Marine engineering

Marine engineeringis theengineeringofboats, ships, submarines, and any other marine vessel.Here it is also taken to include the engineering of other ocean systems and structures – referred to in certain academic and professional circles as "ocean engineering". After completing this degree one can join a ship as an officer inengine departmentand eventually rise to the rank of achief engineer.This rank is one of the top ranks onboard and is equal to the rank of a ship's captain. Marine engineering is the highly preferred course to joinmerchant Navyas an officer as it provides ample opportunities in terms of both onboard and onshore jobs.

Marine engineering applies a number of engineering sciences, includingmechanical engineering,electrical engineering,electronic engineering,andcomputer Engineering,to the development, design, operation and maintenance ofwatercraft propulsionand ocean systems.^[1]It includes but is not limited toPowerand propulsion plants, machinery, piping,automationandcontrol systemsfor marine vehicles of any kind, as well as coastal and offshore structures.

History

Archimedesis traditionally regarded as the first marine engineer, having developed a number of marine engineering systems in antiquity. Modern marine engineering dates back to the beginning of theIndustrial Revolution(early 1700s).

In 1807,Robert Fultonsuccessfully used asteam engineto propel a vessel through the water. Fulton's ship used the engine to power a small woodenpaddle wheelas itsmarine propulsionsystem. The integration of a steam engine into awatercraftto create amarine steam enginewas the start of the marine engineering profession. Only twelve years after Fulton'sClermonthad her first voyage, theSavannahmarked the first sea voyage from America to Europe. Around 50 years later the steam powered paddle wheels had a peak with the creation of theGreat Eastern,which was as big as one of the cargo ships of today, 700 feet in length, weighing 22,000 tons.Paddle steamerswould become the front runners of the steamship industry for the next thirty years till the next type of propulsion came around.^[2]

Training

There are several educational paths to becoming a marine engineer, all of which includes earning a university or college degree, such as aBachelor of Engineering(B.Eng. or B.E.),Bachelor of Science(B.Sc. or B.S.),Bachelor of Technology(B.Tech.), Bachelor of Technology Management and Marine Engineering (B.TecMan & MarEng), or aBachelor of Applied Science(B.A.Sc.) in Marine Engineering.

Depending on the country and jurisdiction, to be licensed as a Marine engineer, aMaster'sdegree, such as aMaster of Engineering(M.Eng.),Master of Science(M.Sc or M.S.), orMaster of Applied Science(M.A.Sc.) may be required.

Some marine engineers join the profession laterally, entering from other disciplines, likeMechanical Engineering,Civil Engineering,Electrical Engineering,Geomatics EngineeringandEnvironmental Engineering,or from science-based fields, such asGeology,Geophysics,Physics,Geomatics,Earth Science,andMathematics.To qualify as a marine engineer, those changing professions are required to earn agraduateMarine Engineering degree, such as an M.Eng, M.S., M.Sc., or M.A.Sc., after graduating from a differentquantitative undergraduateprogram.

The fundamental subjects of marine engineering study usually include:

Related Fields

Naval architecture

In the engineering of seagoing vessels, naval architecture is concerned with the overall design of the ship and its propulsion through the water, while marine engineering ensures that the ship systems function as per the design.^[3]Although they have distinctive disciplines, naval architects and marine engineers often work side-by-side.

Ocean engineering (and combination with Marine engineering)

Ocean engineeringis concerned with other structures and systems in or adjacent to the ocean, includingoffshore platforms,coastal structures such aspiersandharbors,and other ocean systems such as oceanwave energyconversion and underwaterlife-support systems.^[4]This in fact makesocean engineeringa distinctive field from marine engineering, which is concerned with the design and application of shipboard systems specifically.^[5]However, on account of its similar nomenclature and multiple overlapping core disciplines (e.g.hydrodynamics,hydromechanics,andmaterials science), "ocean engineering" sometimes operates under the umbrella term of "marine engineering", especially in industry and academia outside of theU.S.The same combination has been applied to the rest of this article.

