
  51. ^Danilenko, K. V.; Ivanova, I. A. (2015-07-15)."Dawn simulation vs. bright light in seasonal affective disorder: Treatment effects and subjective preference".Journal of Affective Disorders.180:87–89.doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.03.055.ISSN0165-0327.PMID25885065.
  52. ^Sanassi, Lorraine A. (February 2014)."Seasonal affective disorder: Is there light at the end of the tunnel?".JAAPA.27(2): 18–22.doi:10.1097/01.JAA.0000442698.03223.f3.ISSN1547-1896.PMID24394440.S2CID45234549.
  53. ^Cremer, R. J.; Perryman, P. W.; Richards, D. H. (1958-05-24)."Influence of Light on the Hyperbilirubinæmia of Infants".The Lancet.271(7030): 1094–1097.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(58)91849-X.ISSN0140-6736.PMID13550936.
  54. ^Anderson, Candice Megan; Kandasamy, Yogavijayan; Kilcullen, Meegan (2022-10-01)."The efficacy of home phototherapy for physiological and non-physiological neonatal jaundice: A systematic review".Journal of Neonatal Nursing.28(5): 312–326.doi:10.1016/j.jnn.2021.08.010.ISSN1355-1841.S2CID238646014.
  55. ^Pettersson, M.; Eriksson, M.; Albinsson, E.; Ohlin, A. (2021-05-01)."Home phototherapy for hyperbilirubinemia in term neonates—an unblinded multicentre randomized controlled trial".European Journal of Pediatrics.180(5): 1603–1610.doi:10.1007/s00431-021-03932-4.ISSN1432-1076.PMC8032579.PMID33469713.
  56. ^"How to Choose the Proper Grow Light for Your Indoor Garden".primalgrowgear.2021-08-27.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-05.Retrieved2022-01-05.
  57. ^Terashima, Ichiro; Fujita, Takashi; Inoue, Takeshi; Chow, Wah Soon; Oguchi, Riichi (April 2009)."Green Light Drives Leaf Photosynthesis More Efficiently than Red Light in Strong White Light: Revisiting the Enigmatic Question of Why Leaves are Green".Plant and Cell Physiology.50(4): 684–697.doi:10.1093/pcp/pcp034.ISSN1471-9053.PMID19246458.
  58. ^Fuller, Graham (2014).Turkey and the Arab Spring: Leadership in the Middle East.New York: Bozog Press. p. 345.ISBN978-0993751400.
  59. ^Foundation, Thomson."A protester holds a light bulb, the official symbol of Turkey's ruling AK Party (AKP), with a Nazi swastika sign painted on it during an anti-government protest at Taksim Square in Istanbul".news.trust.org.Archived fromthe originalon 3 November 2018.Retrieved3 November2018.
  60. ^"15 years of Turkey's Justice and Development Party".Retrieved3 November2018.
edit
  • Dark Sacred Night"(2023) is a short science film from the Princeton University Office of Sustainability about lighting obscuring the stars and affecting health and the environment.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_light&oldid=1260606880"