Wikipedia

Lingala

(Redirected fromLingala language)
This article is about the Lingala language. For Lingala music, seeSoukous.For other uses, seeLingala (disambiguation).
Not to be confused withNgala language.

Lingala(orNgala,Lingala:Lingála) is aBantu languagespoken in the northwest of theDemocratic Republic of the Congo,the northern half of theRepublic of the Congo,in their capitals,KinshasaandBrazzaville,and to a lesser degree as a trade language or because of emigration in neighbouringAngolaorCentral African Republic.Lingala has 20 million native speakers and about another 20 million second-language speakers, for an approximate total of 40 million speakers.[1]A significant portion of both Congolese diasporas speaks Lingala in their countries of immigration likeBelgium,Franceor theUnited States.

Lingala
Ngala
Lingála
Native toDemocratic Republic of the Congo,Republic of the Congo
RegionCongo River
SpeakersL1:21 million (2021)[1]
L2:20 million (2021)[1]
Dialects
African Reference Alphabet(Latin),Mandombe script
Official status
Official language in
Language codes
ISO 639-1ln
ISO 639-2lin
ISO 639-3lin
Glottologling1269
C30B[2]
Linguasphere99-AUI-f
Geographic distribution of Lingala speakers, showing regions of native speakers (dark green) and regions where Lingala is spoken by a minority. (light green)
This article containsIPAphonetic symbols.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofUnicodecharacters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

History

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Before 1880,Bobangiwas an important trade language on the western sections of theCongo River,betweenStanley Pool(Kinshasa) and the confluence of the Congo andUbangirivers (Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo).[3]When the first Europeans and their West- and East-African troops started founding state posts for the Belgian king along this river section in the early 1880s, they noticed the widespread use and prestige of Bobangi.[4]They attempted to learn it, but only cared to acquire an imperfect knowledge of it, a process that gave rise to a new, strongly restructured variety, called "the trade language", "the language of the river", or "Bobangi-pidgin", among other names.[5][6]In 1884, Europeans introduced this restructured variety of Bobangi in the state postBangala Stationto communicate with local Congolese, some of whom had second-language knowledge of original Bobangi, and with the Congolese from more remote areas whom missionaries and colonials had been relocating to the station by force.[7]Thelanguage of the riverwas therefore soon renamed "Bangala", a label the Europeans had since 1876 also been using as a convenient, but erroneous and non-original[8][9][10]ethnic name for all Congolese of that region.[11]

Around 1901–2,CICMmissionaries started a project to "purify" theBangalalanguage by cleansing it from the "impure", pidginlike features it had acquired when it emerged out of Bobangi in the early 1880s.

Around and shortly after 1901, a number of both Catholic and Protestant missionaries working in the western and northern Congo Free State, independently of one another but in strikingly parallel terms, judged that Bangala as it had developed out of Bobangi was too "pidgin like", "too poor" a language to function as a proper means of education and evangelization. Each of them set out on a program of massive corpus planning, aimed at actively "correcting" and "enlarging" Bangala from above [...]. One of them was the Catholic missionary Egide De Boeck of the Congregatio Immaculati Cordis Mariae (CICM, commonly known as "the Missionaries of Scheut" or "Scheutists" ), who arrived in Bangala Station – Nouvelle Anvers in 1901. Another one was the Protestant missionary Walter H. Stapleton [...], and a third one the Catholic Léon Derikx of the Premonstratensian Fathers [...]. By 1915, De Boeck's endeavors had proven to be more influential than Stapleton's, whose language creative suggestions, as the Protestant missionaries' conference of 1911 admitted, had never been truly implemented [...]. Under the dominance of De Boeck's work, Derikx's discontinued his after less than 10 years.[12]

Lingala's importance as avernacularhas since grown with the size and importance of its main centers of use,KinshasaandBrazzaville;with its use as thelingua francaof the armed forces; and with the popularity ofsoukousmusic.