Oceanography

Oceanography is a scientific field concerned with the acquisition and analysis of data to characterize the ocean. Although separate disciplines, marine engineering and oceanography are closely intertwined: marine engineers often usedatagathered by oceanographers to inform their design and research, and oceanographers use tools designed by marine engineers (more specifically, oceanographic engineers) to advance their understanding and exploration of the ocean.^[6]

Mechanical engineering

Marine engineering incorporates many aspects of mechanical engineering. One manifestation of this relationship lies in the design of shipboard propulsion systems. Mechanical engineers design the mainpropulsionplant, the powering and mechanization aspects of the ship functions such as steering,anchoring,cargohandling, heating, ventilation, air conditioning interior and exterior communication, and other related requirements.Electrical power generationandelectrical power distributionsystems are typically designed by their suppliers; the only design responsibility of the marine engineering is installation.

Furthermore, an understanding ofmechanical engineeringtopics such asfluid dynamics,fluid mechanics,linear wave theory,strength of materials,structural mechanics,andstructural dynamicsis essential to a marine engineer's repertoire of skills. These and other mechanical engineering subjects serve as an integral component of the marine engineering curriculum.^[7]

Civil Engineering

Civil engineering concepts play in an important role in many marine engineering projects such as the design and construction of ocean structures, oceanbridgesandtunnels,and port/harbor design.

Coastal engineering

Electronics and Robotics

Marine engineering often deals in the fields ofelectrical engineeringandrobotics,especially in applications related to employing deep-sea cables and UUVs.

Deep-sea cables

A series of transoceanicfiber opticcables are responsible for connecting much of the world's communication via theinternet,carrying as much as 99 percent of total global internet and signal traffic. These cables must be engineered to withstand deep-sea environments that are remote and often unforgiving, with extreme pressures and temperatures as well as potential interference byfishing,trawling,andsea life.

UUV autonomy and networks

The use ofunmanned underwater vehicles(UUVs) stands to benefit from the use of autonomous algorithms and networking. Marine engineers aim to learn how advancements in autonomy and networking can be used to enhance existing UUV technologies and facilitate the development of more capable underwater vehicles.

Petroleum Engineering

A knowledge of marine engineering proves useful in the field of petroleum engineering, as hydrodynamics and seabed integration serve as key elements in the design and maintenance of offshoreoil platforms.

Marine construction

Marine construction is the process of building structures in or adjacent to large bodies of water, usually the sea. These structures can be built for a variety of purposes, including transportation, energy production, and recreation. Marine construction can involve the use of a variety of building materials, predominantly steel andconcrete.Some examples of marine structures include ships, offshore platforms, moorings, pipelines, cables, wharves, bridges, tunnels, breakwaters and docks.

Challenges specific to marine engineering

Hydrodynamic loading

In the same way that civil engineers design to accommodate wind loads on building and bridges, marine engineers design to accommodate a ship or submarine struck by waves millions of times over the course of the vessel's life. These load conditions are also found in marine construction and coastal engineering

Stability

Any seagoing vessel has the constant need for hydrostatic stability. Anaval architect,like an airplane designer, is concerned withstability.What makes the naval architect's job unique is that a ship operates in two fluids simultaneously: water and air. Even after a ship has been designed and put to sea, marine engineers face the challenge of balancing cargo, as stacking containers vertically increases the mass of the ship and shifts the center of gravity higher. The weight of fuel also presents a problem, as the pitch of the ship may cause the liquid to shift, resulting in an imbalance. In some vessels, this offset will be counteracted by storing water inside largerballasttanks. Marine engineers are responsible for the task of balancing and tracking the fuel and ballast water of a ship. Floating offshore structures have similar constraints.

Corrosion

The saltwater environment faced by seagoing vessels makes them highly susceptible to corrosion. In every project, marine engineers are concerned with surface protection and preventinggalvanic corrosion.Corrosioncan be inhibited throughcathodic protectionby introducing pieces of metal (e.g.zinc) to serve as a "sacrificial anode" in the corrosion reaction. This causes the metal to corrode instead of the ship's hull. Another way to prevent corrosion is by sending a controlled amount of low DC current through the ship's hull, thereby changing the hull's electrical charge and delaying the onset of electro-chemical corrosion. Similar problems are encountered in coastal and offshore structures.

