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Thomas Babington Macaulay

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For another person with the name, seeThomas Babington Macaulay (Nigeria).
"Baron Macaulay" redirects here. For the British Labour politician, seeDonald Macaulay, Baron Macaulay of Bragar.
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Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay,PC,FRS,FRSE(/ˈbæbɪŋtənməˈkɔːli/;25 October 1800 – 28 December 1859) was a British historian, poet, andWhig politician,who served as theSecretary at Warbetween 1839 and 1841, and as thePaymaster Generalbetween 1846 and 1848. He also played a substantial role in determiningIndia's education policy.

The Right Honourable
The Lord Macaulay
PCFRSFRSE
Photogravureof Macaulay byAntoine Claudet
Secretary at War
In office
27 September 1839 – 30 August 1841
MonarchVictoria
Prime MinisterThe Viscount Melbourne
Preceded byViscount Howick
Succeeded bySir Henry Hardinge
Paymaster General
In office
7 July 1846 – 8 May 1848
MonarchVictoria
Prime MinisterLord John Russell
Preceded byHon. Bingham Baring
Succeeded byThe Earl Granville
Personal details
Born(1800-10-25)25 October 1800
Leicestershire,England
Died28 December 1859(1859-12-28)(aged 59)
London,England
Political partyWhig
Parent(s)Zachary Macaulay
Selina Mills
Alma materTrinity College, Cambridge
OccupationPolitician
ProfessionHistorian, poet
Signature

Macaulay'sThe History of England,which expressed his belief in the superiority of theWestern European cultureand of theinevitability of its sociopolitical progress,is a seminal example ofWhig historycommended for its prose style.[1]

Early life

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Macaulay was born atRothley Temple[2]inLeicestershireon 25 October 1800, the son ofZachary Macaulay,a ScottishHighlander,who became acolonial governorandabolitionist,andSelina MillsofBristol,a former pupil ofHannah More.[3]They named their first child after his uncleThomas Babington,aLeicestershirelandowner and politician,[4][5]who had married Zachary's sister Jean.[6]The young Macaulay was noted as a child prodigy; as a toddler, gazing out of the window from his cot at the chimneys of a local factory, he is reputed to have asked his father whether the smoke came from the fires of hell.[7]

He was educated at a private school inHertfordshire,and, subsequently, atTrinity College, Cambridge,[8]where he won several prizes, including theChancellor's Gold Medalin June 1821,[9]and where he in 1825 published a prominent essay on Milton in theEdinburgh Review.Macaulay did not study classical literature while at Cambridge, though he subsequently did when he was in India. In his letters he describes his reading of theAeneidwhilst he was in Malvern in 1851, and says he was moved to tears byVirgil's poetry.[10]He taught himself German, Dutch and Spanish, and was fluent in French.[11]He studied law and in 1826 he wascalled to the bar,before he took more interest in a political career.[12]Macaulay in theEdinburgh Reviewin 1827, and in a series of anonymous letters toThe Morning Chronicle,[13]censured the analysis of indentured labour by the British Colonial Office expertColonel Thomas Moody, Kt.[13][14]Macaulay's evangelical Whig fatherZachary Macaulay,who desired a 'free black peasantry' rather than equality for Africans,[15]also censured, in theAnti-Slavery Reporter,Moody's contentions.[13]

Macaulay, who did not marry nor have children, was rumoured to have fallen in love withMaria Kinnaird,who was the wealthy ward ofRichard 'Conversation' Sharp.[16]Macaulay's strongest emotional relationships were with his youngest sisters: Margaret, who died while he was in India, and Hannah, to whose daughter Margaret, whom he called 'Baba', he was also attached.[17]

India (1834–1838)

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Macaulay by John Partridge

Macaulay in 1830 accepted the invitation ofthe Marquess of Lansdownethat he become Member of Parliament for thepocket boroughofCalne.Macaulay's maiden speech in Parliament advocated abolition of thecivil disabilities of the Jews in the UK.He extensively wrote that,

IslamandHinduismhad little to offer to the world, and thatArabic,Persian and Sanskrit literature had little contribution to humanity.[9]

Macaulay's subsequent speeches in favour of parliamentary reform were commended.[9]He became MP forLeeds[9]subsequent to the 1833 enactment of theReform Act 1832,by which Calne's representation was reduced from two MPs to one, and by which Leeds, which had not been represented before, had two MPs. Macaulay remained grateful to his former patron, Lansdowne, who remained his friend.