Name

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At first the language the European pioneers and their African troops had forged out of Bobangi was called "the river language", "the trade language", and other volatile names. Beginning in 1884, it was called "Bangala", due to its introduction inBangala Station.After 1901, Catholic missionaries ofCICM,also called the Congregation of Scheutists, proposed to rename the language "Lingala". It took some decades for this to be generally accepted both by colonials and the Congolese.[13]The nameLingalafirst appears in writing in a 1901-2 publication by theCICMmissionaryÉgide De Boeck.[14]This name change was accepted in western and northwestern Congo, and in other countries where the language was spoken, but not in northeastern Congo, where the variety of the language spoken locally is still calledBangala.[15]

Bobangi-Lingala relationship

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Linguistically, Lingala is a dialect or variant of Bobangi, a popular or commercial Bobangi, that is, a Bobangi lingua franca spoken by non-native speakers.[16][17]Lingala has also been referred to by the following names: "bad Bobangi",[18]"Sabir of Bobangi",[19]"deformed and mixed Bobangi",[20]"Bobangi of treaties",[21]"patois of Bobangi and Kilolo[22]",and" the new language of the Bobangi ".[23]

Characteristics and usage

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Lingala is a Bantu-based creole of Central Africa[24]with roots in the Bobangi language, which provided most of its lexicon and grammar.[25]In its basic vocabulary, Lingala also borrows from other languages, such asKikongovarieties,Ubangian languages,Swahili,French,Portuguese,English,and various African languages (note local and foreign interaction with Krumen).

In practice, the extent of borrowing varies widely with speakers of different regions (commonly among young people), and during different occasions.

French

  • momícomes from the old Frenchma mie( "my dear" ), and can sound like it means "grandmother", but means "girlfriend"
  • kelásiforclass/school

Spanish

Portuguese

English

Variation

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The Lingala language can be divided into severalregiolectsandsociolects.The major regional varieties are northwestern Lingala, Kinshasa Lingala and Brazzaville Lingala.

Literary Lingala (lingala littéraireorlingala classiquein French) is a standardized form used mostly in education and news broadcasts on state-owned radio or television and in Roman Catholic religious services, It is taught as a subject at some educational levels. It is historically associated with the work of the Catholic Church, the BelgianCICMmissionaries in particular. It has a seven-vowel system (/a//e//ɛ//i//o//ɔ//u/) with an obligatory tense-laxvowel harmony.It also has a full range of morphological noun prefixes with mandatory grammatical agreement system with subject–verb, or noun–modifier for each of class. It is largely used in formal functions and in some forms of writing. Most native speakers of Spoken Lingala and Kinshasa Lingala consider it incomprehensible.[28]

Northwestern (orEquateur) Lingala is the product of the (incomplete) internalization by Congolese of the prescriptive rules the CICM missionaries intended when designing Literary Lingala.[29][30]The northwest is a zone where the CICM missionaries strongly supported the network of schools.

Spoken Lingala (calledlingala parléin French) is the variety mostly used in Lingalaphones' day-to-day lives. It has a full morphological noun prefix system, but the agreement system in the noun phrase is laxer than the literary variety's. There is a five-vowel system and no vowel harmony. Spoken Lingala is largely used in informal functions, and the majority of Lingala songs use spoken Lingala. Modern spoken Lingala is influenced by French; French verbs, for example, may be "lingalized", adding Lingala inflection prefixes and suffixes: "acomprenaki te" or "acomprendraki te" ( "he did not understand", using the French wordcomprendre) instead of classic Lingala "asímbaki ntína te" (literally: "s/he grasped/held the root/cause not" ). These French influences are more prevalent in Kinshasa and indicate an erosion of the language as education in French becomes accessible to more of the population. There are pronunciation differences between "Catholic Lingala" and "Protestant Lingala", for example nzala/njala ( "hunger" ).

Lingala ya Bayankee(sometimes calledYanké) is a sociolect widely used in Kinshasa, e.g., by street youth, street vendors, criminal gangs and homeless children.[31]Langilais a little-studied language game (or ludic practice) musicians initially created shortly after 2000 that is increasingly used in social media and sites of cultural production.

