Wikipedia

Lobster

This article is about clawed lobsters. For other uses, seeLobster (disambiguation).
"Homaridae" redirects here. Not to be confused withHomeridae.

Lobstersaremalacostracansof thefamilyNephropidae[1]or itssynonymHomaridae.[2]They have long bodies with muscular tails and live in crevices or burrows on the sea floor. Three of their five pairs of legs have claws, including the first pair, which are usually much larger than the others. Highly prized asseafood,lobsters are economically important and are often one of the most profitable commodities in the coastal areas they populate.[3]

Lobster
Temporal range:Valanginian–Recent
European lobster
(Homarus gammarus)
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Malacostraca
Order: Decapoda
Suborder: Pleocyemata
Superfamily: Nephropoidea
Family: Nephropidae
Dana,1852
Genera[1]
List
Synonyms[2]
  • Homaridae
Lobsters awaiting purchase inTrenton, Maine

Commercially important species include two species ofHomarusfrom the northern Atlantic Ocean andscampi(which look more like ashrimp,or a "mini lobster" )—the Northern Hemisphere genusNephropsand the Southern Hemisphere genusMetanephrops.[citation needed]

Distinction

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Although several other groups of crustaceans have the word "lobster" in their names, the unqualified term "lobster" generally refers to the clawed lobsters of the family Nephropidae.[4]Clawed lobsters are not closely related tospiny lobstersorslipper lobsters,which have no claws (chelae), or tosquat lobsters.The most similar living relatives of clawed lobsters are thereef lobstersand the three families of freshwatercrayfish.

Description

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European lobster with cut antennae

Body

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See also:Decapod anatomy

Lobsters areinvertebrateswith a hard protectiveexoskeleton.[5]Like mostarthropods,lobsters mustshedto grow, which leaves them vulnerable. During the shedding process, several species change color. Lobsters have eight walking legs; the front three pairs bear claws, the first of which are larger than the others. The front pincers are also biologically considered legs, so they belong in the order Decapods ( "ten-footed" ).[6]Although lobsters are largelybilaterally symmetricallike most other arthropods, somegenerapossess unequal, specialized claws.

Lobster anatomy includes two main body parts: thecephalothoraxand theabdomen.The cephalothorax fuses the head and thethorax,both of which are covered by achitinouscarapace.The lobster's head bearsantennae,antennules,mandibles,the first and secondmaxillae.The head also bears the (usually stalked)compound eyes.Because lobsters live in murky environments at the bottom of the ocean, they mostly use their antennae as sensors. The lobster eye has a reflective structure above a convex retina. In contrast, most complex eyes use refractive ray concentrators (lenses) and a concave retina.[7]The lobster's thorax is composed ofmaxillipeds,appendages that function primarily as mouthparts, andpereiopods,appendages that serve for walking and for gathering food. The abdomen includespleopods(also known asswimmerets), used for swimming, as well as the tail fan, composed ofuropodsand thetelson.

Lobsters, like snails and spiders, have blue blood due to the presence ofhemocyanin,which containscopper.[8]In contrast, vertebrates, and many other animals have red blood fromiron-richhemoglobin.Lobsters possess a greenhepatopancreas,called thetomalleyby chefs, which functions as the animal'sliverandpancreas.[9]

Lobsters of the family Nephropidae are similar in overall form to several other related groups. They differ from freshwatercrayfishin lacking the joint between the last two segments of the thorax,[10]and they differ from the reef lobsters of the familyEnoplometopidaein having full claws on the first three pairs of legs, rather than just one.[10]The distinctions from fossil families such as theChilenophoberidaeare based on the pattern of grooves on the carapace.[10]

Analysis of the neural gene complement revealed extraordinary development of the chemosensory machinery, including a profound diversification of ligand-gated ion channels and secretory molecules.[11]

Coloring

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Typically, lobsters are dark colored, either bluish-green or greenish-brown, to blend in with the ocean floor, but they can be found in many colors.[12][13]Lobsters with atypical coloring are extremely rare, accounting for only a few of the millions caught every year, and due to their rarity, they usually are not eaten, instead being released back into the wild or donated toaquariums.Often, in cases of atypical coloring, there is a genetic factor, such asalbinismorhermaphroditism.Special coloring does not appear to affect the lobster's taste once cooked; except for albinos, all lobsters possess astaxanthin, which is responsible for the bright red color lobsters turn after being cooked.[14]

