Wikipedia

Legality of polygamy

The legal status ofpolygamyvaries widely around the world.Polygamyis legal in 58 out of nearly 200 sovereign states, the vast majority of them beingMuslim-majority countries.Some countries that permit polygamy have restrictions, such as requiring the first wife to give her consent.

Polygamy is legal only for Muslims
Polygamy is legal
Polygamy is legal in some regions (Indonesia)
Polygamy is illegal, but not criminalised in practice
Polygamy is illegal and criminalised in practice
Legal status unknown
  • In India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Singapore, polygamy is only legal forMuslims.
  • In Nigeria and South Africa, polygamous marriages under customary law and for Muslims are legally recognized.

In countries that ban polygamy, the offence is commonly calledbigamy,though the penalty varies between jurisdictions. In some countries where polygamy is illegal, the prohibition isnot enforced.

Countries that recognize polygamous marriages

edit

Africa

edit
Further information:Islam in Africa

Asia

edit
Further information:Islam in Asia

Oceania

edit

Countries that only recognize polygamous marriages for Muslims

edit

Note: These countries are included separately because they have specific legislation aimed only at Muslims.

Asia

edit

Countries that only recognize polygamous marriages under customary law

edit

Asia

edit

India(forMuslims[60]and inGoa[61])

Africa

Countries that do not recognize polygamous marriages

edit

Africa

edit

Polygamy is more widespread in Africa than in any other continent, being most common in a region known as the "polygamy belt" inWest AfricaandCentral Africa,with the countries estimated to have the highest polygamy prevalence in the world beingBurkina Faso,Mali,Gambia,NigerandNigeria.[71]In the region ofsub-Saharan Africa,polygyny is common and deeply rooted in the culture, with 11% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa living in such marriages (25% of the Muslim population and 3% of the Christian population, as of 2019).[72]Polygamous marriages occur, regardless of legality, as the practice is deeply rooted in culture and often supported byIslam in Africa.

Americas

edit
Main articles:Polygamy in North America,Latter Day Saint polygamy in the late-19th century,andMormonism and polygamy
  • Antigua and Barbuda
  • Argentina
  • Bahamas
  • Barbados
  • Belize
  • Bolivia
  • Brazil: Bigamy is illegal. The marriage of a single individual to more than one other person is prohibited by law as bigamy, which is punishable by two to six years of imprisonment,[94]and is valid for every Brazilian citizen, including naturalized ones.De factopolygamy is not outlawed.
  • Canada:All forms of polygamy, and some informal multiple sexual relationships, are illegal under section 293 of theCriminal Code.[95]Bigamyis banned by section 290.[96]However, as of January 2009, no person has beensuccessfullyprosecuted, i.e. convicted, in over sixty years.[97]In 2009, two acquittals on polygamy charges, arising out of the town ofBountiful, British Columbia,prompted the government ofBritish Columbiato pose areference questionto theSupreme Court of British Columbia(i.e., thesuperior trial court). The reference questions asked if the criminalisation of polygamy was consistent with theCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms;and, if so, under what circumstances could people be legally punished for polygamy.[98]In November 2011 the court released its 335-page long decision, which was that the criminal offence of polygamy is indeed constitutional, but that it should not be used to prosecute minors for having taken part in a polygamous marriage.[99]Chief JusticeRobert J. Baumanconceded that there is a conflict between this law and some civil rights principles, but stated that there are other and "more important" issues which in this case take precedence. He wrote (as quoted byCBC News[99]): "I have concluded that this case is essentially about harm. More specifically, Parliament's reasoned apprehension of harm arising out of the practice of polygamy. This includes harm to women, to children, to society and the institution of monogamous marriage." Bauman argued that there are cases where the "wives" (who may be rather young; sometimes as young as 12 years) are abducted and abused, but because they believe in faith-promoting polygamy, they are not willing to bring complaints to the authorities. He reasoned that these offences sometimes may be stopped by applying anti-polygamy legislation. The decision was welcomed by theAttorney General of British Columbia,and by a representative for the group Stop Polygamy in Canada. Likewise, according to CBC News,[99]somepolyamorousgroups in Canada expressed their relief since Bauman had stated that the law shouldn't apply to them unless they decide to formalize their unions. Women's rights were central to the decision.[99]
  • Chile
  • Colombia
  • Costa Rica
  • Cuba
  • Dominica
  • Dominican Republic
  • Ecuador
  • El Salvador
  • Grenada
  • Guatemala
  • Guyana
  • Haiti
  • Honduras
  • Jamaica
  • Mexico
  • Nicaragua
  • Panama
  • Paraguay
  • Peru
  • St. Kitts and Nevis
  • St. Lucia
  • St. Vincent and The Grenadines
  • Suriname
  • Trinidad and Tobago
Bigamy laws throughout the United States
Infraction
Misdemeanor
Felony
All forms ofcohabitationoutlawed

Asia

edit

As in Africa, polygamy continues to be practiced in parts of Asia, regardless of laws.