Anti-fouling

Anti-foulingis the process of eliminating obstructive organisms from essential components of seawater systems. Depending on the nature and location of marine growth, this process is performed in a number of different ways:

Marine organisms may grow and attach to the surfaces of the outboard suction inlets used to obtain water for cooling systems.Electro-chlorinationinvolves running high electrical current through sea water, altering the water's chemical composition to createsodium hypochlorite,purging any bio-matter.
An electrolytic method of anti-fouling involves running electrical current through two anodes (Scardino, 2009).^[8]These anodes typically consist ofcopperandaluminum(or alternatively,iron). The first metal, copperanode,releases its ion into the water, creating an environment that is too toxic for bio-matter. The second metal, aluminum, coats the inside of the pipes to prevent corrosion.^{[citation needed]}
Other forms of marine growth such as mussels and algae may attach themselves to the bottom of a ship's hull. This growth interferes with the smoothness and uniformity of the ship's hull, causing the ship to have a less hydrodynamic shape that causes it to be slower and less fuel-efficient.^[9]Marine growth on the hull can be remedied by using special paint that prevents the growth of such organisms.

Pollution control

Sulfur emission

The burning of marine fuels releases harmful pollutants into the atmosphere. Ships burn marine diesel in addition toheavy fuel oil.Heavy fuel oil, being the heaviest ofrefined oils,releasessulfur dioxidewhen burned.Sulfur dioxide emissionshave the potential to raise atmospheric andocean aciditycausing harm to marine life. However, heavy fuel oil may only be burned ininternational watersdue to the pollution created. It is commercially advantageous due to the cost effectiveness compared to other marine fuels. It is prospected that heavy fuel oil will be phased out of commercial use by the year 2020 (Smith, 2018).^[10]

Oil and water discharge

Water, oil, and other substances collect at the bottom of the ship in what is known as the bilge. Bilge water is pumped overboard, but must pass a pollution threshold test of 15 ppm (parts per million) of oil to be discharged. Water is tested and either discharged if clean or recirculated to a holding tank to be separated before being tested again. The tank it is sent back to, the oily water separator, utilizes gravity to separate the fluids due to their viscosity. Ships over 400 gross tons are required to carry the equipment to separate oil from bilge water. Further, as enforced by MARPOL, all ships over 400 gross tons and all oil tankers over 150 gross tons are required to log all oil transfers in an oil record book (EPA, 2011).^[11]

Cavitation

Cavitationis the process of forming an air bubble in a liquid due to the vaporization of that liquid cause by an area of low pressure. This area of low pressure lowers the boiling point of a liquid allowing it to vaporize into a gas. Cavitation can take place in pumps, which can cause damage to the impeller that moves the fluids through the system. Cavitation is also seen in propulsion. Low pressure pockets form on the surface of the propeller blades as its revolutions per minute increase (IIMS, 2015).^[12]Cavitation on the propeller causes a small but violent implosion which could warp the propeller blade. To remedy the issue, more blades allow the same amount of propulsion force but at a lower rate of revolutions. This is crucial for submarines as the propeller needs to keep the vessel relatively quiet to stay hidden. With more propeller blades, the vessel is able to achieve the same amount of propulsion force at lower shaft revolutions.

Applications

The following categories provide a number of focus areas in which marine engineers direct their efforts.

Arctic Engineering

In designing systems that operate in the arctic (especially scientific equipment such asmeteorological instrumentationandoceanographic buoys), marine engineers must overcome an array of design challenges. Equipment must be able to operate at extreme temperatures for prolonged periods of time, often with little to no maintenance. This creates the need for exceptionally temperature-resistant materials and durable precision electronic components.^{[citation needed]}

Coastal Design and Restoration

Coastal engineeringapplies a mixture of civil engineering and other disciplines to create coastal solutions for areas along or near the ocean. In protecting coastlines fromwaveforces,erosion,andsea level rise,marine engineers must consider whether they will use a "gray" infrastructure solution - such as a breakwater, culvert, or sea wall made from rocks and concrete - or a "green" infrastructure solution that incorporates aquatic plants, mangroves, and/or marsh ecosystems.^[13]It has been found that gray infrastructure costs more to build and maintain, but it may provide better protection against ocean forces in high-energy wave environments.^[14]A green solution is generally less expensive and more well-integrated with local vegetation, but may be susceptible to erosion or damage if executed improperly.^[15]In many cases engineers will select a hybrid approach that combines elements of both gray and green solutions.^[16]

Deep Sea Systems

Life Support

The design of underwaterlife-support systemssuch asunderwater habitatspresents a unique set of challenges requiring a detailed knowledge of pressure vessels,diving physiology,and thermodynamics.