Chart of Atypical Coloring in Lobsters
Color Prevalence Notes Notable specimens
albino 1 in 100,000,000[15] Also called white; translucent; ghost; crystal.[16][17][18]
"cotton candy" 1 in 100,000,000[19] Also called pastel.[20]Possibly a sub-type of albino.[19] Haddie (2021,Maine)[21]
blue 1 in 1,000,000[22]to 1 in 2,000,000[23][24][25] Caused by a genetic defect.[22] Lord Stanley (2019, Massachusetts)[24][25](2019, St. Louis)[26]Lucky Blue (2022,Maine)[27]
calico 1 in 30,000,000[28] Eve (2019,Maryland)[29]
orange 1 in 30,000,000[30] Cheddar (2022,Florida)[31]Biscuit (2022,Mississippi)[32]
split-colored 1 in 50,000,000[33] Almost all split-coloreds arehermaphroditic.[16]
"Halloween" 1 in 50,000,000[33]to 1 in 100,000,000[34] Sub-type of split-colored, specifically orange and black.[35] Pinchy (2012,Massachusetts)[36]
red 1 in 10,000,000[35]to 1 in 30,000,000[37]
yellow 1 in 30,000,000[38]

Longevity

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Lobsters live up to an estimated 45 to 50 years in the wild, although determining age is difficult:[39]it is typically estimated from size and other variables. Newer techniques may lead to more accurate age estimates.[40][41][42]

Research suggests that lobsters may not slow down, weaken, or lose fertility with age and that older lobsters may be more fertile than younger lobsters.[43]This longevity may be due totelomerase,anenzymethat repairs long repetitive sections ofDNA sequencesat the ends of chromosomes, referred to astelomeres.Telomerase is expressed by most vertebrates during embryonic stages but is generally absent from adult stages of life.[44]However, unlike most vertebrates, lobsters express telomerase as adults through most tissue, which has been suggested to be related to their longevity. Telomerase is especially present in green spotted lobsters, whose markings are thought to be produced by the enzyme interacting with their shell pigmentation.[45][46][47]Lobster longevity is limited by their size.Moultingrequires metabolic energy, and the larger the lobster, the more energy is needed; 10 to 15% of lobsters die of exhaustion during moulting, while in older lobsters, moulting ceases and the exoskeleton degrades or collapses entirely, leading to death.[48][49]

Like many decapod crustaceans, lobsters grow throughout life and can add new muscle cells at each moult.[50]Lobster longevity allows them to reach impressive sizes. According toGuinness World Records,the largest lobster ever caught was inNova Scotia,Canada, weighing 20.15 kilograms (44.4 lb).[51]

Ecology

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Lobsters live in all oceans, on rocky, sandy, or muddy bottoms from the shoreline to beyond the edge of thecontinental shelf,contingent largely on size and age.[52]Smaller, younger lobsters are typically found in crevices or in burrows under rocks and do not typically migrate. Larger, older lobsters are more likely to be found in deeper seas, migrating back to shallow waters seasonally.[52]

Lobsters are omnivores and typically eat live prey such as fish, mollusks, other crustaceans, worms, and some plant life. They scavenge if necessary and are known to resort tocannibalismin captivity. However, when lobster skin is found in lobster stomachs, this is not necessarily evidence of cannibalism because lobsters eat their shed skin after moulting.[53]While cannibalism was thought to be nonexistent among wild lobster populations, it was observed in 2012 by researchers studying wild lobsters in Maine. These first known instances of lobster cannibalism in the wild are theorized to be attributed to a localpopulation explosionamong lobsters caused by the disappearance of many of the Maine lobsters' natural predators.[54]

In general, lobsters are 25–50 cm (10–20 in) long and move by slowly walking on the sea floor. However, they swim backward quickly when they flee by curling and uncurling theirabdomens.A speed of 5 m/s (11 mph) has been recorded.[55]This is known as thecaridoid escape reaction.

Symbiotic animals of the genusSymbion,the only known member of the phylumCycliophora,live exclusively on lobstergillsand mouthparts.[56]Different species ofSymbionhave been found on the three commercially important lobsters of the North Atlantic Ocean:Nephrops norvegicus,Homarus gammarus,andHomarus americanus.[56]

As food

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"Lobster claw" redirects here. For the species of flowering plants, seeLobster-claw.
Boiled lobster ready for eating
Lobster meat
Lobster served in Stokkseyri, Iceland

Lobster is commonly served boiled or steamed in the shell. Diners crack the shell withlobster crackersand fish out the meat withlobster picks.The meat is often eaten withmelted butterandlemon juice.Lobster is also used in soup,bisque,lobster rolls,cappon magro,and dishes such aslobster Newbergandlobster Thermidor.