  • Nepal
  • China:Polygamy is illegal under the Civil code passed in 2020, which replaced a similar 1950 and 1980 prohibition.[104]
  • Hong Kong: Polygamy ended with the passing of the Marriage Act of 1971[105]when the country was a crown colony under the former flag.Previous unions entered into under customary law are recognised in some situations.
  • Israel:Polygamy has been banned for all confessional communities since at least 1959.[106]Polygamy was criminalized in 1977, but the law is not consistently enforced and polygamy is still practiced byNegev Bedouins.[107]
  • Japan
  • Kazakhstan:Polygamous marriages are not recognized, but the practice is decriminalized, with Kazakhstan being the only Central Asian country to have decriminalized the practice (in 1998, when the new criminal code no longer provided for such an offense).[108]
  • Kyrgyzstan
  • Mongolia
  • Myanmar[109][110]
  • North Korea
  • South Korea
  • Taiwan (Polygamy is illegalby the 1930ROCcivil law.[clarify])[111]
  • Tajikistan
  • Turkey(Polygamy was criminalized in 1926 with the adoption of the Turkish Civil Code, part ofAtatürk'ssecularistreforms. Penalties for polygamy are imprisonment of up to 5 years.)[112]Turkey has long been known for its promotion ofsecularism,[113][114][115]and has introduced measures establishing stricter bars against polygamy; these were passed by the ruling moderate IslamistAK Partyas well. In March 2009, AK Parti effectively banned polygamists from entering or living in the country.[116]
  • Turkmenistan
  • Uzbekistan:Religious authorities who perform a marriage ceremony for couples without a civil marriage license face fines of up to 9,900,000so'm.Additionally, propagandizing or encouraging cohabitation with two or more wives is punishble by a fine of the same amount, or administrative detention for up to 15 days.[117]
  • Vietnam
  • Cambodia[118]
  • Laos
  • Russia:Polygamous marriages are not recognized in the Russian Federation. TheFamily Code of Russiastates that a marriage can only be contracted between a man and a woman, neither of whom is married to someone else.[119]Furthermore, Russia does not recognize polygamous marriages that had been contracted in other countries.[120]However, neither bigamy norde factopolygamy are criminalized.[121]
  • Thailand[122]
  • Timor-Leste[123]

Europe

edit
  • Albania
  • Armenia
  • Andorra
  • Azerbaijan
  • Belarus
  • Bosnia and Herzegovina
  • European Union: Polygamy is illegal in all27 states.In Bulgaria, polygamy is illegal and punishable with up to three years imprisonment.[124]In Finland, the official prosecutor is obliged to take all cases to a court where more than two persons are married to each other and such relationships cease to exist after the court has decided it.[125]Polygamic marriages performed abroad may be recognized only on narrow occasions, for instance in child custody matters.[126]InFrance,polygamy is illegal under Article 433-20 of the Penal Code and punishable by one year's imprisonment and a fine of €45,000.[127]In Germany, polygamy is illegal, legally punishable with fine or prison time up to three years.[128]Polygamous marriages contracted abroad are legal, however, the German authorities announced plans to close this legal loophole by making it a barrier tonaturalization.[129]In Ireland,[130]theCatholic Church in Irelandallowed someone with achurch annulmentbut nocivil annulmentto remarry in church; such a marriage was legally null and bigamous but no prosecutions were brought.[131][132]The practice ended afterthe 1996 legalisation of divorce.[131]In 2017, theSupreme Courtruled that if someone had two legal marriages abroad, only the first was legal in Ireland, though 'that did not necessarily mean [the second] marriage "can never have legal consequences [in Ireland]" '.[133]In the Netherlands, a marriage between more than two individuals is prohibited; however, asamenlevingscontractmay include more than two partners. It legally accepts immigrants who are in such a union from a country where it is legal; e.g. if a man with two wives immigrates to The Netherlands, all three will be legally recognized.[134]In Romania, bigamy, defined as marriage conducted by a person who is already married, is punishable by up to 2 years in prison or fine. Knowingly marrying a married person is punishable by up to 1 year in prison or by fine.[135]In Sweden, a person who is already married is not permitted to enter into another marriage. In the past, Sweden generally recognized polygamous marriages performed abroad.[136][137][138]However, the Swedish government decided to task an inquiry chair with reviewing how to prevent recognition of foreign polygamous marriages in Sweden; Deputy Minister for Justice, Heléne Fritzon stating that "Polygamous marriages should not be recognised in Sweden and we need to review the existing legal loophole that makes it possible. Polygamous marriages undermine gender equality and, according to the UN, it can have serious emotional and financial consequences".[139]Since 2021, Sweden no longer recognizes foreign polygamous marriages, save in exceptional circumstances.[140]
  • Georgia
  • Iceland
  • Kosovo
  • Liechtenstein
  • Moldova
  • Monaco
  • Montenegro
  • North Macedonia
  • Norway
  • Russia:Polygamous marriages are not recognized in Russia. TheFamily Code of Russiastates that a marriage can only be contracted between a man and a woman, neither of whom is married to someone else.[119]Furthermore, Russia does not recognize polygamous marriages that had been contracted in other countries.[120]However, neither bigamy norde factopolygamy are criminalized.[121]
  • San Marino
  • Serbia
  • Switzerland: Polygamy is illegal by law. But polygamous marriage conducted in another country may be accepted or rejected on a case-by-case basis.[141]
  • Turkey
  • Ukraine
  • United Kingdom:Foreign polygamous marriages grant some welfare benefits only, but this is being phased out with the introduction of Universal Credit.[142]Polygamy is treated as bigamy if a second marriage (or civil partnership) is contracted in the United Kingdom. No legal recognition is extended to spouses of subsequent marriages after the first marriage is recognised even when subsequent marriages are contracted abroad.
  • Vatican City (Holy See)

Oceania

edit
  • Australia:Polygamous marriages cannot be performed in Australia, but polygamous relationships are still common within some indigenous Australian communities.[143][144]Polygamous marriages entered into abroad are recognised for limited purposes[which?]only.[145]
  • Fiji
  • Kiribati
  • Marshall Islands
  • Micronesia
  • Nauru
  • New Zealand:Polygamous marriages cannot be performed in New Zealand, but are permissible if they are legally performed in a country that permits polygamy.
  • Palau
  • Papua New Guinea
  • Samoa
  • Tonga
  • Tuvalu
  • Vanuatu

Current legislation

edit

In most countries, a person who marries a person while still being lawfully married to another commitsbigamy,acriminal offence,though penalties vary between jurisdictions. Besides, the second and subsequent marriages are considered legally null andvoid.