Macaulay wasSecretary to the Board of ControlunderLord Greyfrom 1832 until he in 1833 required, as a consequence of the penury of his father, a more remunerative office, than that ofthe unremunerated office of an MP,from which he resigned after the passing of theGovernment of India Act 1833to accept an appointment as first Law Member of theGovernor-General's Council.In 1834 Macaulay went to India, where he served on the Supreme Council between 1834 and 1838.[18] HisMinute on Indian Educationof February 1835 was primarily responsible for the introduction of Western institutional education to India[citation needed].

Macaulay recommended the introduction of the English language as theofficial languageof secondary education instruction in all schools where there had been none before, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers.[1] In his minute, he urgedLord William Bentinck,the then-Governor-Generalto reform secondary education onutilitarianlines to deliver "useful learning", a phrase that to him was synonymous with Western culture. There was no tradition of secondary education in vernacular languages; the institutions supported by theEast India Companytaught either inSanskritorPersian[citation needed].Hence, he argued, "We have to educate a people who cannot at present be educated by means of their mother-tongue. We must teach them some foreign language." Macaulay argued that Sanskrit and Persian were no more accessible than English to the speakers of the Indian vernacular languages and existing Sanskrit and Persian texts were of little use for "useful learning". In one of the less scathing passages of the Minute hewrote:

I have no knowledge of either Sanskrit or Arabic. But I have done what I could to form a correct estimate of their value. I have read translations of the most celebrated Arabic and Sanskrit works. I have conversed both here and at home with men distinguished by their proficiency in the Eastern tongues. I am quite ready to take the Oriental learning at the valuation of the Orientalists themselves. I have never found one among them who could deny that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.

He furtherargued:

It will hardly be disputed, I suppose, that the department of literature in which the Eastern writers stand highest is poetry. And I certainly never met with any orientalist who ventured to maintain that the Arabic and Sanskrit poetry could be compared to that of the great European nations. But when we pass from works of imagination to works in which facts are recorded and general principles investigated, the superiority of the Europeans becomes absolutely immeasurable. It is, I believe, no exaggeration to say that all the historical information which has been collected from all the books written in the Sanskrit language is less valuable than what may be found in the most paltry abridgments used at preparatory schools in England. In every branch of physical or moral philosophy, the relative position of the two nations is nearly the same.

Hence, from the sixth year of schooling onwards, instruction should be in European learning, with English as the medium of instruction. This would create a class of anglicised Indians who would serve as cultural intermediaries between the British and the Indians; the creation of such a class was necessary before any reform of vernacular education. Hestated:

I feel with them that it is impossible for us, with our limited means, to attempt to educate the body of the people. We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population.

Macaulay's largely coincided with Bentinck's views[19]and Bentinck's English Education Act 1835 closely matched Macaulay's recommendations (in 1836, a school namedLa Martinière,founded by Major General Claude Martin, had one of its houses named after him), but subsequent Governors-General took a more conciliatory approach to existing Indian education.

His final years in India were devoted to the creation of a Penal Code, as the leading member of the Law Commission. In the aftermath of theIndian Mutiny of 1857,Macaulay's criminal law proposal was enacted.[citation needed]TheIndian Penal Codein 1860 was followed by the Criminal Procedure Code in 1872 and theCivil Procedure Codein 1908. TheIndian Penal Codeinspired counterparts in most otherBritish colonies,and to date many of these laws are still in effect in places as far apart asPakistan,Malaysia,Myanmar,Bangladesh,Sri Lanka,NigeriaandZimbabwe,as well as inIndiaitself.[20]This includes Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code, which remains the basis forlaws which criminalize homosexualityin severalCommonwealth nations.[21]

In Indian culture, the term "Macaulay's Children" is sometimes used to refer to people born of Indian ancestry who adopt Western culture as a lifestyle, or displayattitudes influenced by colonialism( "Macaulayism")[22]– expressions used disparagingly, and with the implication of disloyalty to one's country and one's heritage. In independent India, Macaulay's idea of thecivilising missionhas been used by Dalitists, in particular byneo-liberalistChandra Bhan Prasad,as a "creative appropriation for self-empowerment", based on the view that the Dalit community was empowered by Macaulay's deprecation of Hindu culture and support for Western-style education in India.[23]