Cooks boil or steam live lobsters. When a lobster is cooked, its shell's color changes from brown to orange because the heat from cooking breaks down a protein calledcrustacyanin,which suppresses the orange hue of the chemicalastaxanthin,which is also found in the shell.[57]

According to the United StatesFood and Drug Administration(FDA), the mean level ofmercuryinAmerican lobsterbetween 2005 and 2007 was 0.107ppm.[58][needs context]

History

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Lobster rolls in Kent, England
Lobster, Crab, and a CucumberbyWilliam Henry Hunt(watercolour, 1826 or 1827)
Lobster,Japanese silk painting byNagasawa Rosetsu( trường trạch lô tuyết ), 18th century

Humans are claimed to have eaten lobster since early history. Large piles of lobster shells near areas populated by fishing communities attest to the crustacean's extreme popularity during this period. Evidence indicates that lobster was being consumed as a regular food product in fishing communities along the shores of Britain,[59]South Africa,[59]Australia, and Papua New Guinea years ago. Lobster became a significant source of nutrients among European coastal dwellers. Historians suggest lobster was an important secondary food source for most European coastal dwellers, and it was a primary food source for coastal communities in Britain during this time.[59][clarification needed]

Lobster became a popular mid-range delicacy during themid to late Roman period.The price of lobster could vary widely due to various factors, but evidence indicates that lobster was regularly transported inland over long distances to meet popular demand. A mosaic found in the ruins ofPompeiisuggests that thespiny lobsterwas of considerable interest to the Roman population during the early imperial period.[60]

Lobster was a popular food among theMoche peopleof Peru between 50 CE and 800 CE. Besides its use as food, lobster shells were also used to create a light pink dye, ornaments, and tools. A mass-produced lobster-shaped effigy vessel dated to this period attests to lobster's popularity at this time, though the purpose of this vessel has not been identified.[61]

TheViking periodsaw an increase in lobster and other shellfish consumption among northern Europeans. This can be attributed to the overall increase in marine activity due to the development of better boats and the increasing cultural investment in building ships and training sailors. The consumption of marine life went up overall in this period, and the consumption of lobster went up in accordance with this general trend.[62]

Unlike fish, however, lobster had to be cooked within two days of leaving salt water, limiting the availability of lobster for inland dwellers. Thus lobster, more than fish, became a food primarily available to the relatively well-off, at least among non-coastal dwellers.[63]

A short video on catching and wholesale exports; 2016

Lobster is first mentioned in cookbooks during the medieval period.Le Viandier de Taillevent,a French recipe collection written around 1300, suggests that lobster (also called saltwater crayfish) be "Cooked in wine and water, or in the oven; eaten in vinegar."[64]Le Viandier de Tailleventis considered to be one of the first "haute cuisine" cookbooks, advising on how to cook meals that would have been quite elaborate for the period and making usage of expensive and hard to obtain ingredients. Though the original edition, which includes the recipe for lobster, was published before the birth of French court cookGuillaume Tirel,Tirel later expanded and republished this recipe collection, suggesting that the recipes included in both editions were popular among the highest circles of French nobility, including King Philip VI.[65]The inclusion of a lobster recipe in this cookbook, especially one which does not make use of other more expensive ingredients, attests to the popularity of lobster among the wealthy.

The French household guidebookLe Ménagier de Paris,published in 1393, includes no less than five recipes including lobster, which vary in elaboration.[66]A guidebook intended to provide advice for women running upper-class households,Le Ménagier de Parisis similar to its predecessor in that it indicates the popularity of lobster as a food among the upper classes.[67]

That lobster was first mentioned in cookbooks during the 1300s and only mentioned in two during this century should not be taken as an implication that lobster was not widely consumed before or during this time. Recipe collections were virtually non-existent before the 1300s, and only a handful exist from the medieval period.

During the early 1400s, lobster was still a popular dish among the upper classes. During this time, influential households used the variety and variation of species served at feasts to display wealth and prestige. Lobster was commonly found among these spreads, indicating that it continued to be held in high esteem among the wealthy. In one notable instance, theBishop of Salisburyoffered at least 42 kinds of crustaceans and fish at his feasts over nine months, including several varieties of lobster. However, lobster was not a food exclusively accessed by the wealthy. The general population living on the coasts made use of the various food sources provided by the ocean, and shellfish especially became a more popular source of nutrition. Among the general population, lobster was generally eaten boiled during the mid-15th century, but the influence of the cuisine of higher society can be seen in that it was now also regularly eaten cold with vinegar. The inland peasantry would still have generally been unfamiliar with lobster during this time.[68]

