Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma(bornPrince Louis of Battenberg;[n 1]25 June 1900 – 27 August 1979), commonly known asLord Mountbatten,was a British statesman,Royal Navyofficer and close relative of theBritish royal family.He was born in the United Kingdom to the prominentBattenberg family.He was a maternal uncle ofPrince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh,and a second cousin ofKing George VI.He joined theRoyal Navy during the First World Warand was appointedSupreme Allied Commander,South East Asia Command,in theSecond World War.He later served as the lastViceroy of Indiaand briefly as the firstGovernor-Generalof theDominion of India.
The Earl Mountbatten of Burma | |
|---|---|
 Portrait byAllan Warren,1976 | |
| Chief of the Defence Staff | |
| In office 13 July 1959 – 15 July 1965 | |
| Prime Minister | |
| Preceded by | Sir William Dickson |
| Succeeded by | Sir Richard Hull |
| First Sea Lord | |
| In office 18 April 1955 – 19 October 1959 | |
| Prime Minister | |
| Preceded by | Sir Rhoderick McGrigor |
| Succeeded by | Sir Charles Lambe |
| Governor-General of India | |
| In office 15 August 1947 – 21 June 1948 | |
| Monarch | George VI |
| Prime Minister | Jawaharlal Nehru |
| Preceded by | Himself(As Viceroy and Governor-General of India) |
| Succeeded by | C. Rajagopalachari |
| Viceroy and Governor-General of India | |
| In office 21 February 1947 – 15 August 1947 | |
| Monarch | George VI |
| Prime Minister | Clement Attlee |
| Preceded by | The Viscount Wavell |
| Succeeded by |
|
| Member of the House of Lords | |
| Hereditary peerage 13 June 1946 – 27 August 1979 | |
| Preceded by | Peerage established |
| Succeeded by | The 2nd Countess Mountbatten of Burma |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Prince Louis of Battenberg 25 June 1900 Frogmore House,Windsor, Berkshire,England |
| Died | 27 August 1979(aged 79) Mullaghmore, County Sligo,Ireland |
| Manner of death | Assassination |
| Resting place | Romsey Abbey |
| Spouse | |
| Children | |
| Parents | |
| Alma mater | Christ's College, Cambridge |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance | United Kingdom |
| Branch/service | Royal Navy |
| Years of service | 1913–1965 |
| Rank | Admiral of the Fleet |
| Commands | See list
|
| Battles/wars | |
| Awards | See list |
Mountbatten attended theRoyal Naval College, Osborne,before entering the Royal Navy in 1916. He saw action during the closing phase of theFirst World War,and after the war briefly attendedChrist's College, Cambridge.During theinterwar period,Mountbatten continued to pursue his naval career, specialising in naval communications. Following the outbreak of the Second World War, he commanded the destroyerHMSKellyand the5th Destroyer Flotilla.He saw considerable action in Norway, in the English Channel, and in the Mediterranean. In August 1941, he received command of the aircraft carrierHMSIllustrious.He was appointed chief ofCombined Operationsand a member of theChiefs of Staff Committeein early 1942, and organised the raids onSt NazaireandDieppe.In August 1943, Mountbatten became Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Command and oversaw the recapture ofBurmaandSingaporefrom the Japanese by the end of 1945. For his service during the war, Mountbatten was created viscount in 1946 andearlthe following year.
In February 1947, Mountbatten was appointed Viceroy and Governor-General of India and oversaw thePartition of IndiaintoIndiaandPakistan.He then served as the first Governor-General of the Union of India until June 1948 and played a significant role in persuadingprincely statesto accede to India.[1]In 1952, Mountbatten was appointed commander-in-chief of the BritishMediterranean FleetandNATOCommanderAllied Forces Mediterranean.From 1955 to 1959, he wasFirst Sea Lord,a position that had been held by his father,Prince Louis of Battenberg,some forty years earlier. Thereafter he served aschief of the Defence Staffuntil 1965, making him the longest-serving professional head of the British Armed Forces to date. During this period Mountbatten also served aschairman of the NATO Military Committeefor a year.
In August 1979,Mountbatten was assassinatedby a bomb planted aboard his fishing boat inMullaghmore, County Sligo,Ireland, by members of theProvisional Irish Republican Army.He received aceremonial funeralatWestminster Abbeyand was buried inRomsey Abbeyin Hampshire.
Early life
editMountbatten, then named Prince Louis ofBattenberg,was born on 25 June 1900 atFrogmore Housein theHome Park, Windsor,Berkshire.[2]He was the youngest child and the second son ofPrince Louis of Battenbergand his wifePrincess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine.[3]Mountbatten's maternal grandparents wereLouis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse,andPrincess Alice of the United Kingdom,who was a daughter ofQueen VictoriaandPrince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.His paternal grandparents werePrince Alexander of Hesse and by RhineandJulia, Princess of Battenberg.[4]Mountbatten's paternal grandparents' marriage wasmorganaticbecause his grandmother was not of royal lineage; as a result, he and his father were styled "Serene Highness" rather than "Grand Ducal Highness", were not eligible to be titled Princes of Hesse, and were given the less exalted Battenberg title. Mountbatten's elder siblings werePrincess Alice of Battenberg(mother ofPrince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh), Princess Louise of Battenberg (laterQueen Louise of Sweden), and Prince George of Battenberg (laterGeorge Mountbatten, 2nd Marquess of Milford Haven).[4]
Mountbatten was baptised in the large drawing room of Frogmore House on 17 July 1900 by theDean of Windsor,Philip Eliot.His godparents were Queen Victoria (his maternal great-grandmother), Nicholas II of Russia (his maternal uncle through marriage and paternal second cousin, represented by the child's father) andPrince Francis Joseph of Battenberg(his paternal uncle, represented byLord Edward Clinton).[5]He wore the original 1841royal christening gownat the ceremony.[5]
Mountbatten's nickname among family and friends was "Dickie"; however "Richard" was not among his given names. This was because his great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, had suggested the nickname of "Nicky", but to avoid confusion with the many Nickys of the Russian Imperial Family ( "Nicky" was particularly used to refer toNicholas II,the last Tsar), "Nicky" was changed to "Dickie".[6]
Mountbatten was educated at home for the first 10 years of his life; he was then sent toLockers Park Schoolin Hertfordshire[7]and on to theRoyal Naval College, Osborne,in May 1913.[8]
Mountbatten's mother's younger sister wasRussianEmpressAlexandra Feodorovna.In childhood he visited the Imperial Court of Russia atSt Petersburgand became intimate with theRussian Imperial Family,harbouring romantic feelings towards his maternal first cousinGrand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna,whose photograph he kept at his bedside for the rest of his life.[9]
Mountbatten adopted his surname as a result ofWorld War I.From 1914 to 1918,Britain and its allieswere at war with theCentral Powers,led by theGerman Empire.To appease British nationalist sentiment, in 1917King George Vissued a royal proclamation changing the name of the Britishroyal housefrom the GermanHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gothato theHouse of Windsor.The king's British relatives with German names and titles followed suit with Mountbatten's father adopting the surname Mountbatten, ananglicisationof Battenberg. The elder Mountbatten was subsequently createdMarquess of Milford Haven.[10]
First World War
editAt the age of 16, Mountbatten was posted asmidshipmanto thebattlecruiserHMSLionin July 1916 and, after seeing action in August 1916, transferred to the battleshipHMSQueen Elizabethduring the closing phases of theFirst World War.[8]In June 1917, when the royal family stopped using their German names and titles and adopted the more British-sounding "Windsor", Mountbatten acquired thecourtesy titleappropriate to a younger son of a marquess, becoming known asLord Louis Mountbatten(Lord Louisfor short) until he was created a peer in his own right in 1946.[11]He paid a visit of ten days to the Western Front in July 1918.[12]
While still an acting-sub-lieutenant,Mountbatten was appointedfirst lieutenant(second-in-command) of theP-class sloopHMSP. 31on 13 October 1918 and was confirmed as asubstantivesub-lieutenanton 15 January 1919. HMSP. 31took part in the Peace River Pageant on 4 April 1919. Mountbatten attendedChrist's College, Cambridge,for two terms, starting in October 1919, where he studied English literature (includingJohn MiltonandLord Byron) in a programme designed to augment the education of junior officers which had been curtailed by the war.[13][14]He was elected for a term to the Standing Committee of theCambridge Union Societyand was suspected of sympathy for the Labour Party, then emerging as a potential party of government for the first time.[15]