Phonology

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Vowels

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Front Back
Close i u
Close-mid e o
Open-mid ɛ ɔ
Open a
IPA Example (IPA) Example (written) Meaning Notes
i /lilála/ lilála orange
u /kulutu/ kulútu elder
e /eloᵑɡi/ elongi face
o /mobáli/ mobáli boy pronounced slightly higher than the cardinalo,
realized as[o̝]
ɛ /lɛlɔ́/ lɛlɔ́ today
ɔ /ᵐbɔ́ᵑɡɔ/ mbɔ́ngɔ money
a /áwa/ áwa here

Vowel harmony

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Lingala words showvowel harmonyto some extent. The close-mid vowels/e/and/o/normally do not mix with the open-mid vowels/ɛ/and/ɔ/in words. For example, the wordsndɔbɔ'fishhook' andndobo'mouse trap' are found, but not*ndɔboor*ndobɔ.

Vowel shift

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The Lingala spoken in Kinshasa shows a vowel shift from/ɔ/to/o/,leading to the absence of the phoneme/ɔ/in favor of/o/.The same occurs with/ɛ/and/e/,leading to just/e/.So in Kinshasa, a native speaker will saymbóteas/ᵐbóte/,compared to the more traditional pronunciation,/ᵐbɔ́tɛ/.

Consonants

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Labial Coronal Palatal Dorsal
Nasal m/m/ n/n/ ny/ɲ/
Plosive voiceless p/p/ t/t/ k/k/
prenasalvoiceless mp/ᵐp/ nt/ⁿt/ nk/ᵑk/
voiced b/b/ d/d/ g/ɡ/
prenasalvoiced mb/ᵐb/ nd/ⁿd/ ng/ᵑɡ/
Fricative voiceless f/f/ s/s/ sh/ʃ/
prenasalvoiceless ns/ⁿs/
voiced v/v/ z/z/ (/ʒ/)
prenasalvoiced nz/ⁿz/
Approximant w/w/ l/l/ y/j/
IPA Example (IPA) Example (written) Meaning
p /napɛ́si/ napɛ́sí I give
ᵐp /ᵐpɛᵐbɛ́ni/ mpɛmbɛ́ni near
b /boliᵑɡo/ bolingo love
ᵐb /ᵐbɛlí/ mbɛlí knife
t /litéja/ litéya lesson
ⁿt /ⁿtɔ́ᵑɡɔ́/ ntɔ́ngó dawn
d /daidai/ daidai sticky
ⁿd /ⁿdeko/ ndeko sibling, cousin, relative
k /mokɔlɔ/ mokɔlɔ day
ᵑk /ᵑkóló/ nkóló owner
ɡ /ɡalamɛ́lɛ/ galamɛ́lɛ grammar
ᵑɡ /ᵑɡáí/ ngáí me
m /mamá/ mamá mother
n /bojini/ boyini hate
ɲ /ɲama/ nyama animal
f /fɔtɔ́/ fɔtɔ́ photograph
v /veló/ veló bicycle
s /sɔ̂lɔ/ sɔ̂lɔ truly
ⁿs /ɲɔ́ⁿsɔ/ nyɔ́nsɔ all
z /zɛ́lɔ/ zɛ́lɔ sand
ⁿz[a] /ⁿzáᵐbe/ nzámbe God
ʃ /ʃakú/ cakú or shakú African grey parrot
l /ɔ́lɔ/ ɔ́lɔ gold
j /jé/ yé him; her (object pronoun)
w /wápi/ wápi where
  1. ^[ᶮʒ]is allophonic with[ʒ]depending on the dialect.

Prenasalized consonants

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Theprenasalized stopsformed with a nasal followed by a voiceless plosive areallophonicto the voiceless plosives alone in some variations of Lingala.

  • /ᵐp/:[ᵐp]or[p]
    e.g.: mpɛmbɛ́ni is pronounced[ᵐpɛᵐbɛ́ni]but in some variations[pɛᵐbɛ́ni]
  • /ⁿt/:[ⁿt]or[t]
    e.g.: ntɔ́ngó is pronouncedⁿtɔ́ᵑɡóbut in some variations[tɔ́ᵑɡó]
  • /ᵑk/:[ᵑk]or[k]
    e.g.: nkanya (fork) is pronounced[ᵑkaɲa]but in some variations[kaɲa]
  • /ⁿs/:[ⁿs]or[s](inside a word)
    e.g.: nyɔnsɔ is pronounced[ɲɔ́ⁿsɔ]but in some variations[ɲɔ́sɔ]

The prenasalized voiced occlusives,/ᵐb/,/ⁿd/,/ᵑɡ/,/ⁿz/,do not vary.