The United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand permit some benefits for spouses of polygamous marriages performed abroad. In the past, Sweden used to recognize polygamous marriages performed abroad; but since 2021, Sweden no longer recognizes such marriages, save in exceptional circumstances.[140]In Switzerland polygamous marriages conducted abroad may be accepted or rejected on a case-by-case basis;[146]see§ Europe.

In Canada, both bigamy (article 290 of theCriminal code of Canada)[147]) andde factopolygamy (article 293 of the Criminal Code)[148]are illegal, but there are provisions in the property law of at least the Canadian province ofSaskatchewanthat consider the possibility ofde factomultiple marriage-like situations (e.g. if an already married person enters into a second common-law relationship situation without first obtaining a legal divorce from their existing spouse).[149][better source needed]

The vast majority of sovereign states with a Muslim-majority population recognize polygamous marriages: these states span from the West Africa to Southeast Asia, with the exceptions ofTurkey,Tunisia,Albania,KosovoandCentral Asiancountries.[150][151][152][153]

Predominantly Christian nations usually do not allow polygamy, with a handful of exceptions such as theRepublic of the Congo,Uganda, andZambia.

Almost a dozen countries that do not permit polygamous civil marriages recognize polygamous marriages under customary law. All thenorthern states in Nigeriagoverned by IslamicSharia lawrecognize polygamous marriages. Theautonomousregions of Somaliland andPuntlandin northern Somalia also recognize polygamy, as does the country'sTransitional Federal Governmentitself, since the country is governed bySharia law.The recently independent country ofSouthern Sudanalso recognizes polygamy.

Polyandryisde factothe norm in rural areas ofTibet,although it is illegal under Chinesefamily law.Polygamy continues in Bhutan[38]in various forms as it has since ancient times. It is also found in parts of Nepal,[154]despite its formal illegality in the country.[155]

Debates of legalizing polygamous marriages continue in Central Asian countries.[citation needed]

International law

edit

In 2000, theUnited Nations Human Rights Committeereported that polygamy violates theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights(ICCPR), citing concerns that the lack of "equality of treatment with regard to the right to marry" meant that polygamy, restricted to polygyny in practice, violates the dignity of women and should be outlawed.[156]Specifically, the reports to UN Committees have noted violations of the ICCPR due to these inequalities[157]and reports to the General Assembly of the UN have recommended it be outlawed.[158][159]

Some countries where polygamy is legal are not signatories of ICCPR, including Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Malaysia, Brunei and South Sudan; so that ICCPR does not apply to these countries.[160]It has been argued by theDepartment of Justice of Canadathat polygyny is a violation of international human rights law.[161]

Notable legislation

edit

The tables below cover recent pieces of legislation that have been either debated, proposed or voted on; all of which concerns a form of polygamous union.

To permit polygamy

edit
Country Date Polygamous union Upper House Lower House Head of State Final
outcome
Yes No Yes No
Iraq 1963 Polygamous civil marriage (revoke of prohibitions)[162] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Philippines February 1977 Polygamous civil marriage (Muslims only)[163] - - Signed Yes
United Kingdom 1987 or earlier Foreign marriages may receive benefits payments, being phased out[142]
Malawi 1994 Customary law (recognizes polygamous unions)[164] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Libya 1998 Polygamous civil marriage[165] Passed Passed Signed Yes
South Africa 1998 Customary marriage (civil recognition)[166] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Namibia 2003 Customary law (recognizes polygamous unions)[167] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Namibia 2004 Pension benefits to wives of a deceased president[168] - Failed - No
Uganda 2005 Polygamous civil marriage (easing of laws; plus restrictions) Passed Passed Signed Yes
Kyrgyzstan 2007 Polygamous civil marriage[169] Failed - - - No
Kazakhstan 2007 Polygamous civil marriage[169] Failed - - - No
Uzbekistan 2007 Polygamous civil marriage Failed - - - No
Tajikistan 2007 Polygamous civil marriage Failed - - - No
Turkmenistan 2007 Polygamous civil marriage Failed - - - No
Kazakhstan June 2008 Polygamous civil marriage[170] Failed - - - No
Iran September 2008 Polygamous civil marriage (easing of laws)[171] Failed - - - No
Namibia July 2009 Polygamous civil marriage[172] Proposed - - - -
Russia 2009 Polygamous civil marriage Proposed - - - -
Kenya March 2014 Polygamous civil marriage Passed[16] - - - Yes