Domenico Losurdo states that "Macaulay acknowledged that the English colonists in India behaved likeSpartansconfrontinghelots:we are dealing with 'a race of sovereign' or a 'sovereign caste', wielding absolute power over its 'serfs'. "[24]Losurdo noted that this did not prompt any doubts from Macaulay over the right of Britain to administer its colonies in an autocratic fashion; for example, while Macaulay described the administration ofgovernor-general of IndiaWarren Hastingsas being so despotic that "all the injustice of former oppressors, Asiatic and European, appeared as a blessing", he (Hastings) deserved "high admiration" and a rank among "the most remarkable men in our history" for "having saved England and civilisation".[25]

Return to British public life (1838–1857)

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Macaulay by Sir Francis Grant

Returning to Britain in 1838, he became MP again inEdinburghin the following year. He was madeSecretary at Warin 1839 byLord Melbourneand was sworn of thePrivy Councilthe same year.[26]In 1841 Macaulay addressed the issue ofcopyrightlaw. Macaulay's position, slightly modified, became the basis ofcopyright lawin the English-speaking world for many decades.[27]Macaulay argued that copyright is a monopoly and as such has generally negative effects on society.[27]After the fall of Melbourne's government in 1841 Macaulay devoted more time to literary work, and returned to office asPaymaster Generalin 1846 inLord John Russell's administration.

In the election of 1847 he lost his seat in Edinburgh.[28]He attributed the loss to the anger of religious zealots over his speech in favour of expanding the annual government grant toMaynooth Collegein Ireland, which trained young men for the Catholic priesthood; some observers also attributed his loss to his neglect of local issues. In 1849 he was electedRector of the University of Glasgow,a position with no administrative duties, often awarded by the students to men of political or literary fame.[29]He also received thefreedom of the city.[30]

In 1852, the voters of Edinburgh offered to re-elect him to Parliament. He accepted on the express condition that he need not campaign and would not pledge himself to a position on any political issue. Remarkably, he was elected on those terms.[citation needed]He seldom attended the House due to ill health. His weakness after suffering a heart attack caused him to postpone for several months making his speech of thanks to the Edinburgh voters. He resigned his seat in January 1856.[31]In 1857 he was raised to thepeerageasBaron Macaulay,ofRothleyin theCounty of Leicester,[32]but seldom attended theHouse of Lords.[31]

Later life (1857–1859)

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The Funeral of Thomas Babington Macaulay, Baron Macaulay,by SirGeorge Scharf

Macaulay sat on the committee to decide on the historical subjects to be painted in the newPalace of Westminster.[33]The need to collect reliable portraits of notable figures from history for this project led to the foundation of theNational Portrait Gallery,which was formally established on 2 December 1856.[34]Macaulay was amongst its founding trustees and is honoured with one of only three busts above the main entrance.

During his later years his health made work increasingly difficult for him. He died of a heart attack on 28 December 1859, aged 59, leaving his major work,The History of England from the Accession of James the Secondincomplete.[35]On 9 January 1860 he was buried inWestminster Abbey,inPoets' Corner,[36]near a statue ofAddison.[9]As he had no children, his peerage became extinct on his death.

Macaulay's nephew,Sir George Trevelyan, Bt,wrote the "Life and Letters" of his uncle. His great-nephew was the Cambridge historianG. M. Trevelyan.

Literary works

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As a young man he composed the balladsIvryandThe Armada,[37]which he later included as part ofLays of Ancient Rome,a series of very popular poems about heroic episodes in Roman history which he began composing in India and continued in Rome, finally publishing in 1842.[38]The most famous of them,Horatius,concerns the heroism ofHoratius Cocles.It contains the oft-quoted lines:[39]

Then out spake brave Horatius,
The Captain of the Gate:
"To every man upon this earth
Death cometh soon or late.
And how can man die better
Than facing fearful odds,
For the ashes of his fathers,
And the temples of his gods? "

His essays, originally published in theEdinburgh Review,were collected asCritical and Historical Essaysin 1843.[40]

Historian

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During the 1840s, Macaulay undertook his most famous work,The History of England from the Accession of James the Second,publishing the first two volumes in 1848. At first, he had planned to bring his history down to the reign ofGeorge III.After publication of his first two volumes, his hope was to complete his work with the death ofQueen Annein 1714.[41]

The third and fourth volumes, bringing the history to thePeace of Ryswick,were published in 1855. At his death in 1859 he was working on the fifth volume. This, bringing theHistorydown to the death ofWilliam III,was prepared for publication by his sister, Lady Trevelyan, after his death.[42]

Political writing

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Macaulay's political writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history, according to which the country threw off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward-looking culture combined with freedom of belief and expression. This model of human progress has been called theWhig interpretation of history.This philosophy appears most clearly in the essays Macaulay wrote for theEdinburgh Reviewand other publications, which were collected in book form and a steady best-seller throughout the 19th century. But it is also reflected inHistory;the most stirring passages in the work are those that describe the "Glorious Revolution"of 1688.