Tones

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Lingala is atonal language.Tone is a distinguishing feature inminimal pairs,e.g.:mutu(human being) andmutú(head), or kokoma (to write) and kokóma (to arrive). There are two main tones, low and high, and two less common ones: starting high, dipping low, and ending high, all within the same vowel sound, e.g.,mǐso(eyes); and starting low, rising high, and ending low, e.g.,bôngó(therefore).

Tonal morphology

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Tensemorphemescarry tones.

komakomL-a
write 		sepelaseLpel-a
enjoy
simple present L-aL nakomanaL-komL-aL
I write 		osepelaoL-seLpelL-aL
you-SGenjoy
subjunctive H-aL nákomanaH-komL-aL
I would write 		ósepélaoH-seLpelH-aH
you-SGwould enjoy
present L-iH nakomínaL-komL-iH
I have been writing 		osepelíoL-seLpelL-iH
you-SGhave been enjoying

Grammar

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Body parts in Lingala

Noun class system

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Akin to allBantu languages,Lingala has anoun classsystem in which nouns are classified according to theprefixesthey bear and the prefixes they trigger in sentences. The table below shows Lingala's noun classes ordered according to the numbering system widely used in descriptions of Bantu languages.

Class Noun prefix Example Translation
1 mo- mopési giver
2 ba- bapési givers
3 mo- mokíla tail
4 mi- mikíla tails
5 li- liloba word
6 ma- maloba words
7 e- elɔ́kɔ thing
8 bi- bilɔ́kɔ things
9 m-/n- ntaba goat
10 m-/n- ntaba goats
9a Ø sánzá moon
10a Ø sánzá moons
11 lo- lolému tongue
14 bo- bosɔtɔ dirt
15 ko- kosála to work (infinitive)

Individual classes pair up to form singular/plural pairs, sometimes called genders. There are seven genders. The singular classes 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 take their plural forms from classes 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, respectively. Additionally, many household items found in class 9 take a class 2 prefix (ba) in the plural:lútu→balútu'spoon',mésa→bamésa'table',sáni→basáni'plate'. Words in class 11 usually take a class 10 plural. Most words from class 14 (abstract nouns) do not have a plural counterpart.

Class 9 and 10 have a nasal prefix, whichassimilatesto the following consonant. Thus, the prefix shows up as 'n' on words that start withtord,e.g.ntaba'goat', but as 'm' on words that start withborp(e.g.mbísi'fish'). There is also a prefixless class 9a and 10a, exemplified bysánzá→sánzá'moon(s) or month(s)'. Possible ambiguities are resolved by context.

Noun class prefixes show up not only on the noun itself, but as markers throughout a sentence. In the sentences below, the class prefixes are underlined. (There is a special verbal form 'a' of the prefix for class 1 nouns.)

molakisi

CL1.teacher

molaí

CL1.tall

yangó

that

abíkí

CL1:recovered

molakisimolaí yangóabíkí

CL1.teacher CL1.tall that CL1:recovered

'That tall teacher recovered'

bato

CL2.people

bakúmisa

CL2.praise

Nkómbó

name

ya

of

Yɔ́

You

batobakúmisa Nkómbó ya Yɔ́

CL2.people CL2.praise name of You

'(Let) people praise Your name' (a sentence from the Lord's Prayer)

To a certain extent, noun class allocation issemanticallygoverned. Classes 1/2, as in all Bantu languages, mainly contain words for human beings; similarly, classes 9/10 contain many words for animals. In other classes, semantical regularities are mostly absent or obscured by many exceptions.

Verb inflections and morphology

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Verbal extensions

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Four morphemes modify verbs. They are added to a verb root in the following order:

  1. Reversive (-ol-)
    e.g.: kozingato wrapand kozingolato develop
  2. Causative (-is-)
    e.g.: koyébato knowand koyébisato inform
  3. Applicative (-el-)
    e.g.: kobíkato heal (self), to save (self)and kobíkelato heal (someone else), to save (someone)
  4. Passive (-am-)
    e.g.: kobomato killand kobomamato be killed
  5. Reciprocal or stationary (-an-, sometimes -en-)
    e.g.: kokútato findand kokútanato meet

Tense inflections

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The first tone segment affects the subject part of the verb; the second attaches to the semantic morpheme attached to its root.