Interwar period
edit
Mountbatten was posted to the battlecruiserHMSRenownin March 1920 and accompaniedEdward, Prince of Wales,on a royal tour of Australia in her.[11]He was promoted lieutenant on 15 April 1920.[16]HMSRenownreturned to Portsmouth on 11 October 1920.[17]Early in 1921 Royal Navy personnel were used for civil defence duties asserious industrial unrestseemed imminent. Mountbatten had to command a platoon of stokers, many of whom had never handled a rifle before, inNorthern England.[17]He transferred to the battlecruiserHMSRepulsein March 1921 and accompanied the Prince of Wales on a Royal tour of India and Japan.[11][18]Edwardand Mountbatten formed a close friendship during the trip.[11]Mountbatten survived the deep defence cuts known as theGeddes Axe.Fifty-two percent of the officers of his year had had to leave the Royal Navy by the end of 1923; although he was highly regarded by his superiors, it was rumoured that wealthy and well-connected officers were more likely to be retained.[19]Mountbatten was posted to the battleshipHMSRevengein theMediterranean Fleetin January 1923.[11]
Pursuing his interests in technological development and gadgetry, Mountbatten joined the Portsmouth Signals School in August 1924 and then went on briefly to study electronics at theRoyal Naval College, Greenwich.[11]Mountbatten became a Member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE), now the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET).[20]He was posted to the battleshipHMSCenturionin theReserve Fleetin 1926 and became Assistant Fleet Wireless and Signals Officer of the Mediterranean Fleet under the command of AdmiralSir Roger Keyesin January 1927.[11]Promotedlieutenant commanderon 15 April 1928,[21]Mountbatten returned to the Signals School in July 1929 as Senior Wireless Instructor.[11]He was appointed Fleet Wireless Officer to theMediterranean Fleetin August 1931 and, having been promotedcommanderon 31 December 1932,[22]was posted to the battleshipHMSResolution.[11]
In 1934, Mountbatten was appointed to his first command – the destroyerHMSDaring.[11]His ship was a new destroyer, which he was to sail to Singapore and exchange for an older ship,HMSWishart.[11]He successfully broughtWishartback to port in Malta and then attended thefuneral of George Vin January 1936.[23]Mountbatten was appointed a personal navalaide-de-camptoKing Edward VIIIon 23 June 1936[24]and, having joined the Naval Air Division of theAdmiraltyin July 1936,[25]he attended thecoronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabethin May 1937.[26]Mountbatten was promotedcaptainon 30 June 1937[27]and was then given command of the destroyerHMSKellyin June 1939.[28]
Within the Admiralty, Mountbatten was called "The Master of Disaster" for his penchant of getting into messes.[29][30]
Second World War
edit
When war broke out in September 1939, Mountbatten became Captain (D) (commander) of the5th Destroyer Flotillaaboard HMSKelly,which became famous for its exploits.[25]In late 1939 he broughtthe Duke of Windsorback from exile in France and in early May 1940 Mountbatten led a British convoy in through the fog to evacuate the Allied forces participating in theNamsos Campaignduring theNorwegian Campaign.[28]
On the night of 9–10 May 1940,Kellywas torpedoed amidships by a GermanE-boatS 31off the Dutch coast, and Mountbatten thereafter commanded the 5th Destroyer Flotilla from the destroyerHMSJavelin.[28]On 29 November 1940 the 5th Flotilla engaged three German destroyers offLizard Point, Cornwall.Mountbatten turned to port to match a German course change. This was "a rather disastrous move as thedirectorsswung off and lost target "[31]and it resulted inJavelinbeing struck by two torpedoes. He rejoinedKellyin December 1940, by which time the torpedo damage had been repaired.[28]
Kellywas sunk by Germandive bomberson 23 May 1941 during theBattle of Crete;[32]the incident serving as the basis forNoël Coward's filmIn Which We Serve.[33]Coward was a personal friend of Mountbatten and copied some of his speeches into the film.[32]Mountbatten wasmentioned in despatcheson 9 August 1940[34]and 21 March 1941[35]and awarded theDistinguished Service Orderin January 1941.[36]
In August 1941, Mountbatten was appointed captain of theaircraft carrierHMSIllustriouswhich lay inNorfolk, Virginia,for repairs followingaction at Maltain January.[32]During this period of relative inactivity, he paid a flying visit toPearl Harbor,three months before theJapanese attack on it.Mountbatten, appalled at the US naval base's lack of preparedness, drawing on Japan's history of launching wars with surprise attacks as well as the successful British surprise attack at theBattle of Tarantowhich had effectively knocked Italy's fleet out of the war, and the sheer effectiveness of aircraft against warships, accurately predicted that the US would enter the war after a Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor.[32][37]
Mountbatten was a favourite ofWinston Churchill.[38]On 27 October 1941, Mountbatten replacedAdmiral of the FleetSir Roger Keyesas Chief ofCombined Operations Headquartersand was promoted tocommodore.[32]
His duties in this role included inventing new technical aids to assist with opposed landings.[25]Noteworthy technical achievements of Mountbatten and his staff include the construction of"PLUTO", an underwater oil pipeline to Normandy,an artificialMulberry harbourconstructed of concrete caissons and sunken ships, and the development oftank-landing ships.[25]Another project Mountbatten proposed to Churchill wasProject Habakkuk.It was to be an unsinkable 600-metre aircraft carrier made from reinforced ice ( "Pykrete"); Habakkuk was never carried out due to its enormous cost.[25]
As commander of Combined Operations, Mountbatten and his staff planned the highly successfulBruneval raid,which gained important information and captured part of a GermanWürzburg radarinstallation and one of the machine's technicians on 27 February 1942. It was Mountbatten who recognised that surprise and speed were essential to capture the radar, and saw that an airborne assault was the only viable method.[39]
On 18 March 1942, he was promoted to theacting rankofvice admiraland given thehonorary ranksoflieutenant general[40]andair marshalto have the authority to carry out his duties in Combined Operations; and, despite the misgivings ofGeneralSir Alan Brooke,theChief of the Imperial General Staff,[41]Mountbatten was placed in theChiefs of Staff Committee.[42]He was in large part responsible for the planning and organisation of theSt Nazaire Raidon 28 March, which put out of action one of the most heavily defended docks in Nazi-occupied France until well after the war's end, the ramifications of which contributed to allied supremacy in theBattle of the Atlantic.After these two successes came theDieppe Raidof 19 August 1942. He was central in the planning and promotion of the raid on the port ofDieppe.The raid was a marked failure, with casualties of almost 60%, the great majority of them Canadians.[32]Following the Dieppe Raid, Mountbatten became a controversial figure in Canada, with theRoyal Canadian Legiondistancing itself from him during his visits there during his later career.[43]His relations with Canadian veterans, who blamed him for the losses, "remained frosty" after the war.[44]
Mountbatten claimed that the lessons learned from the Dieppe Raid were necessary for planning the Normandy invasion onD-Daynearly two years later. However, military historians such asMajor-GeneralJulian Thompson,a former member of theRoyal Marines,have written that these lessons should not have needed a debacle such as Dieppe to be recognised.[45]Nevertheless, as a direct result of the failings of the Dieppe Raid, the British made several innovations, most notablyHobart's Funnies– specialised armoured vehicles which, in the course of theNormandy Landings,undoubtedly saved many lives on those three beachheads upon which Commonwealth soldiers were landing (Gold Beach,Juno BeachandSword Beach).[46]
SEAC and Burma campaign
editIn August 1943, Churchill appointed Mountbatten the Supreme Allied CommanderSouth East Asia Command(SEAC) with promotion to acting fulladmiral.[32]His less practical ideas were sidelined by an experienced planning staff led by Lieutenant-ColonelJames Allason,though some, such as a proposal to launch an amphibious assault nearRangoon,got as far as Churchill before being quashed.[47]
British interpreterHugh Lunghirecounted an embarrassing episode during thePotsdam Conferencewhen Mountbatten, desiring to receive an invitation to visit theSoviet Union,repeatedly attempted to impressJoseph Stalinwith his former connections to theRussian imperial family.The attempt fell predictably flat, with Stalin dryly inquiring whether "it was some time ago that he had been there". Says Lunghi, "The meeting was embarrassing because Stalin was so unimpressed. He offered no invitation. Mountbatten left with his tail between his legs."[48]
