TheManchester computerswere an innovative series ofstored-programelectronic computersdeveloped during the 30-year period between 1947 and 1977 by a small team at theUniversity of Manchester,under the leadership ofTom Kilburn.[1]They included the world's firststored-program computer,the world's first transistorised computer, and what was the world's fastest computer at the time of its inauguration in 1962.[2][3][4][5]
The project began with two aims: to prove the practicality of theWilliams tube,an early form ofcomputer memorybased on standardcathode-ray tubes(CRTs); and to construct a machine that could be used to investigate how computers might be able to assist in the solution of mathematical problems.[6]The first of the series, theManchester Baby,ran its first program on 21 June 1948.[2]As the world's first stored-program computer, the Baby, and theManchester Mark 1developed from it, quickly attracted the attention of the United Kingdom government, who contracted the electrical engineering firm ofFerrantito produce a commercial version. The resulting machine, theFerranti Mark 1,was the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.[7]
The collaboration with Ferranti eventually led to an industrial partnership with the computer companyICL,who made use of many of the ideas developed at the university, particularly in the design of their2900 seriesof computers during the 1970s.[8][9][10]
Manchester Baby
editTheManchester Babywas designed as atest-bedfor theWilliams tube,an early form of computer memory, rather than as a practical computer. Work on the machine began in 1947, and on 21 June 1948 the computer successfully ran its first program, consisting of 17 instructions written to find the highestproper factorof 218(262,144) by trying every integer from 218− 1 downwards. The program ran for 52 minutes before producing the correct answer of 217(131,072).[11]
The Baby was 17 feet (5.2 m) in length, 7 feet 4 inches (2.24 m) tall, and weighed almost 1long ton.It contained 550thermionic valves– 300diodesand 250pentodes– and had a power consumption of 3.5 kilowatts.[12]Its successful operation was reported in a letter to the journalNaturepublished in September 1948,[13]establishing it as the world's first stored-program computer.[14]It quickly evolved into a more practical machine, theManchester Mark 1.
Manchester Mark 1
editDevelopment of the Manchester Mark 1 began in August 1948, with the initial aim of providing the university with a more realistic computing facility.[15]In October 1948 UK Government Chief ScientistBen Lockspeiserwas given a demonstration of the prototype, and was so impressed that he immediately initiated a government contract with the local firm ofFerrantito make a commercial version of the machine, theFerranti Mark 1.[7]
Two versions of the Manchester Mark 1 were produced, the first of which, the Intermediary Version, was operational by April 1949.[15]The Final Specification machine, which was fully working by October 1949,[16]contained 4,050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts.[17]Perhaps the Manchester Mark 1's most significant innovation was its incorporation ofindex registers,commonplace on modern computers.[18]
In June 2022 an IEEE Milestone was dedicated to the "Manchester University" Baby "Computer and its Derivatives, 1948-1951".[19]
Meg and Mercury
editAs a result of experience gained from the Mark 1, the developers concluded that computers would be used more in scientific roles than pure maths. They therefore embarked on the design of a new machine which would include afloating-point unit;work began in 1951. The resulting machine, which ran its first program in May 1954, was known as Meg, or the megacycle machine. It was smaller and simpler than the Mark 1, as well as quicker at solving maths problems.Ferrantiproduced a commercial version marketed as theFerranti Mercury,in which the Williams tubes were replaced by the more reliablecore memory.[20]
Transistor Computer
editWork on building a smaller and cheaper computer began in 1952, in parallel with Meg's ongoing development. Two of Kilburn's team,Richard Grimsdaleand D. C. Webb, were assigned to the task of designing and building a machine using the newly developedtransistorsinstead of valves, which became known as the Manchester TC.[21]Initially the only devices available weregermaniumpoint-contact transistors;these were less reliable than the valves they replaced but consumed far less power.[22]
Two versions of the machine were produced. The first was the world's first transistorised computer,[23]a prototype, and became operational on 16 November 1953.[3][24]"The48-bitmachine used 92 point-contact transistors and 550 diodes ".[25]The second version was completed in April 1955. The 1955 version used 250 junction transistors,[25]1,300solid-statediodes,and had a power consumption of 150 watts. The machine[clarification needed]did however make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magneticdrum memory,so it was not the first completely transistorised computer, a distinction that went to theHarwell CADETof 1955.[26]