  • present perfect (LH-í)
  • simple present (LL-a)
  • recurrent present (LL-aka)
  • undefined recent past (LH-ákí)
  • undefined distant past (LH-áká)
  • future (L-ko-L-a)
  • subjunctive (HL-a)

Writing system

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Lingala is more a spoken than a written language, and has several different writing systems, most of them ad hoc. As literacy in Lingala tends to be low, its popular orthography is very flexible and varies among the two republics. Some orthographies are heavily influenced by French; influences include a double S,ss,to transcribe [s] (in the Republic of the Congo);oufor [u] (in the Republic of the Congo); i with trema,aï,to transcribe[áí]or[aí];e with acute accent,é,to transcribe [e];eto transcribe[ɛ],o with acute accent, ó, to transcribe[ɔ]or sometimes [o] in opposition to o transcribing [o] or[ɔ];i or y can both transcribe [j]. The allophones are also found as alternating forms in the popular orthography;sangois an alternative tonsango(information or news);nyonso,nyoso,nionso,nioso(every) are all transcriptions ofnyɔ́nsɔ.

In 1976, theSociété Zaïroise des Linguistes(ZairianLinguists Society) adopted a writing system for Lingala, using the open e(ɛ)and the open o(ɔ)to write the vowels[ɛ]and[ɔ],and sporadic usage of accents to mark tone, though the limitation of input methods prevents Lingala writers from easily using theɛandɔand the accents. For example, it is almost impossible to type Lingala according to that convention with a common English or French keyboard. The convention of 1976 reduced the alternative orthography of characters but did not enforce tone marking. The lack of consistent accentuation is lessened by contextual disambiguation.

The popular orthographies are often more simplified and ambiguous than the academic-based ones. Many Lingala books, papers, the translation of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights,Internet forums, newsletters, and major websites such as Google's Lingala do not use the Lingala-specific characters ɛ and ɔ. Tone marking is found in most literary works.

Alphabet

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COVID-19information in Lingala

The Lingala Alpha bet has 35lettersanddigraphs.Each digraph has a specific place in the Alpha bet; for example,mzacomes beforemba,because the digraphmbfollows the letterm.The lettersrandhare rare but present in borrowed words. Accents indicate the tones as follows:

  • no accent for default tone, the low tone
  • acute accent for the high tone
  • circumflex for descending tone
  • caron for ascending tone
Variants Example
a A á â ǎ nyama, matáta, sâmbóle, libwǎ
b B bísó
c C ciluba
d D madɛ́su
e E é ê ě komeka, mésa, kobênga
ɛ Ɛ ɛ́ɛ̂ɛ̌ lɛlɔ́,lɛ́ki,tɛ̂
f F lifúta
g G kogánga
gb Gb gbagba
h H bohlu (bohrium)
i I í î ǐ wápi, zíko, tî, esǐ
k K kokoma
l L kolála
m M kokóma
mb Mb kolámba, mbwá, mbɛlí
mp Mp límpa
n N líno
nd Nd ndeko
ng Ng ndéngé
nk Nk nkámá
ns Ns nsɔ́mi
nt Nt ntaba
ny Ny nyama
nz Nz nzala
o o ó ô ǒ moto, sóngóló, sékô
ɔ Ɔ ɔ́ɔ̂ɔ̌ sɔsɔ,yɔ́,sɔ̂lɔ,tɔ̌
p P pɛnɛpɛnɛ
r R malaríya
s S kopésa
t T tatá
u U ú butú, koúma
v V kovánda
w W káwa
y Y koyéba
z Z kozala

Sample

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English Lingala
I moved to Luanda in January this year due to a new job that I had applied for last year. I am happy that I got it and now I'm thinking of building a house in Mbanza Kongo next year so that my family can have a house. Mbula oyo na bonguani na sanza ya yambo pona Luanda likolo ya mosala ya sika esika na mikomisaki kuna mbula eleki. Nazali na esengo pona ndenge na zui mosala oyo sikoyo nazali ko kanisa kotonga ndaku na Mbanza Kongo na mbula ezali ko ya pona ete libota bazala na ndaku.