To outlaw polygamy

edit
Country Date Prohibition type Upper House Lower House Head of State Final
outcome
Yes No Yes No
United States July 1862 Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act,which made polygamy amisdemeanoroffense in US territories and other areas where the federal government has exclusive jurisdiction. ' ' Signed Yes
United States March 1882 Edmunds Act,which reinforced Morrill by making polygamy afelonyin the jurisdictions covered by Morrill; also prohibited "bigamous" or "unlawful cohabitation"as a misdemeanor offense, which removed the need to prove that actual marriages had occurred in order to obtain convictions on polygamy related charges. Passed Passed Signed Yes
Turkestan ASSR(modernKyrgyzstan) October 1921 Outlaws polygamy[173] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Thailand October 1935 Outlaws polygamy; polygamous marriage[174] Passed Passed Signed Yes
North Vietnam(modernVietnam) October 1950 Outlaws polygamy Passed Passed Signed Yes
Syria 1953 Restrictions on polygamous marriage[162] Passed Passed Signed Yes
India 1955 Outlaws Polygamy (Polygamy for Muslims was outlawed after a verdict by theSupreme Court of Indiain 2015)[175] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Tunisia 1956 Ban on polygamy; polygamous marriages[176] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Iraq 1959 Ban on polygamy; polygamous marriage[162] Passed Passed Signed Revoked
Côte d'Ivoire 1964 New penal code outlaws polygamy; polygamous marriages (upholds existing) Passed Passed Signed Yes
British Hong Kong(modernHong Kong) 1971 Outlaws polygamy[177] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Eritrean People's Liberation Front(modernEritrea) 1977 Outlaws polygamy; polygamous marriage (districts under Sharia exempt)[178] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Egypt 1979 Restrictions on polygamous marriage; ease of divorce laws[176] Passed; abrogated - - - No
Egypt 1985 Restrictions on polygamous marriage (less liberal)[176] Passed Passed Signed Yes
France 1993 Outlaws family reunion for polygamist immigrants[179] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Uganda December 2003 Outlaws polygamy[180] Failed - - No
Morocco 2003 Restrictions on polygamous marriage[176] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Benin August 2004 New penal code outlaws polygamy; polygamous marriages (upholds existing)[181] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Morocco February 2005 Restrictions on polygamous marriage (heavy restrictions)[182] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Uganda July 2005 Outlaws polygamy[183] Failed - - No
Indonesia 2007 Bans civil servants from living polygamously[184] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Morocco May 2008 Restrictions on polygamous marriage (heavy restrictions)[citation needed] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Uganda June 2008 Outlaws polygamy[180] Failed - - No
Iraqi Kurdistan Nov. 2008 Outlaws polygamy except in selective circumstances[185] Passed Passed Signed Yes
Mayotte March 2009 2009 Mahoran status referendum(passage outlaws polygamy)[186] Territory-wide referendum Yes
Turkey May 2009 Disallows polygamists from immigrating into the country[187][failed verification] Yes
Indonesia July 2009 Restrictions on polygamous marriage[188] Pending Pending - -
Namibia July 2009 Ban on polygamy and polygamous customary marriages Proposed - - - -