During his time as Supreme Allied Commander of the Southeast Asia Theatre, his command oversaw therecapture of Burmafrom the Japanese byGeneralSir William Slim.[49]A personal high point was the receipt of the Japanese surrender in Singapore when British troops returned to the island to receive the formal surrender of Japanese forces in the region led by GeneralItagaki Seishiroon 12 September 1945, codenamedOperation Tiderace.[50]South East Asia Command was disbanded in May 1946 and Mountbatten returned home with the substantive rank ofrear-admiral.[51]That year, he was made aKnight Companion of the Garterand createdViscount Mountbatten of Burma,ofRomseyin theCounty of Southampton,as avictory titlefor war service. He was then in 1947 further createdEarl Mountbatten of BurmaandBaron Romsey,of Romsey in the County of Southampton.[52][53]
Following the war, Mountbatten was known to have largely shunned the Japanese for the rest of his life out of respect for his men killed during the war and, as per his will, Japan was not invited to send diplomatic representatives to his funeral in 1979, though he did meet EmperorHirohitoduring his state visit to Britain in 1971, reportedly at the urging of the Queen.[54]
Viceroy of India
editMountbatten's experience in the region and in particular his perceivedLaboursympathies at that time, alongside his wife's longstanding friendship and collaboration withV. K. Krishna Menon,led to Menon putting forth Mountbatten's name alone as a viceregal candidate acceptable to theIndian National Congress,in clandestine meetings with SirStafford CrippsandClement Attlee.[55]Attlee advisedKing George VIto appoint MountbattenViceroy of Indiaon 20 February 1947[56][57]charged with overseeing the transition of British India to independence no later than 30 June 1948. Mountbatten's instructions were to avoid partition and preserve a united India as a result of thetransfer of powerbut authorised him to adapt to a changing situation in order to get Britain out promptly with minimal reputational damage.[58][59]
Mountbatten arrived in India on 22 March by air, fromLondon.In the evening, he was taken tohis residenceand two days later, he took the Viceregal oath. His arrival saw large-scale communal riots inDelhi,BombayandRawalpindi.Mountbatten concluded that the situation was too volatile to wait even a year before granting independence to India. Although his advisers favoured a gradual transfer of independence, Mountbatten decided the only way forward was a quick and orderly transfer of power before 1947 was out. In his view, any longer would mean civil war.[60]Mountbatten also hurried so he could return to the Royal Navy.[61][62]
Mountbatten was fond ofCongressleaderJawaharlal Nehruand his liberal outlook for the country, and, through the efforts of their close mutual friend,Krishna Menon,developed a certain depth of feeling and intimacy with both Nehru that was shared by his wife, Edwina. He felt differently about theMuslim LeagueleaderMuhammad Ali Jinnah,but was aware of his power, stating "If it could be said that any single man held the future of India in the palm of his hand in 1947, that man was Mohammad Ali Jinnah."[62]During his meeting with Jinnah on 5 April 1947,[63]Mountbatten tried to persuade him of a united India, citing the difficult task of dividing the mixed states ofPunjabandBengal,but the Muslim leader was unyielding in his goal of establishing aseparate Muslim statecalled Pakistan.[64]
Given the British government's recommendations to grant independence quickly, Mountbatten concluded that a united India was an unachievable goal and resigned himself to a plan for partition, creating the independent nations of India and Pakistan.[25]Mountbatten set a date for the transfer of power from the British to the Indians, arguing that a fixed timeline would convince Indians of his and the British government's sincerity in working towards a swift and efficient independence, excluding all possibilities of stalling the process.[65]
Among the Indian leaders,Mahatma Gandhiemphatically insisted on maintaining aunited Indiaand for a while successfully rallied people to this goal. During his meeting with Mountbatten, Gandhi asked Mountbatten to invite Jinnah to form a new central government, but Mountbatten never uttered a word of Gandhi's ideas to Jinnah.[67]When Mountbatten's timeline offered the prospect of attaining independence soon, sentiments took a different turn. Given Mountbatten's determination, Nehru andSardar Patel's inability to deal with the Muslim League and, lastly, Jinnah's obstinacy, allIndian party leaders(except Gandhi) acquiesced to Jinnah's plan to divide India,[68]which in turn eased Mountbatten's task. Mountbatten also developed a strong relationship with theIndian princes,who ruled those portions of India not directly under British rule. His intervention was decisive in persuading the vast majority of them to see advantages in opting to join theIndian Union.[69]On one hand, the integration of the princely states can be viewed as one of the positive aspects of his legacy[70]but on the other, the refusal ofHyderabad,Jammu and Kashmir,andJunagadhto join one of the dominions led to futurewarsbetween Pakistan and India.[71]
Mountbatten brought forward the date of the partition from June 1948 to 15 August 1947.[72]The uncertainty of the borders causedMuslimsandHindusto move into the direction where they felt they would get the majority. Hindus and Muslims were thoroughly terrified, and the Muslim movement from the East was balanced by the similar movement of Hindus from the West.[73]A boundary committee chaired bySir Cyril Radcliffewas charged with drawing boundaries for the new nations. With a mandate to leave as many Hindus andSikhsin India and as many Muslims in Pakistan as possible, Radcliffe came up with a map that split the two countries along the Punjab and Bengal borders. This left 14 million people on the "wrong" side of the border, and very many of them fled to "safety" on the other side when the new lines were announced.[60][74]
Independence of India and Pakistan
edit
When India and Pakistan attained independence at midnight of 14–15 August 1947, Mountbatten was alone in his study at the Viceroy's house saying to himself just before the clock struck midnight that for still a few minutes, he was the most powerful man on Earth. At 12 am, as a last act of showmanship, he createdJoan Falkiner,the Australian wife of the Nawab ofPalanpur,a highness, an act that was apparently one of his favourite duties that was annulled at the stroke of midnight.[75]
Notwithstanding the self-promotion of his own part in Indian independence – notably in the television seriesThe Life and Times of Admiral of the Fleet Lord Mountbatten of Burma,produced by his son-in-lawLord Brabourne,andFreedom at MidnightbyDominique LapierreandLarry Collins(of which he was the main quoted source) – his record is seen as very mixed. One common view is that he hastened the process of independence unduly and recklessly, foreseeing vast disruption and loss of life and not wanting this to occur on his watch, but thereby actually helping it to occur (albeit in an indirect manner), especially in Punjab and Bengal.[76]John Kenneth Galbraith,the Canadian-AmericanHarvard Universityeconomist, who advised governments of India during the 1950s and was an intimate of Nehru who served as the American ambassador from 1961 to 1963, was a particularly harsh critic of Mountbatten in this regard.[77]However, another view is that the British were forced to expedite the partition process to avoid involvement in a potential civil war with law and order having already broken down and Britain with limited resources after the Second World War.[78][79]According to historian Lawrence James, Mountbatten was left with no other option but to cut and run, with the alternative being involvement in a potential civil war that would be difficult to get out of.[78]
The creation of Pakistan was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, among them Mountbatten.[80]Mountbatten clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in theMuslim League's idea of Pakistan.[81]Jinnahrefused Mountbatten's offer to serve asGovernor-General of Pakistan.[82]When Mountbatten was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged the creation of Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying oftuberculosis,he replied, "Most probably".[83]
Governor-General of India
editMountbatten became the firstGovernor-General of independent Indiaon 15 August 1947 upon the request of Indian Prime MinisterJawaharlal Nehru.TheLifemagazine noted on his reception in India that, "The people gathered in the streets to cheer Mountbatten as no European had ever been cheered before."[84]