Macaulay's approach has been criticised by later historians for its one-sidedness and its complacency.Karl Marxreferred to him as a 'systematic falsifier of history'.[43]Later historians have also highlighted his views on non-European cultures and philosophies as explicitly racist, citing, for example, his remark that 'a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia'. His tendency to see history as a drama led him to treat figures whose views he opposed as if they were villains, while characters he approved of were presented as heroes. Macaulay goes to considerable length, for example, to absolve his main heroWilliam IIIof any responsibility for theGlencoe massacre.Winston Churchilldevoted afour-volume biographyof theDuke of Marlboroughto rebutting Macaulay's slights on his ancestor, expressing hope "to fasten the label 'Liar' to his genteel coat-tails".[44]

Legacy as a historian

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The Liberal historianLord Actonread Macaulay'sHistory of Englandfour times and later described himself as "a raw English schoolboy, primed to the brim with Whig politics" but "notWhiggismonly, but Macaulay in particular that I was so full of. "However, after coming under German influence Acton would later find fault in Macaulay.[45]In 1880 Acton classed Macaulay (withBurkeandGladstone) as one "of the three greatest Liberals".[46]In 1883, he advisedMary Gladstone:

[T]he Essays are really flashy and superficial. He was not above par in literary criticism; his Indian articles will not hold water; and his two most famous reviews, onBaconandRanke,show his incompetence. The essays are only pleasant reading, and a key to half the prejudices of our age. It is theHistory(with one or two speeches) that is wonderful. He knew nothing respectably before the seventeenth century, he knew nothing of foreign history, of religion, philosophy, science, or art. His account of debates has been thrown into the shade by Ranke, his account of diplomatic affairs, byKlopp.He is, I am persuaded, grossly, basely unfair. Read him therefore to find out how it comes that the most unsympathetic of critics can think him very nearly the greatest of English writers…[47]

In 1885, Acton asserted that:

We must never judge the quality of a teaching by the quality of the Teacher, or allow the spots to shut out the sun. It would be unjust, and it would deprive us of nearly all that is great and good in this world. Let me remind you of Macaulay. He remains to me one of the greatest of all writers and masters, although I think him utterly base, contemptible and odious for certain reasons which you know.[48]

In 1888, Acton wrote that Macaulay "had done more than any writer in the literature of the world for the propagation of the Liberal faith, and he was not only the greatest, but the most representative, Englishman then living".[49]

W. S. Gilbertdescribed Macaulay's wit, "who wrote ofQueen Anne"as part of Colonel Calverley's Act I patter song in the libretto of the 1881 operettaPatience.(This line may well have been a joke about the Colonel's pseudo-intellectual bragging, as most educated Victorians knew that Macaulay didnotwrite of Queen Anne; theHistoryencompasses only as far as the death of William III in 1702, who was succeeded by Anne.)

Herbert Butterfield'sThe Whig Interpretation of History(1931) attacked Whig history. The Dutch historianPieter Geyl,writing in 1955, considered Macaulay'sEssaysas "exclusively and intolerantly English".[50]

On 7 February 1954,Lord Moran,doctor to the Prime Minister, SirWinston Churchill,recorded in his diary:

Randolph,who is writing a life of the late Lord Derby forLongman's, brought to luncheon a young man of that name. His talk interested the P.M.... Macaulay, Longman went on, was not read now; there was no demand for his books. The P.M. grunted that he was very sorry to hear this. Macaulay had been a great influence in his young days.[51]

George Richard Potter,Professor and Head of the Department of History at theUniversity of Sheffieldfrom 1931 to 1965, stated "In an age of long letters... Macaulay's hold their own with the best".[52]However Potter also stated:

For all his linguistic abilities he seems never to have tried to enter into sympathetic mental contact with the classical world or with the Europe of his day. It was an insularity that was impregnable... If his outlook was insular, however, it was surely British rather than English.[53]

With regards to Macaulay's determination to inspect physically the places mentioned in hisHistory,Potter said:

Much of the success of the famous third chapter of theHistorywhich may be said to have introduced the study ofsocial history,and even...local history,was due to the intense local knowledge acquired on the spot. As a result it is a superb, living picture of Great Britain in the latter half of the seventeenth century... No description of therelief of Londonderryin a major history of England existed before 1850; after his visit there and the narrative written round it no other account has been needed... Scotland came fully into its own and from then until now it has been a commonplace thatEnglish historyis incomprehensible without Scotland.[54]

Potter noted that Macaulay has had many critics, some of whom put forward some salient points about the deficiency of Macaulay'sHistorybut added: "The severity and the minuteness of the criticism to which theHistory of Englandhas been subjected is a measure of its permanent value. It is worth every ounce of powder and shot that is fired against it. "Potter concluded that" in the long roll of English historical writing fromClarendontoTrevelyanonlyGibbonhas surpassed him in security of reputation and certainty of immortality ".[55]

Piers Brendonwrote that Macaulay is "the only British rival to Gibbon."[56]In 1972, J. R. Western wrote that: "Despite its age and blemishes, Macaulay'sHistory of Englandhas still to be superseded by a full-scale modern history of the period. "[57]In 1974J. P. Kenyonstated that: "As is often the case, Macaulay had it exactly right."[58]

W. A. Speckwrote in 1980, that a reason Macaulay'sHistory of England"still commands respect is that it was based upon a prodigious amount of research".[59]Speck stated:

Macaulay's reputation as an historian has never fully recovered from the condemnation it implicitly received in Herbert Butterfield's devastating attack onThe Whig Interpretation of History.Though he was never cited by name, there can be no doubt that Macaulay answers to the charges brought against Whig historians, particularly that they study the past with reference to the present, class people in the past as those who furthered progress and those who hindered it, and judge them accordingly.[60]

According to Speck:

[Macaulay too often] denies the past has its own validity, treating it as being merely a prelude to his own age. This is especially noticeable in the third chapter of hisHistory of England,when again and again he contrasts the backwardness of 1685 with the advances achieved by 1848. Not only does this misuse the past, it also leads him to exaggerate the differences.[60]

On the other hand, Speck also wrote that Macaulay "took pains to present the virtues even of a rogue, and he painted the virtuous warts and all",[61]and that "he was never guilty of suppressing or distorting evidence to make it support a proposition which he knew to be untrue".[62]Speck concluded:

What is in fact striking is the extent to which hisHistory of Englandat least has survived subsequent research. Although it is often dismissed as inaccurate, it is hard to pinpoint a passage where he is categorically in error... his account of events has stood up remarkably well... His interpretation of theGlorious Revolutionalso remains the essential starting point for any discussion of that episode... What has not survived, or has become subdued, is Macaulay's confident belief in progress. It was a dominant creed in the era of theGreat Exhibition.ButAuschwitzandHiroshimadestroyed this century's claim to moral superiority over its predecessors, while the exhaustion of natural resources raises serious doubts about the continuation even of material progress into the next.[62]

In 1981,J. W. Burrowargued that Macaulay'sHistory of England:

... is not simply partisan; a judgement, like that ofFirth,that Macaulay was always the Whig politician could hardly be more inapposite. Of course Macaulay thought that the Whigs of the seventeenth century were correct in their fundamental ideas, but the hero of theHistorywas William, who, as Macaulay says, was certainly no Whig... If this wasWhiggismit was so only, by the mid-nineteenth century, in the most extended and inclusive sense, requiring only an acceptance of parliamentary government and a sense of gravity of precedent.Butterfieldsays, rightly, that in the nineteenth century the Whig view of history became the English view. The chief agent of that transformation was surely Macaulay, aided, of course, by the receding relevance of seventeenth-century conflicts to contemporary politics, as the power of the crown waned further, and thecivil disabilities of CatholicsandDissenterswere removed by legislation. TheHistoryis much more than the vindication of a party; it is an attempt to insinuate a view of politics, pragmatic, reverent, essentiallyBurkean,informed by a high, even tumid sense of the worth of public life, yet fully conscious of its interrelations with the wider progress of society; it embodies whatHallamhad merely asserted, a sense of the privileged possession by Englishmen of their history, as well as of the epic dignity of government by discussion. If this was sectarian it was hardly, in any useful contemporary sense, polemically Whig; it is more like the sectarianism of English respectability.[63]

