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Martial arts

(Redirected fromMartial Arts)

Martial artsare codified systems and traditions ofcombatpracticed for a number of reasons such asself-defence;militaryandlaw enforcementapplications;competition;physical, mental, and spiritual development;entertainment;and the preservation of a nation'sintangible cultural heritage.[1]

United States Marinepracticing martial arts, 2008

Etymology

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The Chen style Taijiquan class at Fragrant Hills Park, Beijing, China

"Martial arts" is a direct English translation of the Sino-Japanese word (Japanese:Võ vân,romanized:bu-gei,Chinese:Võ nghệ;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:bú-gē;pinyin:wǔyì). Literally, it refers to "Võ martial" and "Nghệ arts".

The termmartial artswas popularized by mainstreampopular cultureduring the 1960s to 1970s, notably byHong Kong martial arts films(most famously those ofBruce Lee) during the so-called "chopsocky"wave of the early 1970s.[2]

According to John Clements, the termmartial artsitself is derived from an olderLatinterm meaning "arts ofMars",theRomangod of war, and was used to refer to the combat systems of Europe (European martial arts) as early as the 1550s.[3]

The termmartial science,ormartial sciences,was commonly used to refer to the fighting arts ofEast Asia(Asian martial arts) up until the 1970s, and the termChinese bo xingwas also used to refer toChinese martial artsuntil then.[4]

Some authors have argued thatfighting artsorfighting systemswould be more appropriate terms on the basis that many martial arts were never "martial" in the sense of being used or created by professionalwarriors.[5]

Variation and scope

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Martial arts may be categorized using a variety of criteria, including:[citation needed]

By technical focus

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Unarmed

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Unarmed martial arts can be broadly grouped into those focusing onstrikes,those focusing ongrappling,and those that cover both fields, often described ashybrid martial arts.[citation needed]

Strikes: punching and kicking techniques displayed at theBanteay Srei(967 A.D.) inCambodia.

Strikes

Grappling: bas-relief of grappling techniques atPrambanan(9th century) inIndonesia.

Grappling

Armed

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The traditional martial arts that coverarmed combatoften encompass a wide spectrum of melee weapons, includingbladed weaponsandpolearms.Such traditions includeeskrima,silat,kalaripayat,kobudo,andhistorical European martial arts,especially those of theItalian Renaissance.ManyChinese martial artsalso feature weapons as part of their curriculum.[citation needed]

Sometimes, training with one specific weapon may be considered a style in its own right, especially in the case ofJapanese martial arts,with disciplines such askenjutsuandkendo(sword),bojutsu(staff), andkyūdō(archery). Similarly, modern martial arts and sports includemodern fencing,stick-fighting systems likecanne de combat,modern competitive archeryandpractical shooting.[citation needed]

By application or intent

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Combat-oriented

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Main articles:Combat sportandSelf-defense

Spirituality-oriented

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Traditional Korean martial arts place emphasis on the development of the practitioner's spiritual and philosophical being. A common theme in most Korean styles, such asTaekkyon,taekwondo,andHapkidois the value of "inner peace" in a practitioner, which is stressed to be only achievable through individual meditation and training. The Koreans believe that the use of physical force is only justifiable for self defense.[6]

Pahlevani and zourkhaneh ritualsis the name of a Persian Martial arts inscribed byUNESCOforvarzesh-e pahlavāni(Persian:آیین پهلوانی و زورخانهای,"heroic sport" )[7]orvarzesh-e bāstāni(ورزش باستانی;varzeš-e bāstānī,"ancient sport" ), a traditional system of athletics originally used to train warriors inIran(Persia), and first appearing under this name and form in the Safavid era, with similarities to systems in adjacent lands under other names.[8][9]

History

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Main article:History of martial arts
Further information:Martial arts timeline

Historical martial arts

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Main articles:History of Asian martial artsandHistorical European martial arts
Detail of the wrestling fresco in tomb 15 atBeni Hasan
Themartial artofbo xingwas practiced in ancientThera(1600–1500 BC).

Human warfare dates back to theEpipalaeolithicto earlyNeolithicera. The oldest works of art depicting scenes of battle arecave paintingsfrom eastern Spain (Spanish Levante) dated between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE that show organized groups fighting with bows and arrows.[10][11]Similar evidence of warfare has been found in Epipalaeolithic to early Neolithic eramass burials,excavated in Germany and atJebel SahabainNorthern Sudan.[10]

Wrestlingis the oldestcombat sport,with origins inhand-to-hand combat.Belt wrestlingwas depicted in works of art fromMesopotamiaandAncient Egyptc. 3000 BC,and later in theSumerianEpic of Gilgamesh.[12]The earliest known depiction ofbo xingcomes from aSumerianrelief in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) from the 3rd millennium BC.[13]

The foundation of modernEast Asian martial artsandSouth Asian martial artsis likely facilitated by cultural exchanges of earlyChineseandIndian martial arts.During theWarring States periodofChinese history(480–221 BC) extensive development in martial philosophy and strategy emerged, as described bySun TzuinThe Art of War(c. 350 BC).[14]Legendary accounts link the origin ofShaolinquanto thespread of Buddhismfromancient Indiaduring the early 5th centuryCE,with the figure ofBodhidharma,to China.[15]Written evidence of martial arts in Southern India dates back to theSangam literatureof about the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century AD.[citation needed]The combat techniques of theSangam periodwere the earliest precursors toKalaripayattu[16]

In Europe, the earliest sources of martial arts traditions date toAncient Greece.Bo xing(pygme,pyx),wrestling(pale) andpankrationwere represented in theAncient Olympic Games.TheRomansproducedgladiatorial combatas a public spectacle.[17]