During his reign as governor-general until 21 June 1948, he played a significant role in thepolitical integration of Indiaand persuaded manyprincely statesto join India.[1][85]On Mountbatten's advice, India took the issue of Kashmir to the newly formedUnited Nationsin January 1948.[86]Accounts differ on the future which Mountbatten desired for Kashmir. Pakistani accounts suggest that Mountbatten favoured theaccession of Kashmir to India,citing his close relationship to Nehru. Mountbatten's own account says that he simply wantedMaharaja Hari Singhto make up his mind. The viceroy made several attempts to mediate between the Congress leaders, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Hari Singh on issues relating to the accession of Kashmir, though he was largely unsuccessful in resolving the conflict.[87]After thetribal invasion of Kashmir,it was on his suggestion that India moved to secure the accession of Kashmir from Hari Singh before sending in military forces for his defence.[88]
After his tenure as governor-general concluded, Mountbatten continued to enjoy close relations with Nehru and the post-Independence Indian leadership, and was welcomed as a former governor-general of India on subsequent visits to the country, including during an official trip in March 1956. The Pakistani government, by contrast, lacked a positive view of Mountbatten for his perceived hostile attitude towards Pakistan and deemed himpersona non grata,barring him from transiting their airspace during the same visit.[89]
Later career
edit
After India, Mountbatten served as commander of the1st Cruiser Squadronin theMediterranean Fleetand, having been granted thesubstantive rankofvice-admiralon 22 June 1949,[90]he became Second-in-Command of the Mediterranean Fleet in April 1950.[85]He becameFourth Sea Lordat the Admiralty in June 1950. He then returned to the Mediterranean to serve as Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Fleet andNATOCommanderAllied Forces Mediterraneanfrom June 1952.[85]He was promoted to the substantive rank of full admiral on 27 February 1953.[91]In March 1953, he was appointed Personal Aide-de-Camp to the Queen.[92]
Mountbatten served his final posting at the Admiralty asFirst Sea Lordand Chief of the Naval Staff from April 1955 to July 1959, the position which his father had held some forty years before. This was the first time in Royal Naval history that a father and son had both attained such high office.[93]He was promoted toAdmiral of the Fleeton 22 October 1956.[94]
In theSuez Crisisof 1956, Mountbatten strongly advised his old friend Prime MinisterAnthony Edenagainst the Conservative government's plans to seize theSuez Canalin conjunction with France and Israel. He argued that such a move would destabilize the Middle East, undermine the authority of the United Nations, divide the Commonwealth and diminish Britain's global standing. His advice was not taken. Eden insisted that Mountbatten not resign. Instead, he worked hard to prepare the Royal Navy for war with characteristic professionalism and thoroughness.[95][96][97]
Despite his military rank, Mountbatten was ignorant as to the physics involved in a nuclear explosion and had to be reassured that the fission reactions from theBikini Atoll testswould not spread through the oceans and blow up the planet.[98]As Mountbatten became more familiar with this new form of weaponry, he increasingly grew opposed to its use in combat. Yet, he realised the potential for nuclear energy, especially with regard to submarines. Mountbatten expressed his feelings towards the use of nuclear weapons in combat in his article "A Military Commander Surveys The Nuclear Arms Race", which was published shortly after his death inInternational Securityin the Winter of 1979–1980.[99]
After leaving the Admiralty, Mountbatten took the position ofChief of the Defence Staff.[85]He served in this post for six years during which he was able to consolidate the three service departments of the military branch into a singleMinistry of Defence.[100]Ian Jacob,co-author of the 1963Report on the Central Organisation of Defencethat served as the basis of these reforms, described Mountbatten as "universally mistrusted in spite of his great qualities".[101]On theirelection in October 1964,theWilson ministryhad to decide whether to renew his appointment the following July. TheDefence Secretary,Denis Healey,interviewed the forty most senior officials in the Ministry of Defence; only one,Sir Kenneth Strong,a personal friend of Mountbatten, recommended his reappointment.[101]"When I told Dickie of my decision not to reappoint him," recalls Healey, "he slapped his thigh and roared with delight; but his eyes told a different story."[101]
Mountbatten was appointedColonelofThe Life GuardsandGold Stick in Waitingon 29 January 1965[102]and LifeColonel Commandantof theRoyal Marinesthe same year.[103]He wasGovernor of the Isle of Wightfrom 20 July 1965[104]and then the firstLord Lieutenantof theIsle of Wightfrom 1 April 1974.[105]
Mountbatten was elected aFellow of the Royal Society[25]and had received an honorary doctorate fromHeriot-Watt Universityin 1968.[106]
In 1969, Mountbatten tried unsuccessfully to persuade his second cousin, the Spanish pretenderInfante Juan, Count of Barcelona,to ease the eventual accession of his son,Juan Carlos,to the Spanish throne by signing a declaration of abdication while in exile.[107]The next year Mountbatten attended an official White House dinner during which he took the opportunity to have a 20-minute conversation withRichard Nixonand Secretary of StateWilliam P. Rogers,about which he later wrote, "I was able to talk to the President a bit about both Tino [Constantine II of Greece] and Juanito [Juan Carlos of Spain] to try and put over their respective points of view about Greece and Spain, and how I felt the US could help them."[107]In January 1971, Nixon hosted Juan Carlos and his wifeSofia(sister of the exiled King Constantine) during a visit to Washington and later that yearThe Washington Postpublished an article alleging that Nixon's administration was seeking to persuade Franco to retire in favour of the young Bourbon prince.[107]
From 1967 until 1978, Mountbatten was president of theUnited World CollegesOrganisation, then represented by a single college: that ofAtlantic Collegein South Wales. Mountbatten supported the United World Colleges and encouraged heads of state, politicians, and personalities throughout the world to share his interest. Under his presidency and personal involvement, the United World College of South East Asia was established in Singapore in 1971, followed by theUnited World College of the PacificinVictoria, British Columbia,in 1974. In 1978, Mountbatten passed the presidency of the college to his great-nephew,Charles, Prince of Wales.[108]
Mountbatten also helped to launch theInternational Baccalaureate;in 1971 he presented the first IB diplomas in the Greek Theatre of theInternational School of Geneva,Switzerland.[109][110][111]
In 1975 Mountbatten finally visited theSoviet Union,leading the delegation from UK as personal representative ofQueen Elizabeth IIat the celebrations to mark the 30th anniversary of Victory Day in Second World War in Moscow.[112]
Alleged plots against Harold Wilson
editPeter Wright,in his 1987 bookSpycatcher,claimed that in May 1968 Mountbatten attended a private meeting with press baronCecil Kingand the government's Chief Scientific Adviser,Solly Zuckerman.Wright alleged that "up to thirty"MI5officers had joined a secret campaign to undermine the crisis-stricken Labour government ofHarold Wilsonand that King was an MI5 agent. In the meeting, King allegedly urged Mountbatten to become the leader of a government of national salvation. Solly Zuckerman pointed out that it was "rank treachery" and the idea came to nothing because of Mountbatten's reluctance to act.[113]In contrast,Andrew Lowniehas suggested that it took the intervention of the Queen to dissuade Mountbatten from plotting against Wilson.[114]
In 2006, the BBC documentaryThe Plot Against Harold Wilsonalleged that there had been another plot involving Mountbatten to oust Wilson during his second term in office (1974–1976). The period was characterised by high inflation, increasing unemployment, and widespread industrial unrest. The alleged plot revolved around right-wing former military figures who were supposedly building private armies to counter the perceived threat from trade unions and the Soviet Union. They believed that theLabour Partywas unable and unwilling to counter these developments and that Wilson was either a Soviet agent or at the very least aCommunistsympathiser – claims Wilson strongly denied. The documentary makers alleged that a coup was planned to overthrow Wilson and replace him with Mountbatten using the private armies and sympathisers in the military and MI5.[115]
The first official history of MI5,The Defence of the Realm(2009), implied that there was a plot against Wilson and that MI5 did have a file on him. Yet it also made clear that the plot was in no way official and that any activity centred on a small group of discontented officers. This much had already been confirmed by formercabinet secretaryLord Hunt,who concluded in a secret inquiry conducted in 1996 that "there is absolutely no doubt at all that a few, a very few, malcontents in MI5... a lot of them like Peter Wright who were right-wing, malicious and had serious personal grudges – gave vent to these and spread damaging malicious stories about that Labour government."[116]