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^"Algeria – Researched and compiled by the Refugee Documentation Centre of Ireland on 22 July 2011: Information on forced marriages and polygamous marriages, including the treatment of women"(PDF).Refworld.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  2. ^"In modern Cameroon polygamy doesn't pay - csmonitor".Christian Science Monitor.10 February 2009. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  3. ^"Christian Polygamy In Chad Africa".Christian Polygamy Society. December 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 2 July 2012.
  4. ^OECD (20 February 2010).Atlas of Gender and Development How Social Norms Affect Gender Equality in non-OECD Countries.OECD Publishing. p. 206.ISBN978-9264077478.The practice of polygamy is legal in the Central African Republic but faces growing resistance among educated women
  5. ^"Republic Of Congo Responds To Questions Raised In Women'S Anti-Discrimination Committee | Meetings Coverage And Press Releases".Un.org.29 January 2003.Retrieved6 January2017.
  6. ^"Women's rights protection instruments ratified by Djibouti"(PDF).Africa4womensrights.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  7. ^Primo, Valentina (27 September 2015)."Polygamy in Egypt: Why I Decided to Marry a Second Wife".carioscene.Retrieved30 December2016.We all know male polygamy is legal.
  8. ^Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for."Refworld - Swaziland: Laws and customs in Swaziland regarding polygamy".
  9. ^"Gender Equality and Social Institutions in Gabon".Social Institutions & Gender Index, genderindex.org. 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 19 June 2010.Retrieved27 April2009.
  10. ^"African Women's Rights Observatory > Country Specific Information - Gabon".Uneca.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  11. ^pt."Polygamy in Gambia".Accessgambia.Retrieved6 January2017.
  12. ^"Gender Equality in Guinea | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  13. ^"Libyan men now allowed to remarry without consent of first wife: court rule".English.alarabiya.net. Archived fromthe originalon 1 November 2016.Retrieved29 October2014.
  14. ^"Polygamy in Libya — and beyond".Salon.Retrieved29 October2014.
  15. ^"Libya's Women Activists Outraged by Court Ruling on Wives".VOA.Retrieved29 October2014.
  16. ^ab"Kenyan parliament passes polygamy law".Al Jazeera.21 March 2014.
  17. ^"Mali: polygamy, including conditions to be met for a man to be able to marry a second wife; divorce, specifically when a woman requests a divorce, including the grounds and treatment of women by society and the authorities (2012-December 2013)".Refworld.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  18. ^"Gender Equality in Mauritania | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  19. ^Medini, Mona (23 January 2015)."Polygamy: How Moroccans trick to have a second wife".MBC Times. Archived fromthe originalon 17 August 2016.Retrieved25 November2016.[Polygamy] legally becomes theoretically almost impossible if not completely impossible.
  20. ^Itoro E. Akpan-Iquot."Traditional marriage in Nigeria: Polygamy".Migerianwomenworld. Archived fromthe originalon 30 December 2011.Retrieved21 November2014.
  21. ^"Gay Life in São Tomé and Príncipe".Globalgayz.Retrieved6 January2017.
  22. ^"Gender Equality in Senegal | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  23. ^"Acceptance of Polygamy Slowly Changes in Muslim Africa",VOANews,Voice of America,12 March 2007, archived fromthe originalon 7 May 2009
  24. ^"Somaliland marriages are valid".Free Movement.6 February 2020.Retrieved11 January2021.
  25. ^"Is polygamy corrupting South Sudan?".Daily Sabah Africa.11 February 2015.Retrieved30 December2016.Polygamy is commonly practiced in many African societies, including South Sudan.
  26. ^"MJC (SA) welcomes the Constitutional Court ruling on the recognition of Muslim Marriages".MJC (SA) | Muslim Judicial Council of South Africa.7 July 2022.Retrieved17 July2022.
  27. ^"Women's Legal Centre Trust v President of the Republic of South Africa and Others (CCT 24/21) [2022] ZACC 23 (28 June 2022)".saflii.org.Retrieved17 July2022.
  28. ^PDF of Supreme Court Decisionhttp:// saflii.org/za/cases/ZACC/2022/23media.pdf
  29. ^"AFRICA | Sudan pushes polygamy".BBC News.15 August 2001.Retrieved6 January2017.
  30. ^United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees."Togo: Polygamy among the country's ruling elite".Refworld.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  31. ^"Divorce and Polygamy in Tanzania"(PDF).Ecommons.luc.edu.Retrieved6 January2017.
  32. ^"Gender Equality in Uganda | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  33. ^"Gender Equality in Zambia | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  34. ^Nordland, Rod; Sukhanyar, Jawad (7 November 2015)."Afghan Mullah Leading Stoning Inquiry Condones Practice".The New York Times.Retrieved1 November2016.
  35. ^"Freedom House: Women's Rights in Bahrain 2009 | Bahrain Center for Human Rights".Bahrainrights.org.18 March 2009. Archived fromthe originalon 17 January 2018.Retrieved6 January2017.
  36. ^"Gender Equality in Bangladesh | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  37. ^"Gender Equality in Bhutan | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  38. ^abFrench, Patrick (1 March 2008)."Bhutan: Last wonder".The Daily Telegraph.London.Retrieved21 October2010.
  39. ^"Laws of Brunei"(PDF).Ftcam.de.Retrieved6 January2017.
  40. ^"Gender Equality in Indonesia | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  41. ^"Gender Equality in Iran, Islamic Rep. | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  42. ^Bassem, Wassim (26 January 2015)."Rising incomes mean many Iraqi men marry multiple wives".Al-Monitor.Retrieved30 December2016.
  43. ^"Marriage in Jordan - U.S. Embassy in Jordan".
  44. ^Chaleby, Kutaiba (1985). "Women of Polygamous Marriages in an Inpatient Psychiatric Service in Kuwait".The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.173(1):56–8.doi:10.1097/00005053-198501000-00009.PMID3965613.S2CID13737031.
  45. ^"Maldives divorce rate soars".Unmarriedamerica.org.31 October 2003.Retrieved6 January2017.