[32]

Lord's Prayer

The Lord's Prayer (Catholic version)

Tatá wa bísó, ozala o likoló,
bato bakúmisa Nkómbó yaYɔ́,
bandima bokonzi bwaYɔ́,mpo elingoYɔ́,
basálá yangó o nsé,
lokóla bakosalaka o likoló
Pésa bísólɛlɔ́biléi byamokɔlɔnamokɔlɔ,
límbisa mabé ma bísó,
lokóla bísó tokolimbisaka baníngá.
Sálisa bísó tondima masɛ́nginyá tê,
mpe bíkisa bísó o mabé.
Nayɔ́bokonzi,
nguyá na nkembo,
o bileko o binso sékô.
Amen.

The Lord's Prayer (Protestant version used in Ubangi-Mongala region)

Tatá na bísó na likoló,
nkómbó nayɔ́ezala mosanto,
bokonzi nayɔ́eya,
mokano nayɔ́esalama na nsé
lokola na likoló.
Pésa bísó kwanga ekokílɛlɔ́.
Límbisa bísó nyongo na bísó,
pelamoko elimbisi bísó bango nyongo na bango.
Kamba bísó kati na komekama tê,
kasi bíkisa bísó na mabé.
Mpo ete nayɔ́ezalí bokonzi,
na nguyá, na nkembo,
lobiko na lobiko.
Amen.

Sample text from Universal Declaration of Human Rights

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Bato nyonso na mbotama bazali nzomi pe bakokani na limemya pe makoki. Bazali na mayele pe base, geli kofanda na bondeko okati na bango.
(Article 1 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Mandombe

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TheMandombescript is anabugida,primarily used to writeKikongo,that can also be used for Lingala. It is used as a liturgical script in the church ofKimbangu.

References

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  1. ^abcLingalaatEthnologue(27th ed., 2024)
  2. ^Jouni Filip Maho, 2009.New Updated Guthrie List Online
  3. ^Harms, Robert W. (1981).River of wealth, river of sorrow: The central Zaire basin in the era of the slave and ivory trade, 1500–1891.Yale University Press.
  4. ^Samarin, William (1989).The Black man's burden: African colonial labor on the Congo and Ubangi rivers, 1880–1900.Westview Press.
  5. ^Meeuwis, Michael (2020).A Grammatical Overview of Lingala.Lincom.
  6. ^For linguistic sources, seeHammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017)."Pidgin Bobangi".Glottolog 3.0.Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  7. ^Mumbanza, mwa Bawele Jérôme (1971).Les Bangala et la première décennie du poste de Nouvelle-Anvers (1884–1894).Kinshasa: Université Lovanium.
  8. ^Mbulamoko, Nzenge M. (1991). "Etat des recherches sur le lingala comme groupe linguistique autonome: Contribution aux études sur l'histoire et l'expansion du lingala".Annales Aequatoria.12:377–406.
  9. ^Burssens, Herman (1954). "The so-called" Bangala "and a few problems of art-historical and ethnographical order".Kongo-Overzee.20(3):221–236.
  10. ^Samarin, William J. (1989).The Black man's burden: African colonial labor on the Congo and Ubangi rivers, 1880–1900.Westview Press.
  11. ^Mumbanza, mwa Bawele Jérome (1995). "La dynamique sociale et l'épisode colonial: La formation de la société" Bangala "dans l'entre Zaïre-Ubangi".Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines.29:351–374.
  12. ^Meeuwis, Michael (2020).A grammatical overview of Lingala: Revised and extended edition.München: Lincom. pp.24–25.ISBN9783969390047.
  13. ^Meeuwis, Michael (2020).A Grammatical Overview of Lingala.München: Lincom. p. 27.ISBN9783969390047.
  14. ^Meeuwis, Michael (2020).A grammatical overview of Lingala: Revised and extended edition.München: Lincom. p. 26.ISBN978-3-96939-004-7.
  15. ^Edema, A.B. (1994).Dictionnaire bangala-français-lingala.Paris: ACCT.
  16. ^Bwantsa-Kafungu, Pierre (1970).Esquisse grammaticale de lingala.Kinshasa: Université de Louvanium. p. 6.
  17. ^Mimpongo, Mpoke (May 2024)."L'origine et de la signification du glossonyme lingala".lingbuzz.net.Archivedfrom the original on May 4, 2024.RetrievedJanuary 4,2025.
  18. ^Marker, J.H. (1929). "A Bable, a book and a brickbat".Congo Mission News.67:16–17.
  19. ^Bruel, Georges (1935).La France Equatoriale Africaine: le pays, les habitants, la colonisation, les pouvoirs publics.Paris: Larose. p. 165.
  20. ^Hulstaert, Gustaaf (1940). "Lingala".Aequatoria.2(2): 39.
  21. ^Hulstaert, Gustaaf (1950).Carte linguistique du Congo belge.Brussels: Institut Royal Colonial Belge - Koninklijk Belgisch Koloniaal Instituut.
  22. ^Stapleton, Walter H. (1892). "In quest of a new station".Missionary Herald.1:226.
  23. ^Ndaywel, è Nziem, Isidore (1997).L'histoire du Zaïre: De l'héritage ancien à l'âge contemporain(in French). Louvain-la-Neuve: Duculot.
  24. ^"Lingala language".Retrieved6 May2018.
  25. ^"Bobangi language".Retrieved10 Oct2018.
  26. ^Le grand Dzo: nouveau dictionnaire illustré lingala-français / Adolphe
  27. ^Lingala – Malóba ma lokóta/Dictionnaire
  28. ^Kazadi, Ntole (1987). "Rapport Général".Linguistique et Sciences Humaines.27:287.
  29. ^De Boeck, Louis B. (1952).Manuel de lingala tenant compte du langage parlé et du langage littéraire.Brussels: Schuet.
  30. ^Bokamba, Eyamba G.; Bokamba, Molingo V. (2004).Tósolola na Lingála: A multidimensional approach to the teaching and learning of Lingála as a foreign language.Madison: NALRC.
  31. ^Nassenstein, Nico. "Democratic Republic of the Congo: lingala ya Bayankee/Yanké." InUrban Contact Dialects and Language Change,pp. 28–46. Routledge, 2022.
  32. ^Akindipe, Omotola; Masela, Ulama; Kiala, Laura."Learn Lingala (Months)".Learn Lingala.