Personal life
editMarriage
edit
Mountbatten was married on 18 July 1922 toEdwina Cynthia Annette Ashley,daughter ofWilfred William Ashley,later 1stBaron Mount Temple,himself a grandson of the7th Earl of Shaftesbury.She was the favourite granddaughter of the Edwardian magnateSir Ernest Casseland the principal heir to his fortune. The couple spent heavily on households, luxuries, and entertainment.[11]There followed a honeymoon tour of European royal courts and North America which included a visit toNiagara Falls(because "all honeymooners went there" ).[6]During their honeymoon in California, the newlyweds starred in a silent home movie byCharlie ChaplincalledNice And Friendly,which was not shown in cinemas.[117][118]
Mountbatten admitted: "Edwina and I spent all our married lives getting into other people's beds."[119]He maintained an affair for several years withYola Letellier,[120]the wife of Henri Letellier, publisher ofLe Journaland mayor ofDeauville(1925–28).[121]Yola Letellier's life story was the inspiration forColette's novelGigi.[120]
After Edwina died in 1960, Mountbatten was involved in relationships with young women, according to his daughter Patricia, his secretary John Barratt, hisvaletBill Evans, andWilliam Stadiem,an employee ofMadame Claude.[122]He had a long-running affair with American actressShirley MacLaine,whom he met in the 1960s.[123]
Sexual allegations
editIn 2019, Ron Perks, Mountbatten's driver in Malta in 1948, alleged that he used to visit the Red House, an upmarket gay brothel inRabatused by naval officers.[124]Andrew Lownie,a fellow of theRoyal Historical Society,wrote that the United StatesFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI) maintained files regarding Mountbatten's alleged homosexuality.[125]Lownie also interviewed several young men who claimed to have been in a relationship with Mountbatten. John Barratt, Mountbatten's personal and private secretary for 20 years,[126]has said Mountbatten was not a homosexual, and that it would have been impossible for such a fact to have been hidden from him.[122]
In 2019, files became public showing that the FBI knew in the 1940s of allegations that Mountbatten was homosexual and apaedophile.[127]The FBI file on Mountbatten, begun after he took on the role of Supreme Allied Commander in Southeast Asia in 1944, describes Mountbatten and his wife Edwina as "persons of extremely low morals", and contains a claim by American authorElizabeth, Baroness Decies,that Mountbatten was known to be a homosexual and had "a perversion for young boys".[125][128]Norman Nield, Mountbatten's driver from 1942 to 1943, told the tabloidNew Zealand Truththat he transported young boys aged 8 to 12 who had been procured for the Admiral to Mountbatten's official residence and was paid to keep quiet.Robin Bryanshad also claimed to the Irish magazineNowthat Mountbatten andAnthony Blunt,along with others, were part of a ring that engaged in homosexual orgies and procured boys in their first year at public schools such as thePortora Royal SchoolinEnniskillen.Former residents of theKincora Boys' HomeinBelfasthave asserted that they were trafficked to Mountbatten atClassiebawn Castle,his residence inMullaghmore, County Sligo.[129][130][131]These claims were dismissed by theHistorical Institution Abuse (HIA) Inquiry.[132][122][133]The HIA stated that the article making the original allegations "did not give any basis for the assertions that any of these people [Mountbatten and others] were connected with Kincora".[132]
In October 2022 Arthur Smyth, a former resident of Kincora, waived his anonymity to make allegations of child abuse against Mountbatten.[134]The allegations are part of a civil case against state authorities responsible for the care of children in Kincora.[134]Smyth claims that he was raped twice by Mountbatten in encounters facilitated by the house father ofKincora.[135]
Daughter as heir
editLord and Lady Mountbatten had two daughters:Patricia Knatchbull(14 February 1924 – 13 June 2017),[136]sometime lady-in-waiting toQueen Elizabeth II,andLady Pamela Hicks(born 19 April 1929), who accompanied them to India in 1947–1948 and was also sometime lady-in-waiting to the Queen.[4]
Since Mountbatten had no sons when he was created Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, of Romsey in the County of Southampton on 27 August 1946[137]and then Earl Mountbatten of Burma and Baron Romsey, in the County of Southampton on 18 October 1947,[138]theLetters Patentwere drafted such that in the event he left no sons or issue in the male line, the titles could pass to his daughters, in order of seniority of birth.[53]
Leisure interests
editMountbatten was passionate aboutgenealogy,an interest he shared with other European royalty and nobility; according to Ziegler, he spent a great deal of his leisure time in studying his links with European royal houses.[139]From 1957 until his death, Lord Mountbatten was Patron of theCambridge University Heraldic and Genealogical Society.[140]He was equally passionate about orders, decorations and military ranks and uniforms, though he considered this interest to be a sign of vanity and constantly tried to distance himself from it, with limited success.[141]Over the course of his career, he consistently attempted to secure as many orders and decorations as possible.[142]Particular about details of dress, Mountbatten took an interest in fashion design, introducing trouser zips, a tail-coat with broad, high lapels and a "buttonless waistcoat" that could be pulled on over the head.[143]In 1949, having by then relinquished the office ofGovernor-General of Indiabut retaining a keen interest in Indian affairs, he designed new flags, insignia, and details of uniforms for theIndian Armed Forcesahead of the transition from British dominion to republic; many of his designs were implemented and remain in use.[144]
Like many members of the royal family, Mountbatten was an aficionado of polo. Mountbatten introduced the sport to the Royal Navy in the 1920s and wrote a book on the subject.[6]He received US patent 1,993,334 in 1931 for a polo stick.[145]He also served as Commodore of Emsworth Sailing Club inHampshirefrom 1931.[146]He was a long-serving Patron of theSociety for Nautical Research(1951–1979).[147]Apart from official documents, Mountbatten was not much of a reader, though he likedP. G. Wodehouse's books. He enjoyed the cinema; his favourite stars wereFred Astaire,Rita Hayworth,Grace KellyandShirley MacLaine.In general, however, he had a limited interest in the arts.[141]
Mentorship of King Charles III
editMountbatten was a strong influence in the upbringing of his great-nephew, the futureKing Charles III,and later as a mentor – "Honorary Grandfather" and "Honorary Grandson", they fondly called each other according to theJonathan Dimblebybiography of the then-Prince – though according to both the Ziegler biography of Mountbatten and the Dimbleby biography of the Prince, the results may have been mixed. He from time to time strongly upbraided the Prince for showing tendencies towards the idle pleasure-seeking dilettantism of his predecessor as Prince of Wales,King Edward VIII,whom Mountbatten had known well in their youth. Yet he also encouraged the Prince to enjoy the bachelor life while he could, and then to marry a young and inexperienced girl so as to ensure a stable married life.[148]
Mountbatten's qualification for offering advice to this particular heir to the throne was unique; it was he who had arranged the visit ofKing George VIandQueen ElizabethtoDartmouth Royal Naval Collegeon 22 July 1939, taking care to include the young Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret in the invitation, but assigning his nephew,CadetPrince Philip of Greece,to keep them amused while their parents toured the facility. This was the first recorded meeting of Charles's future parents[149]but a few months later, Mountbatten's efforts nearly came to naught when he received a letter from his sister Alice inAthensinforming him that Philip was visiting her and had agreed torepatriatepermanently to Greece. Within days, Philip received a command from his cousin and sovereign, KingGeorge II of Greece,to resume his naval career in Britain which, though given without explanation, the young prince obeyed.[150]
In 1974, Mountbatten began corresponding with Charles about a potential marriage to his granddaughter,Amanda Knatchbull,who was also Charles's second cousin.[151]It was about this time he also recommended that the 25-year-old prince get on with "sowing some wild oats".[151]Charles dutifully wrote to Amanda's mother (who was also his godmother and his father's first cousin),Lady Brabourne,about his interest. Her answer was supportive, but advised him that she thought her daughter still rather young to becourted.[152]
In February 1975, Charles visited New Delhi to playpoloand was shown aroundRashtrapati Bhavan,the former Viceroy's House, by Mountbatten.[153]