Unmanned Underwater Vehicles

Marine engineers may design or make frequent use ofunmanned underwater vehicles,which operate underwater without a human aboard. UUVs often perform work in locations which would be otherwise impossible or difficult to access by humans due to a number of environmental factors (e.g. depth, remoteness, and/or temperature). UUVs can be remotely operated by humans, like in the case ofremotely operated vehicles,semi-autonomous,orautonomous.

Sensors and instrumentation

The development ofoceanographic sciences,subsea engineering and the ability to detect, track and destroy submarines (anti-submarine warfare) required the parallel development of a host of marine scientific instrumentation andsensors.Visible light is not transferred far underwater, so the medium for transmission of data is primarilyacoustic.High-frequency sound is used to measure the depth of the ocean, determine the nature of the seafloor, and detect submerged objects. The higher the frequency, the higher the definition of the data that is returned. Sound Navigation and Ranging orSONARwas developed during theFirst World Warto detectsubmarines,and has been greatly refined through to the present day. Submarines similarly use sonar equipment to detect and target other submarines and surface ships, and to detect submerged obstacles such asseamountsthat pose a navigational obstacle. Simpleecho-sounderspoint straight down and can give an accurate reading of ocean depth (or look up at the underside of sea-ice). More advanced echo sounders use a fan-shaped beam or sound, ormultiple beamsto derive highly detailed images of the ocean floor. High power systems can penetrate the soil and seabed rocks to give information about the geology of the seafloor, and are widely used ingeophysicsfor the discovery ofhydrocarbons,or for engineering survey. For close-range underwater communications, optical transmission is possible, mainly usingblue lasers.These have a high bandwidth compared with acoustic systems, but the range is usually only a few tens of metres, and ideally at night. As well as acoustic communications and navigation, sensors have been developed to measure ocean parameters such as temperature,salinity,oxygen levels and other properties including nitrate levels, levels of trace chemicals andenvironmental DNA.The industry trend has been towards smaller, more accurate and more affordable systems so that they can be purchased and used by university departments and small companies as well as large corporations, research organisations and governments. The sensors and instruments are fitted to autonomous and remotely-operated systems as well as ships, and are enabling these systems to take on tasks that hitherto required an expensive human-crewed platform. Manufacture of marine sensors and instruments mainly takes place in Asia, Europe and North America. Products are advertised in specialist journals, and throughTrade Showssuch asOceanology InternationalandOcean Businesswhich help raise awareness of the products.

Environmental Engineering

In every coastal and offshore project, environmentalsustainabilityis an important consideration for the preservation of oceanecosystemsandnatural resources.Instances in which marine engineers benefit from knowledge of environmental engineering include creation offisheries,clean-up ofoil spills,and creation ofcoastal solutions.^[17]

Offshore Systems

A number of systems designed fully or in part by marine engineers are used offshore - far away from coastlines.

Offshore oil platforms

The design ofoffshore oil platformsinvolves a number of marine engineering challenges. Platforms must be able to withstandocean currents,wave forces, and saltwatercorrosionwhile remaining structurally integral and fully anchored into theseabed.Additionally, drilling components must be engineered to handle these same challenges with a highfactor of safetyto prevent oil leaks and spills from contaminating the ocean.