Lobster continued to be eaten as a delicacy and a general staple food among coastal communities until the late 17th century. During this time, the influence of the Church and the government regulating and sometimes banning meat consumption during certain periods continued to encourage the popularity of seafood, especially shellfish, as ameat alternativeamong all classes. Throughout this period, lobster was eaten fresh,pickled,andsalted.From the late 17th century onward, developments in fishing, transportation, and cooking technology allowed lobster to more easily make its way inland, and the variety of dishes involving lobster and cooking techniques used with the ingredient expanded.[69]However, these developments coincided with a decrease in the lobster population, and lobster increasingly became a delicacy food, valued among the rich as a status symbol and less likely to be found in the diet of the general population.[70]

The American lobster was not originally popular among European colonists in North America. This was partially due to the European inlander's association of lobster with barely edible salted seafood and partially due to a cultural opinion that seafood was a lesser alternative to meat that did not provide the taste or nutrients desired. It was also due to the extreme abundance of lobster at the time of the colonists' arrival, which contributed to a general perception of lobster as an undesirable peasant food.[71]The American lobster did not achieve popularity until the mid-19th century when New Yorkers and Bostonians developed a taste for it, and commercial lobster fisheries only flourished after the development of thelobster smack,[72]a custom-made boat with open holding wells on the deck to keep the lobsters alive during transport.[73]

Before this time, lobster was considered apoverty foodor as a food forindentured servantsor lower members of society inMaine,Massachusetts,and theCanadian Maritimes.Some servants specified in employment agreements that they would not eat lobster more than twice per week,[74]however there is limited evidence for this.[75][76]Lobster was also commonly served in prisons, much to the displeasure of inmates.[77]American lobster was initially deemed worthy only of being used asfertilizeror fish bait, and until well into the 20th century, it was not viewed as more than a low-priced canned staple food.[78]

As a crustacean, lobster remains ataboo foodin thedietary lawsofJudaismandcertain streamsofIslam.[note 1][79]

Grading

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See also:Food grading

Caught lobsters are graded as new-shell, hard-shell, or old-shell. Because lobsters that have recently shed their shells are the most delicate, an inverse relationship exists between the price of American lobster and its flavor. New-shell lobsters have paper-thin shells and a worse meat-to-shell ratio, but the meat is very sweet. However, the lobsters are so delicate that even transport to Boston almost kills them, making the market for new-shell lobsters strictly local to the fishing towns where they are offloaded. Hard-shell lobsters with firm shells but less sweet meat can survive shipping to Boston, New York, and even Los Angeles, so they command a higher price than new-shell lobsters. Meanwhile, old-shell lobsters, which have not shed since the previous season and have a coarser flavor, can be air-shipped anywhere in the world and arrive alive, making them the most expensive.

Killing methods and animal welfare

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Further information:Pain in crustaceans
Lobsters in a tank at a fish market

Several methods are used for killing lobsters. The most common way of killing lobsters is by placing them live in boiling water, sometimes after being placed in a freezer for a period. Another method is to split the lobster or sever the body in half lengthwise. Lobsters may also be killed or immobilized immediately before boiling by a stab into the brain (pithing), in the belief that this will stop suffering. However, a lobster's brain operates from not one but severalganglia,and disabling only the frontal ganglion does not usually result in death.[80]The boiling method is illegal in some places, such as in Italy, where offenders face fines up to €495.[81]Lobsters can be killed byelectrocutionprior to cooking with a device called theCrustaStun.[82]Since March 2018, lobsters inSwitzerlandneed to be knocked out, or killed instantly, before they are boiled. They also receive other forms of protection while in transit.[83][84][85]

Fishery and aquaculture

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Main article:Lobster fishing

Lobsters are caught usingbaited one-way trapswith a color-coded marker buoy to mark cages. Lobster is fished in water between 2 and 900 metres (1 and 500 fathoms), although some lobsters live at 3,700 metres (2,000 fathoms). Cages are of plastic-coated galvanized steel or wood. A lobster fisher may tend to as many as 2,000 traps.

Around the year 2000, owing to overfishing and high demand, lobsteraquacultureexpanded.[86]

Species

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Examples of Nephropidae
Acanthacaris tenuimana
Metanephrops japonicus
Nephropsis rosea

Thefossil recordof clawed lobsters extends back at least to theValanginianage of theCretaceous(140 million years ago).[87]This list contains all 54 extant species in the familyNephropidae:[88]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^See also:Kashrut,Halal,andList of halal and kosher fish

References

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