Four years later, Mountbatten secured an invitation for himself and Amanda to accompany Charles on his planned 1980 tour of India.[152]Their fathers promptly objected. Prince Philip thought that the Indian public's reception would more likely reflect their response to the uncle than to the nephew.Lord Brabournecounselled that the intense scrutiny of the press would be more likely to drive Mountbatten's godson and granddaughter apart than together.[152]
Charles was rescheduled to tour India alone, but Mountbatten did not live to the planned date of departure. When Charles finally did propose marriage to Amanda later in 1979, the circumstances were changed and she refused him.[152]
Television appearances
editOn 27 April 1977, shortly before his 77th birthday, Mountbatten became the first member of the Royal Family to appear on the TV guest showThis Is Your Life.[154]In the UK, 22.22 million people tuned in to watch the programme.[155]
Assassination
edit
Mountbatten usually holidayed at his summer home,Classiebawn Castle,on theMullaghmore Peninsulain County Sligo, in the north-west of Ireland. The village was only 12 miles (19 km) fromthe borderwithCounty Fermanaghin Northern Ireland and near an area known to be used as a cross-border refuge byIRAmembers.[156][157]In 1978, the IRA had allegedly attempted to shoot Mountbatten as he was aboard his boat, but poor weather had prevented the sniper taking his shot.[158]
On 27 August 1979, Mountbatten wentlobster-pottingand tuna fishing in his 30-foot (9.1 m) wooden boat,Shadow V,which had been moored in the harbour at Mullaghmore.[157]IRA memberThomas McMahonhad slipped onto the unguarded boat the previous night and attached a radio-controlled bomb weighing 50 pounds (23 kg). When Mountbatten and his party had taken the boat just a few hundred yards from the shore, the bomb was detonated. The boat was destroyed by the force of the blast and Mountbatten's legs were almost blown off. Mountbatten, then aged 79, was pulled alive from the water by nearby fishermen, but died from his injuries before being brought to shore.[157][159][160]
Also aboard the boat were his elder daughterPatricia, Lady Brabourne;her husbandLord Brabourne;their twin sons Nicholas and Timothy Knatchbull; Lord Brabourne's motherDoreen, Dowager Lady Brabourne;and Paul Maxwell, a young crew member fromEnniskillenin County Fermanagh.[161]Nicholas (aged 14) and Paul (aged 15) were killed by the blast and the others were seriously injured.[162]Doreen, Dowager Lady Brabourne (aged 83), died from her injuries the following day.[93]
The attack triggered outrage and condemnation around the world.[163]Queen Elizabeth IIreceived messages of condolence from leaders including US PresidentJimmy CarterandPope John Paul II.[164]Carter expressed his "profound sadness" at the death.[165]TheIrish Americancommunity was disgusted with the attack, especially since many American soldiers served under Mountbatten during World War II.[166][167][168]Jim Rooney, son ofPittsburgh SteelerspresidentDan M. Rooney(who co-foundedThe Ireland Fundsin 1976), recalled that:
Mountbatten's murder shocked many Irish-Americans, my parents included, because they remembered him for the role he played in defeating the Axis. "It was quite sad because being in America, you were familiar with Lord Mountbatten because of World War II," my mother recalled. "It was a very sad time." But my father didn't give in to despair. "That didn't show down [my father] one bit. It more or less gave him more energy," my mother said.[166]
Prime MinisterMargaret Thatchersaid:
His death leaves a gap that can never be filled. The British people give thanks for his life and grieve at his passing.[169]
George Colley,theTánaiste(Deputy head of the Government of Ireland), said:
No effort will be spared to bring those responsible to justice. It is understood that subversives have claimed responsibility for the explosion. Assuming that police investigations substantiate the claim, I know that the Irish people will join me in condemning this heartless and terrible outrage.[169]
The IRA issued a statement afterward, saying:
The IRA claim responsibility for the execution of Lord Louis Mountbatten. This operation is one of the discriminate ways we can bring to the attention of the English people the continuing occupation of our country.... The death of Mountbatten and the tributes paid to him will be seen in sharp contrast to the apathy of the British Government and the English people to the deaths of over three hundred British soldiers, and the deaths of Irish men, women, and children at the hands of their forces.[156][170]
Six weeks later,[171]Sinn Féinvice-presidentGerry Adamssaid of Mountbatten's death:
The IRA gave clear reasons for the execution. I think it is unfortunate that anyone has to be killed, but the furor created by Mountbatten's death showed up the hypocritical attitude of the media establishment. As a member of the House of Lords, Mountbatten was an emotional figure in both British and Irish politics. What the IRA did to him is what Mountbatten had been doing all his life to other people; and with his war record I don't think he could have objected to dying in what was clearly a war situation. He knew the danger involved in coming to this country. In my opinion, the IRA achieved its objective: people started paying attention to what was happening in Ireland.[171]
Indian prime ministerCharan Singhremarked:
Here in India, he will be remembered as a Viceroy and a Governor General who at the time of India's Independence gave us abundantly of his wisdom and goodwill. It was in recognition of our affection for him, respect for his impartiality and regard for his concern for India's freedom that the entire nation readily accepted Lord Mountbatten as the first Governor General of Independent India. His drive and vigour helped in the difficult period after our Independence.[172]
In India, a week of national mourning was declared over Mountbatten's death.[173]Burmahad announced a 3-day period of mourning.[174]
In 2015, Adams said in an interview, "I stand over what I said then. I'm not one of those people that engages in revisionism. Thankfully the war is over."[175]
On the day of the bombing, the IRA also ambushed and killed eighteenBritish soldiersat the gates ofNarrow Water Castle,just outsideWarrenpoint,inCounty Downin Northern Ireland, sixteen of them from theParachute Regiment,in what became known as theWarrenpoint ambush.[176]It was the deadliest attack on the British Army duringthe Troubles.[157]
Funeral
edit
On 5 September 1979, Mountbatten received aceremonial funeralatWestminster Abbey,which was attended by Queen Elizabeth II, the royal family, and members of the European royal houses. Watched by thousands of people, the funeral procession, which started atWellington Barracks,included representatives of all threeBritish Armed Services,and military contingents from Burma, India, the United States (represented by 70 sailors of theUS Navyand 50US Marines[177]), France (represented by theFrench Navy) and Canada. His coffin was drawn on a gun carriage by 118 Royal Navy ratings.[178][179]Mountbatten's funeral was the first major royal funeral to be held in the Abbey since the 18th century.[180]During the televised service, his great-nephew Charles read the lesson fromPsalm107.[178]In an address, theArchbishop of Canterbury,Donald Coggan,highlighted his various achievements and his "lifelong devotion to the Royal Navy".[181]After the public ceremonies, which he had planned himself, Mountbatten was buried inRomsey Abbey.[182][183]As part of the funeral arrangements, his body had been embalmed byDesmond Henley.[184]
Aftermath
editTwo hours before the bomb detonated, Thomas McMahon had been arrested at a Garda checkpoint betweenLongfordandGranardon suspicion of driving a stolen vehicle. He was tried for the assassinations in Ireland and convicted on 23 November 1979 based on forensic evidence supplied byJames O'Donovanthat showed flecks of paint from the boat and traces of nitroglycerine on his clothes.[185]He was released in 1998 under the terms of theGood Friday Agreement.[157][186]
On hearing of Mountbatten's death, the thenMaster of the Queen's Music,Malcolm Williamson,wrote theLament in Memory of Lord Mountbatten of Burmafor violin and string orchestra. The 11-minute work was given its first performance on 5 May 1980 by the Scottish Baroque Ensemble, conducted by Leonard Friedman.[187]
On his death his estate was valued for probate purposes at £2,196,494 (equivalent to £14,000,000 in 2023).[188]
Legacy
editMountbatten's faults, according to his biographerPhilip Ziegler,like everything else about him, "were on the grandest scale. His vanity though child-like, was monstrous, his ambition unbridled... He sought to rewrite history with cavalier indifference to the facts to magnify his own achievements."[189]However, Ziegler concludes that Mountbatten's virtues outweighed his defects:[189]
He was generous and loyal... He was warm-hearted, predisposed to like everyone he met, quick-tempered but never bearing grudges... His tolerance was extraordinary; his readiness to respect and listen to the views of others was remarkable throughout his life.