  46. ^"Gender Equality in Oman | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  47. ^"Polygamy rates decline in Qatar: Study".alarabiya.net.Archived fromthe originalon 25 January 2011.Retrieved17 January2022.
  48. ^"Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im".Law.emory.edu.Retrieved6 January2017.
  49. ^"Gender Equality in Saudi Arabia | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  50. ^"Gender Equality in Syrian Arab Republic | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  51. ^"Gender Equality in United Arab Emirates | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  52. ^"Gender Equality in Yemen | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  53. ^"Solomon Islands: Gender and Investment Climate Reform Assessment"(PDF).Ifc.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  54. ^"What are the types of marriages in Malaysia? - Marriage - Lawyerment Knowledge Base".Lawyerment.16 November 2016.Retrieved6 January2017.
  55. ^"Philippines - Muslim Filipinos".countrystudies.us.
  56. ^"Bigamy committed by Muslim convert for contracting 2nd marriage".The Manila Times.25 May 2017.Retrieved31 January2022.
  57. ^"Supreme Court: Converting to Islam to marry a second spouse is bigamy".CNN Philippines.23 March 2022. Archived fromthe originalon 30 March 2022.Retrieved30 March2022.
  58. ^"Interview: Women Unequal Under Lebanon's Law".19 January 2015.
  59. ^"Gender Equality in Pakistan | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  60. ^abAnand, Akriti (29 October 2023)."What Indian laws say about polygamy | Explained | Today News".mint.Retrieved17 January2025.
  61. ^Mishra, Arvind (2 July 2023)."How uniform is Goa's civil code? | Explained".India Today.Retrieved17 January2025.
  62. ^"Women's rights protection instruments ratified by Botswana"(PDF).Africa4womensrights.org.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 January 2017.Retrieved6 January2017.
  63. ^"Concluding observations on the combined initial to fourth periodic reports of Lesotho"(PDF).Tbinternet.ohchr.org.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 7 March 2022.Retrieved6 January2017.
  64. ^"Gender Equality in Liberia | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  65. ^"Gender Equality in Malawi | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  66. ^"Gender Equality in Namibia | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  67. ^"Gender Equality in Niger | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  68. ^"Gender Equality in Nigeria | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  69. ^CEDAW (2007), Responses to the List of Issues And Questions with Regard to the Consideration of the Combined Initial, Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth Periodic Reports: Sierra Leone, CEDAW/C/SLE/Q/5/Add. 1, CEDAW, New York, NY, p. 17.
  70. ^"Zimbabwe".State.gov.6 March 2007.Retrieved6 January2017.
  71. ^"Polygamy is rare around the world and mostly confined to a few regions".
  72. ^"Polygamy is rare around the world and mostly confined to a few regions".
  73. ^Almeida, Henrique (14 July 2009)."Polygamy in Angola isn't legal, but it is common".Reuters.Archived fromthe originalon 11 December 2018.Retrieved30 December2016.Although Angolan law condemns polygamy, or multiple marriages, the practice is widespread in a country with a large share of female-headed households and where woman are often left alone to care for their children.
  74. ^"Gender Equality in Benin | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  75. ^"Gender Equality in Burkina Faso | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  76. ^Jensen Arnett, Jeffrey (2007).International encyclopedia of adolescence: A-J, index, Volume 1.Taylor & Francis. p. 123.ISBN978-0415966672.
  77. ^"The Culture of Cape Verde".August 2017.
  78. ^"Tied in knots? Polygamy persists in DR Congo despite ban".5 April 2022.
  79. ^"Gender Equality in Cote d'Ivoire | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org.Archived fromthe originalon 21 December 2016.Retrieved6 January2017.
  80. ^"PENAL CODE OF THE STATE OF ERITREA"(PDF).Refworld.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  81. ^"Examining the Life of Women in Western Africa"(PDF).Uoregon.edu.Retrieved6 January2017.
  82. ^"Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im".Law.emory.edu.Retrieved6 January2017.
  83. ^"Archived copy"(PDF).uneca.org.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 4 February 2009.Retrieved17 January2022.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  84. ^"Gender Equality in Ghana - Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)".Genderindex.org. Archived fromthe originalon 25 September 2015.Retrieved24 September2015.
  85. ^"Ghana".Law.emory.edu.Retrieved24 September2015.
  86. ^"Microsoft Word - Q14320 Ethiopia"(PDF).Justice.gov.Retrieved6 January2017.
  87. ^"BIGAMOUS MARRIAGE AND THE DIVISION OF COMMON PROPERTY UNDER THE ETHIOPIAN LAW: REGULATORY CHALLENGES AND OPTIONS".Ajol.info.Retrieved6 January2017.
  88. ^OECD (2010).Atlas of Gender and Development: How Social Norms Affect Gender Equality in non-OECD Countries.Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Development Centre.ISBN978-92-64-07520-7.
  89. ^Chrisafis, Angelique (26 March 2009)."Welcome to France: home of sun, sea, sand, polygamy and the Indian Ocean".Guardian.London.Retrieved21 October2010.
  90. ^"Muslim island must give up polygamy as price of being part of France".Sydney Morning Herald.31 March 2009.Retrieved21 October2010.
  91. ^Mwareya, Ray (5 July 2016)."Widows without sons in Mozambique accused of sorcery and robbed of land".Reuters.Retrieved30 December2016.Although polygamy is prohibited in Mozambique there is no punishment. Across the country nearly a third of married women are thought to be in polygamous marriages, according to a NORAD survey.
  92. ^"ICL - Rwanda - Constitution".Archived fromthe originalon 28 June 2010.Retrieved10 January2017.
  93. ^Tunisian women free to marry non-Muslims,BBC, 16 Sept 2017
  94. ^"DEL2848compilado".planalto.gov.br.Archived fromthe originalon 13 March 2016.Retrieved21 January2013.