Sources

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  • Van Everbroeck, René C.I.C.M. (1985)Lingala – Malóba ma lokóta/Dictionnaire.Editions l'Epiphanie. B.P. 724 LIMETE (Kinshasa).
  • Edama, Atibakwa Baboya (1994)Dictionnaire bangála–français–lingála.Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique SÉPIA.
  • Etsio, Edouard (2003)Parlons lingala / Tobola lingala.Paris: L'Harmattan.ISBN2-7475-3931-8
  • Bokamba, Eyamba George et Bokamba, Molingo Virginie. Tósolola Na Lingála: Let's Speak Lingala (Let's Speak Series). National African Language Resource Center (May 30, 2005)ISBN0-9679587-5-X
  • Guthrie, Malcolm &Carrington, John F.(1988)Lingala: grammar and dictionary: English-Lingala, Lingala-English.London: Baptist Missionary Society.
  • Meeuwis, Michael (2020) 'A grammatical overview of Lingala: Revised and extended edition'. (Studies in African Linguistics vol. 81). München: LINCOM Europa.ISBN978-3-96939-004-7
  • Samarin, William J. (1990) 'The origins of Kituba and Lingala',Journal of African Languages and Linguistics,12, 47–77.
  • Bwantsa-Kafungu,J'apprends le lingala tout seul en trois mois'.Centre de recherche pédagogique, Centre Linguistique Théorique et Appliquée, Kinshasa 1982.
  • Khabirov, Valeri. (1998) "Maloba ma nkota Russ-Lingala-Falanse. Русско-лингала-французский словарь". Moscow: Institute of Linguistics-Russian Academy of Sciences (соавторы Мухина Л.М., Топорова И.Н.), 384 p.
  • Weeks, John H. (Jan–Jun 1909). "Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper Congo River".Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute.39:97–136.doi:10.2307/2843286.hdl:2027/umn.31951002029415b.JSTOR2843286.weeks1909.
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