In 1982,Gertrude Himmelfarbwrote:

[M]ost professional historians have long since given up reading Macaulay, as they have given up writing the kind of history he wrote and thinking about history as he did. Yet there was a time when anyone with any pretension to cultivation read Macaulay.[64]

Himmelfarb also laments that "the history of theHistoryis a sad testimonial to the cultural regression of our times ".[65]

In the novelMarathon Manand itsfilm adaptation,the protagonist was named 'Thomas Babington' after Macaulay.[66]

In 2008,Walter Olsonargued for the pre-eminence of Macaulay as a Britishclassical liberal.[67]

Works

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  • Works by Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron MacaulayatProject Gutenberg
  • Lays of Ancient Romeoriginally published in the year 1842.
  • The History of England from the Accession of James II.Philadelphia: Porter & Coates. 1848 – viaWikisource.
  • Critical and Historical Essays(1843),2 vols, edited byAlexander James Grieve.Vol. 1,Vol. 2
  • "Social and Industrial Capacities of the Negroes".Critical Historical and Miscellaneous Essays with a Memoir and Index.Vol. V. and VI. Mason, Baker & Pratt. 1873.
  • Lays of Ancient Rome: With Ivry, and The Armada.Longmans, Green, and Company. 1881.
  • William Pitt, Earl of Chatham: Second Essay(Maynard, Merrill, & Company, 1892, 110 pages)
  • The Miscellaneous Writings and Speeches of Lord Macaulay(1860),4 volsVol. 1,Vol. 2,Vol. 3,Vol. 4
  • MachiavellionNiccolò Machiavelli(1850).
  • The Letters of Thomas Babington Macaulay(1881),6 vols, edited by Thomas Pinney.
  • The Journals of Thomas Babington Macaulay,5 vols, edited by William Thomas.
  • Macaulay index entry at Poets' Corner
  • Lays of Ancient Rome (Complete) at Poets' Cornerwith an introduction by Bob Blair
  • Works by Thomas Babington MacaulayatLibriVox(public domain audiobooks)

Arms

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Coat of arms of Thomas Babington Macaulay
Notes
Thearms,crestandmottoallude to the heraldry of theMacAulays of Ardincaple;however Thomas Babington Macaulay was not related to thisclanat all. He was, instead, descended from the unrelatedMacaulays of Lewis.Such adoptions were not uncommon at the time according to the Scottish heraldic historianPeter Drummond-Murraybut usually made from ignorance rather than deceit.
Crest
Upon a rock a bootproperthereon a spurOr.[68]
Escutcheon
Gulestwo arrows insaltirepoints downwardargentsurmounted by as many barrulets compony Or andazurebetween two bucklesin paleof the third abordureengrailed also of the third.[68]
Supporters
Twoheronsproper.[68]
Motto
Dulce periculum[68](translation fromLatin:"danger is sweet" ).