  95. ^"Criminal Code".Laws-lois.justice.gc.ca.Retrieved6 January2017.
  96. ^"Criminal Code".Laws-lois.justice.gc.ca.Retrieved6 January2017.
  97. ^Lak, Daniel (21 January 2009)."Polygamy in Canada".CBC News.Retrieved23 July2009.
  98. ^"Crown wants polygamy testimony off internet".CBC News.26 November 2010.
  99. ^abcd"Canada's polygamy laws upheld by B.C. Supreme Court".CBC News.23 November 2011.
  100. ^Barbara Bradley Hagerty (27 May 2008)."Some Muslims in U.S. Quietly Engage in Polygamy".National Public Radio:All Things Considered.Retrieved23 July2009.
  101. ^"Polygamy bill passes the Utah State Legislature".2020-02-27.Retrieved2021-06-10.
  102. ^"S.B. 102 Bigamy Amendments".Retrieved10 June2021.
  103. ^"Polygamy is essentially decriminalized in Utah under a bill signed into law".29 March 2020.
  104. ^"Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China".lawinfochina.
  105. ^"Hong Kong Moves to Forbid New Concubines After June, '71".The New York Times.31 May 1970.
  106. ^The English Law of Bigamy in a Multi-Confessional Society: The Israel Experienceby P Shifman.
  107. ^Ben Zikri, Almog (25 November 2018)."Out of Over 300 Polygamy Cases in Israel in 2018, 16 Reached Indictments".Haaretz.Retrieved14 May2019.
  108. ^Najibullah, Farangis (23 June 2011)."Polygamy a Fact of Life in Kazakhstan".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
  109. ^"Myanmar's president signs off on polygamy law seen as targeting Muslims".Aljazeera. August 2015.
  110. ^Chin Kim (1973). "Law of Marriage and Divorce in North Korea".The International Lawyer.7(4): 910.OCLC759928863.
  111. ^"Luật dân sự － kết hôn văn kiện quan trọng chi nghiên tích".[permanent dead link‍]
  112. ^"Polygamy Fosters Culture Clashes (and Regrets) in Turkey",New York Times,10 July 2006
  113. ^""Turkey Between Secularism and Islamism" by Jacob M. Landau ".Archived fromthe originalon 3 March 2016.Retrieved26 June2016.
  114. ^"Turkey's secularism 'threatened'",BBC
  115. ^Alev Çinar, "Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey"
  116. ^"Polygamy in Turkey",Polygamy 411, May 2009
  117. ^"Uzbekistan establishes administrative liability for promoting cohabitation with two or more wives",Uz Daily, 1 November 2023
  118. ^Mony, Keo (5 February 2008)."Cambodian Marriage".Ethnomed.Retrieved1 January2017.The modern constitution forbids polygamy; some say it is commonly practiced more often when family economics permit.
  119. ^ab"Family Code of the Russian Federation, Articles 12 & 14"(in Russian).Retrieved6 August2012.
  120. ^ab"Family Code of the Russian Federation, Article 158"(in Russian).Retrieved6 August2012.
  121. ^abNeither bigamy, nor polygamy, nor cohabitation is listed as a crime or offence in theCriminal Code of Russiaor theOffences Code of Russia
  122. ^Chintana Yossoonthorn, Women in Thailand, Proceedings of the Peace Corps Conference on Women and Development Bangkok, 1979, p. 11.
  123. ^"Timor-Leste: Discriminatory family code"(PDF).Genderindex.org.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 January 2017.Retrieved6 January2017.
  124. ^"Bulgarian Penal Code, art. 179".Archived fromthe originalon 20 April 2016.Retrieved8 April2016.
  125. ^"Marriage Act"(PDF).Finlex.
  126. ^"FINLEX ® - Hallituksen esitykset: HE 44/2001".finlex.fi.
  127. ^https:// legislationline.org/download/id/3316/file/France_Criminal%20Code%20updated%20on%2012-10-2005.pdf[bare URL PDF]
  128. ^"§172 StGB".
  129. ^Bewarder, Manuel (4 May 2019)."Polygamie: Einbürgerung bleibt trotz Mehrehe möglich".Retrieved23 August2019.
  130. ^"Offences Against The Person Act, 1861".Irish Statute Book.Section 57.Retrieved15 June2017.
  131. ^abMaogoto, Jackson Nyamuya; Anolak, Helena (2009). "Legalising Divorce in the Republic of Ireland: A Canonical Harness to the Legal Liberation of the Right to Marriage Among the Disenfranchised".SSRN Electronic Journal.doi:10.2139/ssrn.1465343.ISSN1556-5068.
  132. ^Shatter, Alan(5 October 1995)."Fifteenth Amendment of the Constitution (No. 2) Bill, 1995: Committee Stage".Select Committee on Legislation and Security Debate.Oireachtas.Retrieved15 June2017.The State does not recognise church decrees of annulment. In effect, all marriages celebrated after a church decree of annulment are bigamous and priests celebrating these marriages are accessories before the fact to bigamy and liable to criminal prosecution.... we have turned a blind eye to the celebration of bigamous marriages and abandoned couples who celebrate them to a legal limbo for so many years.
  133. ^Carolan, Mary (15 June 2017)."First marriage of Lebanese man with two wives recognised under Irish law".The Irish Times.Retrieved15 June2017.
  134. ^Geysegom (1997). "Samenlevingscontracten 1997: focus op het buurtniveauPretekst" (12):17–19.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  135. ^"Romanian Penal Code, art. 376".Retrieved5 February2015.
  136. ^Svenska Dagbladet:Månggifte godkänns – ibland(accessed 15 January 2016)
  137. ^Aftonbladet:Jodå – månggifte ÄR tillåtet i Sverige(accessed 15 January 2016)
  138. ^"Tillåtet för män att ha flera fruar".Archived fromthe originalon 19 January 2016.Retrieved15 January2016.
  139. ^"New rules against foreign polygamous marriages".25 July 2018.
  140. ^ab"The Act on Polygamy and Marriage between Related Persons to be tightened".
  141. ^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 4 March 2016.Retrieved15 August2013.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  142. ^ab"House of Commons Library Briefing Note: Polygamy"(PDF).House of Commons Library.12 October 2011.
  143. ^"Aboriginal Marriages and Family Structures".Australian Law Reform Commission.Archived fromthe originalon 23 August 2019.Retrieved20 October2017.
  144. ^"How common is polygamy in Australia? And how does it work?".SBS.29 May 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 20 October 2017.Retrieved20 October2017.
  145. ^"FAMILY LAW ACT 1975 - SECT 6 Polygamous marriages".austlii.edu.au.
  146. ^"Eheschliessungen im Ausland"(PDF).Rwi.uzh.ch.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 4 March 2016.Retrieved6 January2017.
  147. ^"Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Criminal Code".23 June 2022.