Ziegler argues he was truly a great man, and despite being an executor of a policy, not initiator, he came to be known as its creator.[189]
What he could do with superlative aplomb was to identify the object at which he was aiming, and force it through to its conclusion. A powerful, analytic mind of crystalline clarity, a superabundance of energy, great persuasive powers, endless resilience in the face of setback or disaster rendered him the most formidable of operators. He was infinitely resourceful, quick in his reactions, always ready to cut his losses and start again... He was an executor of policy rather than an initiator; but whatever the policy, he espoused it with such energy and enthusiasm, made it so completely his own, that it became identified with him and, in the eyes of the outside world as well as his own, his creation.
Others were not so conflicted. Field MarshalSir Gerald Templer,the formerChief of the Imperial General Staff,once told him, "You are so crooked, Dickie, that if you swallowed a nail, you would shit a corkscrew".[190]
Mountbatten supported the burgeoning nationalist movements which grew up in the shadow of Japanese occupation. His priority was to maintain practical, stable government, but driving him was an idealism in which he believed every people should be allowed to control their own destiny. Critics said he was too ready to overlook their faults, and especially their subordination to communist control. Ziegler says that in Malaya, where the main resistance to the Japanese came from Chinese who were under considerable communist influence, "Mountbatten proved to have been naïve in his assessment.... He erred, however, not because he was 'soft on Communism'... but from an over-readiness to assume the best of those with whom he had dealings." Furthermore, Ziegler argues, he was following a practical policy based on the assumption that it would take a long and bloody struggle to drive the Japanese out, and he needed the support of all the anti-Japanese elements, most of which were either nationalists or communists.[191]
Mountbatten took pride in enhancing intercultural understanding and in 1984, with his elder daughter as the patron, theMountbatten Institutewas developed to allow young adults the opportunity to enhance their intercultural appreciation and experience by spending time abroad.[192]The IET annually awards theMountbatten Medalfor an outstanding contribution, or contributions over a period, to the promotion of electronics or information technology and their application.[20]
Canada's capital city ofOttawanamed Mountbatten Avenue in his memory.[193]Java Street inKuala Lumpur,Malaysiawas renamedJalan Mountbattenafter the Second World War;[194][195]it was renamed again toJalan Tun Perakin 1981. TheMountbattenestate in Singapore andMountbatten MRT stationwere named after him.[196]
Mountbatten's personal papers (containing approximately 250,000 papers and 50,000 photographs) are preserved in theUniversity of Southampton Library.[197]
Awards and decorations
edit
He was appointedpersonal aide-de-campby Edward VIII, George VI[222]and Elizabeth II, and therefore bore the unusual distinction of being allowed to wear three royal cyphers on his epaulettes.[223][224]
Arms
edit
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Notes
editReferences
editFootnotes
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The princely states had been wooed by Mountbatten, Patel and Nehru to join the Indian Dominion
- ^"Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma".British Museum.Archivedfrom the original on 25 September 2021.Retrieved7 September2021.
- ^Zuckerman (1981),pp. 355–364
- ^abcMontgomery-Massingberd (1973),pp. 303–304
- ^abQueen Victoria(17 July 1900)."Journal Entry: Tuesday 17th July 1900".queenvictoriasjournals.org.Retrieved5 August2019.
- ^abc"Lord Louis Mountbatten".Life.17 August 1942. p. 63.Retrieved20 September2012– viaGoogle Books.
- ^Ziegler (2011).
- ^abHeathcote (2002),p. 183.
- ^King & Wilson (2003),p. 49.
- ^Hough (1984),p. 317
- ^abcdefghijklHeathcote (2002),p. 184.
- ^Ziegler (1985),p. 46
- ^Ziegler (1985),pp. 47–49
- ^Smith (2010),p. 66
- ^Ziegler (1985),p. 49
- ^"No. 32461".The London Gazette.20 September 1921. p. 7384.
- ^abZiegler (1985),p. 59
- ^Ziegler (1985),p. 60 states that he actually joined HMSRepulseon 25 June 1921
- ^Ziegler (1985),p. 73
- ^ab"Mountbatten Medal".IET. Archived fromthe originalon 27 October 2012.Retrieved20 September2012.
- ^"No. 33378".The London Gazette.24 April 1928. p. 2900.
- ^"No. 33899".The London Gazette.3 January 1933. p. 48.
- ^"No. 34279".The London Gazette(Supplement). 29 April 1936. p. 2785.
- ^"No. 34296".The London Gazette(Supplement). 19 June 1936. p. 4012.
- ^abcdefgZuckerman (1981),pp. 354–366
- ^"No. 34453".The London Gazette(Supplement). 10 November 1937. p. 7049.
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- ^abcdHeathcote (2002),p. 185.
- ^Mishra, Pankaj."Exit Wounds".The New Yorker.Archivedfrom the original on 6 July 2014.Retrieved10 April2021.
- ^Lanham, Fritz (5 August 2007)."Indian Summer by Alex von Tunzelmann".Chron.Archivedfrom the original on 10 April 2021.Retrieved10 April2021.
- ^March (1966),p. 353
- ^abcdefgHeathcote (2002),p. 186
- ^Niemi (2006),p. 70.
- ^"No. 34918".The London Gazette(Supplement). 9 August 1940. p. 4919.
- ^"No. 35113".The London Gazette(Supplement). 18 March 1941. p. 1654.
- ^ab"No. 35029".The London Gazette(Supplement). 31 December 1940. p. 25.DSO
- ^O'Toole, Thomas (7 December 1982)."Mountbatten Predicted Pearl Harbor".The Washington Post.Archivedfrom the original on 28 August 2017.Retrieved9 July2017.
- ^Gilbert (1988),p. 762
- ^Otway (1990),pp. 65–66
- ^"First World War".Nationalarchives.gov.uk.Archivedfrom the original on 1 June 2020.Retrieved14 January2020.
- ^Lownie (2019),p. 131
- ^Khanna (2015),p. 53
- ^Villa (1989),pp. 240–241.
- ^"Who Was Responsible For Dieppe?".CBC Archives. 9 September 1962.Archivedfrom the original on 8 February 2008.Retrieved1 August2007.
- ^Thompson (2001),pp. 263–269.
- ^"In pictures: D-Day inventions: The Flail".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 14 September 2007.Retrieved20 September2012.
- ^"Lt-Col James Allason".Obituary.The Telegraph.London. 24 June 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 10 January 2022.Retrieved20 September2012.
- ^Montefiore (2004),p. 501.
- ^Heathcote (2002),p. 187
- ^Park (1946),p. 2156, para 360.
- ^Heathcote (2002),p. 188.
- ^"Lord Louis Mountbatten (1900–1979)".BBC.Archivedfrom the original on 27 July 2018.Retrieved19 July2018.
- ^ab"No. 44059".The London Gazette.21 July 1966. p. 8227.
- ^"Japan is not invited to Lord Mountbatten's Funeral".The New York Times.5 September 1979.Archivedfrom the original on 23 January 2018.Retrieved9 July2017.
- ^Ganguly, Sumit (February 2021)."A Chequered Brilliance: The Many Lives of V. K. Krishna Menon. By Jairam Ramesh. New Delhi: Penguin Random House India, 2019. 744 pp. ISBN: 9780670092321 (cloth)".The Journal of Asian Studies.80(1): 220–221.doi:10.1017/s0021911820003964.ISSN0021-9118.S2CID234076753.