Problems with the reliability of early batches of transistors meant that the machine's[clarification needed]mean time between failureswas about 90 minutes, which improved once the more reliablejunction transistorsbecame available.[27]The Transistor Computer's design was adopted by the local engineering firm ofMetropolitan-Vickersin theirMetrovick 950,in which all the circuitry was modified to make use of junction transistors. Six Metrovick 950s were built, the first completed in 1956. They were successfully deployed within various departments of the company and were in use for about five years.[23]
Muse and Atlas
editDevelopment of MUSE – a name derived from "microsecondengine "– began at the university in 1956. The aim was to build a computer that could operate at processing speeds approaching one microsecond per instruction, one million instructions per second.[28]Mu(orμ) is a prefix in the SI and other systems of units denoting a factor of 10−6(one millionth).
At the end of 1958 Ferranti agreed to collaborate with Manchester University on the project, and the computer was shortly afterwards renamed Atlas, with the joint venture under the control of Tom Kilburn. The first Atlas was officially commissioned on 7 December 1962, and was considered at that time to be the most powerful computer in the world, equivalent to fourIBM 7094s.[29]It was said that whenever Atlas went offline half of the UK's computer capacity was lost.[30]Its fastest instructions took 1.59 microseconds to execute, and the machine's use ofvirtual storageand paging allowed each concurrent user to have up to one million words of storage space available. Atlas pioneered many hardware and software concepts still in common use today including theAtlas Supervisor,"considered by many to be the first recognisable modern operating system".[31]
Two other machines were built: one for a jointBritish Petroleum/University of Londonconsortium, and the other for theAtlas Computer Laboratoryat Chilton nearOxford.A derivative system was built by Ferranti forCambridge University,called theTitanor Atlas 2, which had a different memory organisation, and ran atime-sharingoperating systemdeveloped byCambridge Computer Laboratory.[30]
The University of Manchester's Atlas was decommissioned in 1971,[32]but the last was in service until 1974.[33]Parts of the Chilton Atlas are preserved by theNational Museums of Scotlandin Edinburgh.
In June 2022 an IEEE Milestone was dedicated to the "Atlas Computer and the Invention of Virtual Memory 1957–1962".[34]
MU5
editThe Manchester MU5 was the successor to Atlas. An outline proposal for a successor to Atlas was presented at the 1968 IFIP Conference in Edinburgh,[35]although work on the project and talks with ICT (of which Ferranti had become part) aimed at obtaining their assistance and support had begun in 1966. The new machine, later to become known as MU5, was intended to be at the top end of a range of machines and to be 20 times faster than Atlas.
In 1968 theScience Research Council(SRC) awarded Manchester University a five-year grant of £630,466 (equivalent to £12 million in 2023)[a]to develop the machine andICT,later to becomeICL,made its production facilities available to the University. In that year a group of 20 people was involved in the design: 11 Department of Computer Science staff, 5 seconded ICT staff and 4 SRC supported staff. The peak level of staffing was in 1971, when the numbers, including research students, rose to 60.[36]
The most significant novel features of the MU5 processor were its instruction set and the use ofassociative memoryto speed up operand and instruction accesses. The instruction set was designed to permit the generation of efficient object code by compilers, to allow for a pipeline organisation of the processor and to provide information to the hardware on the nature of operands, so as to allow them to be optimally buffered. Thus named variables were buffered separately from array elements, which were themselves accessed by means of named descriptors. Each descriptor included an array length which could be used in string processing instructions or to enable array bound checking to be carried out by hardware. The instruction pre-fetching mechanism used an associative jump trace to predict the outcome of impending branches.[37]
The MU5 operating system MUSS[38][39]was designed to be highly adaptable and was ported to a variety of processors at Manchester and elsewhere. In the completed MU5 system, three processors (MU5 itself, anICL 1905Eand aPDP-11), as well as a number of memories and other devices, were interconnected by a high-speed Exchange.[40][41]All three processors ran a version of MUSS. MUSS also encompassed compilers for various languages and runtime packages to support the compiled code. It was structured as a small kernel that implemented an arbitrary set of virtual machines analogous to a corresponding set of processors. The MUSS code appeared in the common segments that formed part of each virtual machine's virtual address space.