See also

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Citations

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  1. ^abMacKenzie, John (January 2013), "A family empire",BBC History Magazine
  2. ^Biographical index of former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002(PDF).The Royal Society of Edinburgh. 2006.ISBN090219884X.
  3. ^"Thomas Babbington Macaulay".Josephsmithacademy. Archived fromthe originalon 12 May 2018.Retrieved10 October2013.
  4. ^Symonds, P. A."Babington, Thomas (1758–1837), of Rothley Temple, nr. Leicester".History of Parliament on-line.Institute of Historical Research.Retrieved3 September2016.
  5. ^Kuper 2009,p. 146.
  6. ^Knight 1867,p. 8.
  7. ^Sullivan 2010,p. 21.
  8. ^"Macaulay, Thomas Babington (FML817TB)".A Cambridge Alumni Database.University of Cambridge.
  9. ^abcdeThomas, William. "Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Baron Macaulay (1800–1859), historian, essayist, and poet".Oxford Dictionary of National Biography(online ed.). Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/17349.(Subscription orUK public library membershiprequired.)
  10. ^Galton 1869,p. 23.
  11. ^Sullivan 2010,p. 9.
  12. ^Pattison 1911,p. 193.
  13. ^abcRupprecht, Anita (September 2012). "'When he gets among his countrymen, they tell him that he is free': Slave Trade Abolition, Indentured Africans and a Royal Commission ".Slavery & Abolition.33(3):435–455.doi:10.1080/0144039X.2012.668300.S2CID144301729.
  14. ^Thomas Babington Macaulay,Social and Industrial Capacities of the Negroes(EdinburghReview, March 1827), collected inCritical, Historical and Miscellaneous Essays, Volume 6(1860), pp. 361–404.
  15. ^Taylor, Michael (2020).The Interest: How the British Establishment Resisted The Abolition of Slavery.Penguin Random House (Paperback). pp.107–116.
  16. ^Cropper 1864:see entry for 22 November 1831
  17. ^Sullivan 2010,p. 466.
  18. ^Evans 2002,p. 260.
  19. ^Spear 1938,pp. 78–101.
  20. ^""Government of India" - A Speech Delivered in the House of Commons on the 10th of July 1833 ".columbia.edu.Columbia university and Project Gutenberg.Retrieved21 September2018.
  21. ^"377: The British colonial law that left an anti-LGBTQ legacy in Asia".bbc.co.uk.BBC News. 28 June 2021.Retrieved29 June2021.
  22. ^Think it Over: Macaulay and India's rootless generations[permanent dead link‍]
  23. ^Watt & Mann 2011,p. 23.
  24. ^Losurdo 2014,p. 250.
  25. ^Losurdo 2014,pp. 250–251.
  26. ^"No. 19774".The London Gazette.1 October 1839. p. 1841.
  27. ^ab"Macaulay's speeches on copyright law".Archived fromthe originalon 24 December 2016.Retrieved8 December2015.
  28. ^"Lord Macaulay".Bartleby.Retrieved1 November2013.
  29. ^"The Rector".Glasgow university. Archived fromthe originalon 16 December 2008.Retrieved1 November2013.
  30. ^"Biography of Lord Macaulay".Sacklunch.Retrieved1 November2013.
  31. ^ab"Lord Macaulay".The Sydney Morning Herald.15 March 1860.Retrieved1 November2013.
  32. ^"No. 22039".The London Gazette.11 September 1857. p. 3075.
  33. ^"Thomas Babington Macaulay".Clanmacfarlanegenealogy.Retrieved25 October2013.
  34. ^"From the Director"(PDF).Face to Face(16).National Portrait Gallery.Spring 2006.Retrieved25 October2013.
  35. ^"Death of Lord Macaulay".The New York Times.17 January 1960.Retrieved25 October2013.
  36. ^Stanley, A. P.,Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey(London;John Murray;1882), p. 222.
  37. ^Macaulay 1881.
  38. ^Sullivan, Robert E (2009).Macaulay.Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 251.ISBN978-0674054691.Retrieved16 December2019.
  39. ^"Thomas Babington Macaulay, Lord Macaulay Horatius".English verse.Retrieved23 October2013.
  40. ^Macaulay 1941,p. x.
  41. ^Macaulay 1848,Vol. V, title page and prefatory "Memoir of Lord Macaulay".
  42. ^Macaulay 1848.
  43. ^Marx 1906,p. 788, Ch. XXVII: "I quote Macaulay, because as a systematic falsifier of history he minimizes facts of this kind as much as possible."
  44. ^Churchill 1947,p. 132: "It is beyond our hopes to overtake Lord Macaulay. The grandeur and sweep of his story-telling carries him swiftly along, and with every generation he enters new fields. We can only hope that Truth will follow swiftly enough to fasten the label 'Liar' to his genteel coat-tails."
  45. ^Hill 2011,p. 25.
  46. ^Paul 1904,p. 57.
  47. ^Paul 1904,p. 173.
  48. ^Paul 1904,p. 210.
  49. ^Lord Acton 1919,p. 482.
  50. ^Geyl 1958,p. 30.
  51. ^Lord Moran 1968,pp. 553–554.
  52. ^Potter 1959,p. 10.
  53. ^Potter 1959,p. 25.
  54. ^Potter 1959,p. 29.
  55. ^Potter 1959,p. 35.
  56. ^Brendon 2010,p. 126.
  57. ^Western 1972,p. 403.
  58. ^Kenyon 1974,p. 47, n. 14.
  59. ^Speck 1980,p. 57.
  60. ^abSpeck 1980,p. 64.
  61. ^Speck 1980,p. 65.
  62. ^abSpeck 1980,p. 67.
  63. ^Burrow 1983.
  64. ^Himmelfarb 1986,p. 163.
  65. ^Himmelfarb 1986,p. 165.
  66. ^Goldman 1974,p. 20.
  67. ^Olson 2008,pp. 309–310.
  68. ^abcdBurke 1864,p. 635.

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