Offshore wind farms

Offshore windfarms encounter many similar marine engineering challenges to oil platforms. They provide a source ofrenewable energywith a higher yield than wind farms on land, while encountering less resistance from the general public (seeNIMBY).^[18]

Ocean wave energy

Marine engineers continue to investigate the possibility ofocean wave energyas a viable source of power fordistributedorgridapplications. Many designs have been proposed and numerous prototypes have been built, but the problem of harnessing wave energy in a cost-effective manner remains largely unresolved.^[19]

Port and Harbor Design

A marine engineer may also deal with the planning, creation, expansion, and modification ofportandharbordesigns. Harbors can be natural or artificial and protect anchored ships from wind, waves, and currents.^[20]Ports can be defined as a city, town, or place where ships are moored, loaded, or unloaded. Ports typically reside within a harbor and are made up of one or more individual terminals that handle a particular cargo including passengers, bulkcargo,orcontainerized cargo.^[21]Marine engineers plan and design various types of marine terminals and structures found in ports, and they must understand the loads imposed on these structures over the course of their lifetime.

Salvage and Recovery

Marine salvagetechniques are continuously modified and improved to recover shipwrecks. Marine engineers use their skills to assist at some stages of this process.

Career

Industry

With a diverse engineering background, marine engineers work in a variety of industry jobs across every field of math, science, technology, and engineering. A few companies such asOceaneering InternationalandVan Oordspecialize in marine engineering, while other companies consult marine engineers for specific projects. Such consulting commonly occurs in the oil industry, with companies such asExxonMobilandBPhiring marine engineers to manage aspects of their offshore drilling projects.

Military

Marine engineering lends itself to a number ofmilitaryapplications – mostly related to theNavy.TheUnited States Navy'sSeabees,Civil Engineer Corps,andEngineering Duty Officersoften perform work related to marine engineering. Military contractors (especially those in naval shipyards) and theArmy Corps of Engineersplay a role in certain marine engineering projects as well.

Expected Growth

In 2012, the average annual earnings for marine engineers in the U.S. were $96,140 with average hourly earnings of $46.22.^[22]As a field, marine engineering is predicted to grow approximately 12% from 2016 to 2026. Currently, there are about 8,200 naval architects and marine engineers employed, however, this number is expected to increase to 9,200 by 2026 (BLS, 2017).^[23]This is due at least in part to the critical role of the shipping industry on the global market supply chain; 80% of the world's trade by volume is done overseas by close to 50,000 ships, all of which require marine engineers aboard and shoreside (ICS, 2017).^[24]Additionally, offshore energy continues to grow, and a greater need exists forcoastal solutionsdue tosea level rise.

Education

Training Ship Golden Bear docked at California Maritime Academy.

Maritime universitiesare dedicated to teaching and training students in maritime professions. Marine engineers generally have a bachelor's degree in marine engineering, marine engineering technology, or marine systems engineering. Practical training is valued by employers alongside the bachelor's degree.

Professional institutions

IMarEST
World Maritime University
Society for Underwater Technology
IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society
Marine Engineering and Research Institute
Indian Maritime University
Royal Institution of Naval Architects(RINA)
Pakistan Marine Academy
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers(SNAME) is a worldwide society that is focused on the advancement of the maritime industry. SNAME was founded in 1893.^[25]
American Society of Naval Engineers (ASNE)
SIMAC

Degrees in ocean engineering

A number of institutions - includingMIT,^[26]UC Berkeley,^[27]theU.S. Naval Academy,^[28]andTexas A&M University^[29]- offer a four-yearBachelor of Sciencedegree specifically in ocean engineering. Accredited programs consist of basic undergraduate math and science subjects such ascalculus,statistics,chemistry,andphysics;fundamentalengineeringsubjects such asstatics,dynamics,electrical engineering,andthermodynamics;and more specialized subjects such as oceanstructural analysis,hydromechanics,andcoastal management.

Graduate students in ocean engineering take classes on more advanced, in-depth subjects while conducting research to complete a graduate-level thesis. TheMassachusetts Institute of Technologyoffersmaster'sandPhDdegrees specifically in ocean engineering.^[30]Additionally,MITco-hosts a joint program with theWoods Hole Oceanographic Institutionfor students studying ocean engineering and other ocean-related topics at the graduate level.^[31]^[32]

Journals and Conferences

Journals about ocean engineering includeOcean Engineering,^[33]theIEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering^[34]and theJournal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering.^[35]

Conferences in the field of marine engineering include the IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society's OCEANS Conference and Exposition^[36]and the European Wave and Tidal Energy Conference (EWTEC).^[37]