- ^Talbot & Singh (2009),p. 40.
- ^"No. 37916".The London Gazette.25 March 1947. p. 1399.
- ^Ziegler (1985),p. 359.
- ^Jalal (1994),p. 250: "These instructions were to avoid partition and obtain an unitary government for British India and the Indian States and at the same time observe the pledges to the princes and the Muslims; to secure agreement to theCabinet Missionplan without coercing any of the parties; somehow to keep the Indian army undivided, and to retain India within theCommonwealth.(Attlee to Mountbatten, 18 March 1947, ibid, 972–974) "
- ^abWhite (2012),p. 428.
- ^Wolpert (2006),p. 130
- ^abSardesai (2007),pp. 309–313.
- ^Wolpert (2006),p. 141.
- ^Greenberg (2005),p. 89
- ^Ziegler (1985),p. 355.
- ^abDipesh Navsaria (27 July 1996)."Indian Flag Proposals".Flags of the World.Archivedfrom the original on 31 May 2023.Retrieved14 March2020.
- ^Wolpert (2006),p. 139.
- ^Ziegler (1985),p. 373.
- ^"How Vallabhbhai Patel, V P Menon and Mountbatten unified India".31 October 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 15 December 2022.Retrieved19 August2019.
- ^Guha (2008),p. 57.
- ^Stoessinger (2010),p. 185.
- ^Talbot & Singh (2009),p. xvii.
- ^Khan (2007),pp. 100–101.
- ^Hodson (1980),pp. 102–106
- ^Tunzelmann (2007),p. 4
- ^See, e.g.,Wolpert (2006).
- ^"People: Scots of Windsor's Past".Windsor's Scottish Heritage. Archived fromthe originalon 9 August 2012.Retrieved20 September2012.
- ^abLawrence J. Butler, 2002,Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World,p. 72
- ^Ronald Hyam,Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 1918–1968,p. 113; Cambridge University Press,ISBN0-521-86649-9,2007
- ^McGrath (1996),p. 38
- ^Ahmed (1997),p. 136
- ^Wolpert (2006),p. 163
- ^Ahmed (1997),p. 209
- ^LIFE.Time Inc. 8 September 1947. p. 39.ISSN0024-3019.Archivedfrom the original on 8 March 2023.Retrieved15 March2024.
- ^abcdHeathcote (2002),p. 189
- ^Guha (2008),p. 87.
- ^Schofield (2010),pp. 29–31.
- ^Guha (2008),p. 83.
- ^Ziegler (1989),pp. 14–16, 117
- ^"No. 38681".The London Gazette.2 August 1949. p. 3760.
- ^"No. 39802".The London Gazette.17 March 1953. p. 1530.
- ^"Mountbatten of Burma, 1st Earl, (Louis (Francis Albert Victor Nicholas) Mountbatten) (25 June 1900 – 27 Aug. 1979)".Mountbatten, Louis.Oxford Biography Index.2007.doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U157802.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^abPatton (2005),pp. 14–17
- ^"No. 40927".The London Gazette.16 November 1956. p. 6492.
- ^Ziegler (1985),pp. 537–547
- ^Smith (2012),pp. 489–508
- ^Smith (2013),pp. 105–134
- ^Zuckerman (1981),p. 363
- ^Mountbatten (1979–1980)
- ^Heathcote (2002),p. 190.
- ^abcHealey (1989),p. 258.
- ^"No. 43563".The London Gazette(Supplement). 2 February 1965. p. 1147.
- ^"No. 43731".The London Gazette.6 August 1965. p. 7446.
- ^"No. 43720".The London Gazette.23 July 1965. p. 7029.
- ^"No. 46255".The London Gazette.4 April 1974. p. 4399.
- ^"Heriot-Watt University Edinburgh: Honorary Graduates".www1.hw.ac.uk.Archived fromthe originalon 18 April 2016.Retrieved11 April2016.
- ^abcPowell (1996),pp. 50–51, 221–222.
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Further reading
edit- Ankit, Rakesh (2021)."Mountbatten and India, 1964-79: after Nehru".Contemporary British History.35(4): 569–596.doi:10.1080/13619462.2021.1944113.ISSN1361-9462.S2CID237793636.
- Coll, Rebecca (2017)."Autobiography and history on screen: The Life and Times of Lord Mountbatten".Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television.37(4): 665–682.doi:10.1080/01439685.2016.1187847.ISSN0143-9685.S2CID159708448.Archivedfrom the original on 29 November 2022.Retrieved18 September2022.
- Copland, Ian (1993). "Lord Mountbatten and the integration of the Indian states: A reappraisal".Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History.21(2): 385–408.doi:10.1080/03086539308582896.ISSN0308-6534.
- Grove, Eric; Rohan, Sally Rohan (1999). "The Limits of Opposition: Admiral Earl Mountbatten of Burma, First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff".Contemporary British History.13(2): 98–116.doi:10.1080/13619469908581531.ISSN1361-9462.
- Hough, Richard (1980).Mountbatten: Hero of Our Time.London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.ISBN978-0-297-77805-9.
- Knatchbull, Timothy (2010).From a Clear Blue Sky.London: Arrow.ISBN978-0-09-954358-9.
- Leigh, David (1988).The Wilson Plot: The Intelligence Services and the Discrediting of a Prime Minister 1945–1976.London: Heinemann.ISBN978-0-434-41340-9.
- McLynn, Frank (2011).The Burma Campaign: Disaster into Triumph, 1942–1945.New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-17836-4.
- Moore, R. J. (1981). "Mountbatten, India, and the Commonwealth".Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics.19(1): 5–43.doi:10.1080/14662048108447372.ISSN0306-3631.
- Murfett, Malcolm (1995).The First Sea Lords from Fisher to Mountbatten.Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.ISBN978-0-275-94231-1.
- Neillands, Robin (2005).The Dieppe Raid: the story of the disastrous 1942 expedition.Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-34781-7.
- Nordenvall, Per (1998).Kungl. Serafimerorden 1748–1998[The Royal Order of the Seraphim 1748–1998] (in Swedish). Stockholm: Kungl. Maj:ts orden.ISBN978-91-630-6744-0.
- Ritter, Jonathan Templin (2017).Stilwell and Mountbatten in Burma: Allies at War, 1943–1944.Denton, Texas: University of North Texas Press.ISBN978-1-57441-674-9.
- Roberts, Andrew (2004).Eminent Churchillians.London: Phoenix.ISBN978-1-85799-213-7.
- Smith, Adrian (1991). "Command and Control in Postwar Britain Defence Decision-making in the United Kingdom, 1945-1984".Twentieth Century British History.2(3): 291–327.doi:10.1093/tcbh/2.3.291.
- ———(August 2006). "Mountbatten goes to the movies: Promoting the heroic myth through cinema".Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television.26(3): 395–416.doi:10.1080/01439680600799421.S2CID191491309.
- Terraine, John (1968).The Life and Times of Lord Mountbatten.London: Hutchinson.ISBN978-0-09-088810-8.
- Villa, Brian Loring; Henshaw, Peter J. (June 1998)."The Dieppe Raid Debate".Canadian Historical Review.79(2): 304–315.ISSN0008-3755.
- Wheen, Francis(2001).Tom Driberg: The Soul of Indiscretion.London:Fourth Estate.ISBN978-1-84115-575-3.
- Ziegler, Philip, ed. (1987).The Diaries of Lord Louis Mountbatten, 1920-1922: Tours with the Prince of Wales.London: Collins.ISBN0-00-217608-4.
External links
edit
- Tribute & Memorial Website to Louis, 1st Earl Mountbatten of BurmaArchived18 September 2020 at theWayback Machine
- 70th Anniversary of Indian Independence – Mountbatten: The Last Viceroy – UK Parliament Living Heritage
- Hansard1803–2005:contributions in Parliament by the Earl Mountbatten of Burma
- Papers of Louis, Earl Mountbatten of Burma
- Portraits of Lord Mountbattenat theNational Portrait Gallery, London
- Newspaper clippings about Lord Mountbattenin the20th Century Press Archivesof theZBW