MU5 was fully operational by October 1974, coinciding with ICL's announcement that it was working on the development of a new range of computers, the2900 series.ICL's 2980 in particular, first delivered in June 1975, owed a great deal to the design of MU5.[42]MU5 remained in operation at the University until 1982.[43]A fuller article about MU5 can be found on the Engineering and Technology History Wiki.[44]
MU6
editOnce MU5 was fully operational, a new project was initiated to produce its successor, MU6. MU6 was intended to be a range of processors: MU6P,[45]an advanced microprocessor architecture intended for use as a personal computer, MU6-G,[46]a high performance machine for general or scientific applications and MU6V,[47]a parallel vector processing system. A prototype model of MU6V, based on 68000 microprocessors with vector orders emulated as "extracodes" was constructed and tested but not further developed beyond this. MU6-G was built with a grant from SRC and successfully ran as a service machine in the Department between 1982 and 1987,[4]using the MUSS operating system developed as part of the MU5 project.
SpiNNaker
editSpiNNaker: Spiking Neural Network Architecture is amassively parallel,manycoresupercomputer architecturedesigned bySteve Furberin the University of Manchester's Advanced Processor Technologies Research Group (APT).[48]Built in 2019, it is composed of 57,600ARM9 processors(specifically ARM968), each with 18 cores and 128 MB ofmobile DDR SDRAM,totalling 1,036,800 cores and over 7 TB of RAM.[49]The computing platform is based onspiking neural networks,useful in simulating thehuman brain(seeHuman Brain Project).[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58]
Summary
edit| Year | University Prototype | Year | Commercial Computer |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1948 | Manchester Baby,which evolved into theManchester Mark 1 | 1951 | Ferranti Mark 1 |
| 1953 | Transistor computer | 1956 | Metrovick 950 |
| 1954 | Manchester Mark II a.k.a. "Meg" | 1957 | Ferranti Mercury |
| 1959 | Muse | 1962 | Ferranti Atlas,Titan |
| 1974 | MU5 | 1974 | ICL 2900 Series |
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- ^Temple, S.;Furber, S.(2007)."Neural systems engineering".Journal of the Royal Society Interface.4(13): 193–206.doi:10.1098/rsif.2006.0177.PMC2359843.PMID17251143.A manifesto for the SpiNNaker project, surveying and reviewing the general level of understanding of brain function and approaches to building computer modelof the brain.
- ^Plana, L. A.;Furber, S. B.;Temple, S.; Khan, M.; Shi, Y.; Wu, J.; Yang, S. (2007). "A GALS Infrastructure for a Massively Parallel Multiprocessor".IEEE Design & Test of Computers.24(5): 454.doi:10.1109/MDT.2007.149.S2CID16758888.A description of the Globally Asynchronous, Locally Synchronous (GALS) nature of SpiNNaker, with an overview of the asynchronous communications hardware designed to transmit neural 'spikes' between processors.
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Notes
edit- ^United KingdomGross Domestic Product deflatorfigures follow theMeasuringWorth"consistent series" supplied inThomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2024)."What Was the U.K. GDP Then?".MeasuringWorth.Retrieved15 July2024.