  148. ^"Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Criminal Code".23 June 2022.
  149. ^"The Problem of" relationship overlap "in Saskatchewan".5 January 2011.
  150. ^Nurmila, Nina (10 June 2009).Women, Islam and Everyday Life: Renegotiating Polygamy in Indonesia.Routledge.ISBN9781134033706– via Google Books.
  151. ^Maike Voorhoeve (31 January 2013)."Tunisia: Protecting Ben Ali's Feminist Legacy".Think Africa Press.Archived fromthe originalon 23 January 2015.Retrieved23 January2015.
  152. ^Kudat, Ay?e; Peabody, Stan; Keyder, Ça?lar (29 December 2017).Social Assessment and Agricultural Reform in Central Asia and Turkey.World Bank Publications.ISBN9780821346785– via Google Books.
  153. ^"LES EXPERTS DU CEDAW S'INQUIÈTENT DE LA PERSISTANCE DE STÉRÉOTYPES SEXISTES ET DE LA SITUATION DES MINORITÉS EN SERBIE".United Nations.16 May 2007.Retrieved3 February2016.
  154. ^Grabianowski, Ed (31 May 2006)."How Polygamy Works".People.howstuffworks.Retrieved21 October2010.
  155. ^"Multiple Damage of Polygamy by Saktida".Boloji. 31 October 2004. Archived fromthe originalon 31 January 2010.Retrieved21 October2010.
  156. ^ "Equality of Rights Between Men and Women".University of Minnesota Human Rights Library.
  157. ^"OHCHR report"(PDF).Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.
  158. ^"Report of the Human Rights Committee"(PDF).United Nations General Assembly.
  159. ^"GENERAL COMMENTS ADOPTED BY THE HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEE UNDER ARTICLE 40, PARAGRAPH 4, OF THE INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS".United Nations Human Rights Website. Archived fromthe originalon 30 June 2013.
  160. ^"United Nations Treaty Collection".Archived fromthe originalon 8 April 2017.Retrieved6 June2016.
  161. ^"POLYGYNY AS A VIOLATION OF INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW".Department of Justice, Government of Canada. 11 July 2006.
  162. ^abc"Restricting or banning polygamy, human rights values must stand".The Jakarta Post.Archived fromthe originalon 7 June 2011.Retrieved1 October2010.
  163. ^"Presidential Decree No. 1083".The LawPhil Project.4 February 1977.Retrieved31 January2022.
  164. ^"MALAWI: Strategic Country Gender Assessment"(PDF).Siteresources.worldbank.org.Retrieved6 January2017.
  165. ^"Middle East | Gadaffi outrage over polygamy bill".BBC News.25 February 1999.Retrieved1 October2010.
  166. ^"Customary marriages now legal".News24.SAPA. 15 November 2000.Retrieved23 June2013.
  167. ^"Microsoft Word – news03.2-customary marriage.doc"(PDF).Retrieved1 October2010.
  168. ^"Polygamy- To share or not to share? That is the Question"(PDF).Lac.org.na.Retrieved6 January2017.
  169. ^abPannier, Bruce (9 March 2007)."Kyrgyzstan: Debate On Legalized Polygamy Continues – Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty © 2010".Rferl.org. Archived fromthe originalon 26 July 2009.Retrieved1 October2010.
  170. ^United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (28 May 2008)."Refworld | Central Asia: Kazakhstan debates polygamy amid regional rise in popularity".UNHCR.Retrieved1 October2010.
  171. ^Sykes, Hugh (2 September 2008)."Middle East | Iran rejects easing polygamy law".BBC News.Retrieved1 October2010.
  172. ^"OneLove Southern Africa Latest Posts / Blog Profile".Archived fromthe originalon 23 July 2011.Retrieved6 January2017.
  173. ^United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees."Refworld | Kyrgyzstan. Political Conditions in the Post-Soviet Era".UNHCR.Retrieved1 October2010.
  174. ^"Thailand Law Forum: Family Law of Thailand".Thailawforum. 1 October 1935.Retrieved1 October2010.
  175. ^"Triple talaq, polygamy not integral to Islamic practices, govt tells SC".The News Minute.8 October 2016.
  176. ^abcd"Women: Polygamy and Family Law – Valentina M. Donini | Reset Dialogues on Civilizations".Resetdoc.org. Archived fromthe originalon 15 April 2013.Retrieved1 October2010.
  177. ^"The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality: Hong Kong"..hu-berlin.de. 30 June 1997. Archived fromthe originalon 5 November 2006.Retrieved1 October2010.
  178. ^"Archived copy"(PDF).omct.org.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 June 2010.Retrieved17 January2022.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  179. ^Pennink, Adrian (1 April 2001)."Thousands of families in despair as France enforces ban on polygamy – Europe, World".The Independent.London. Archived fromthe originalon 24 July 2009.Retrieved1 October2010.
  180. ^abUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees."Refworld | Uganda: Domestic violence, including legislation, statistics and attitudes toward domestic violence; the availability of protection and support services".UNHCR.Retrieved1 October2010.
  181. ^United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees."Refworld | Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under articles 16 and 17 of the Covenant: concluding observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Benin".UNHCR.Retrieved1 October2010.
  182. ^United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees."Refworld | Amnesty International Report 2005 – Morocco/Western Sahara".UNHCR.Retrieved1 October2010.
  183. ^United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (17 July 2005)."Refworld | Violence Against Women in Northern Uganda".UNHCR.Retrieved1 October2010.
  184. ^"People's Daily Online – Planned polygamy ban stirs debate in Indonesia".English.peopledaily.cn. 6 December 2006.Retrieved1 October2010.
  185. ^"Polygamy Law Irks Iraq Kurds - ارشيف اسلام اونلاين".Islamonline.net.2 March 2009. Archived fromthe originalon 12 November 2008.Retrieved6 January2017.
  186. ^Angelique Chrisafis in Paris (26 March 2009)."Tiny island of the Indian Ocean keen to embrace French rule – 34 years after gaining independence | World news".The Guardian.London.Retrieved1 October2010.
  187. ^"Polygamy in Turkey - Polygamy 411".Archived fromthe originalon 9 March 2012.Retrieved6 January2017.
  188. ^"Indonesia Tightens Polygamy Rules - ارشيف اسلام اونلاين".Islamonline.net.9 March 2009.Retrieved6 January2017.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legality_of_polygamy&oldid=1269990227"