A number of historicalcombat manualshave survived from the EuropeanMiddle Ages.This includes such styles assword and shield,two-handed swordfightingand other types of melee weapons besides unarmed combat. Amongst these are transcriptions ofJohannes Liechtenauer's mnemonic poem on the longsword dating back to the late fourteenth century. Likewise, Asian martial arts became well-documented during the medieval period,Japanese martial artsbeginning with the establishment of thesamurainobility in the 12th century,Chinese martial artswithMing eratreatises such asJi Xiao Xin Shu,Indian martial artsin medieval texts such as theAgni Puranaand theMalla Purana,andKorean martial artsfrom theJoseonera and texts such asMuyejebo(1598).[citation needed]

European swordsmanship always had a sportive component, but the duel was always a possibility untilWorld War I.Modernsport fencingbegan developing during the 19th century as the French and Italian military academies began codifying instruction. The Olympic games led to standard international rules, with the Féderation Internationale d'Escrime founded in 1913. Modern bo xing originates withJack Broughton's rules in the 18th century, and reaches its present form with theMarquess of Queensberry Rulesof 1867.[citation needed]

Folk styles

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Main article:Folk wrestling
Drawing of Indian wrestlers carryingvajra-mushti(1792 A.D.)

Certain traditional combat sports and fighting styles exist all over the world, rooted in local culture and folklore. The most common of these are styles offolk wrestling,some of which have been practiced since antiquity and are found in the most remote areas. Other examples include forms ofstick fightingand bo xing. While these arts are based on historical traditions of folklore, they are not "historical" in the sense that they reconstruct or preserve a historical system from a specific era. They are rather contemporary regional sports that coexist with the modern forms of martial arts sports as they have developed since the 19th century, often including cross-fertilization between sports and folk styles; thus, the traditional Thai art ofmuay borandeveloped into the modern national sport ofmuay Thai,which in turn came to be practiced worldwide and contributed significantly to modern hybrid styles likekickbo xingandmixed martial arts.Singlestick,an English martial art can be seen often used inmorris dancing.Many European dances share elements of martial arts with examples including UkrainianHopak,Polish Zbójnicki (use ofciupaga), the Czech danceodzemek,and the NorwegianHalling.[citation needed]

Bo xinginEngland,1811

Modern history

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Further information:Modern history of East Asian martial arts

Late 19th to early 20th century

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The mid to late 19th century marks the beginning of the history of martial arts as modern sports developed out of earlier traditional fighting systems. In Europe, this concerns the developments ofbo xing,wrestlingandfencingas sports. In Japan, the same period marks the formation of the modern forms ofjudo,jujutsu,karate,andkendo(among others) based on revivals ofold schoolsofEdo periodmartial arts which had been suppressed during theMeiji Restoration[18]In 1882,Kano Jigoroestablished theKodokanSchool ofjudowhich began the sport of judo.[19]Kano Jigoro had gathered the old knowledge ofjujutsubefore establishing his school of judo.

ModernMuay Thairules date to the 1920s. In China, the modern history of martial arts begins in theNanjing decade(1930s) following the foundation of theCentral Guoshu Institutein 1928 under theKuomintanggovernment.[citation needed]

Western interest inAsian martial artsarises towards the end of the 19th century, due to the increase in trade between the United States with China and Japan.[20]Relatively few Westerners actually practiced the arts, considering it to be mere performance.Edward William Barton-Wright,a railway engineer who had studiedjujutsuwhile working in Japan between 1894 and 1897, was the first man known to have taught Asian martial arts in Europe. He also founded an eclectic style namedBartitsuwhich combined jujutsu, judo, wrestling, bo xing,savateandstick fighting.[citation needed][21]

Fencing andGreco-Roman wrestlingwas included in the1896 Summer Olympics.FILA Wrestling World ChampionshipsandBo xing at the Summer Olympicswere introduced in 1904. The tradition of awardingchampionship beltsin wrestling and bo xing can be traced to theLonsdale Belt,introduced in 1909.[22]

Bo xing in 1943

20th century (1914 to 1989)

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Bruce Lee(right) and his teacherIp Man(left)

TheInternational Bo xing Associationwas established in 1920.World Fencing Championshipshave been held since 1921.[citation needed]

As Western influence grew in Asia a greater number of military personnel spent time in China, Japan and South Korea during World War II and theKorean Warand were exposed to local fighting styles. Jujutsu, judo and karate first became popular among the mainstream from the 1950s–1960s. Due in part to Asian and Hollywoodmartial arts movies,most modern American martial arts are either Asian-derived or Asian influenced.[23]The termkickbo xing(キックボクシング) was created by the Japanese bo xing promoter Osamu Noguchi for a variant of muay Thai and karate that he created in the 1950s.American kickbo xingwas developed in the 1970s, as a combination of bo xing and karate.Taekwondowas developed in the context of the Korean War in the 1950s.[citation needed]

The later 1960s and 1970s witnessed an increased media interest inChinese martial arts,influenced by martial artistBruce Lee.Bruce Lee is credited as one of the first instructors to openly teach Chinese martial arts to Westerners.[24]World Judo Championshipshave been held since 1956,Judo at the Summer Olympicswas introduced in 1964.Karate World Championshipswere introduced in 1970.[citation needed]

The "kung fu wave"ofHong Kong action cinemain the 1970s, especiallyBruce Lee films,popularized martial arts in globalpopular culture.A number of mainstream films produced during the 1980s also contributed significantly to the perception of martial arts in Western popular culture. These includeThe Karate Kid(1984) andBloodsport(1988). This era produced someHollywoodaction stars with martial arts background, such asJean-Claude Van DammeandChuck Norris.[citation needed]

Also during the 20th century, a number of martial arts were adapted forself-defensepurposes for militaryhand-to-hand combat.World War II combatives,KAPAP(1930s) andKrav Maga(1950s) in Israel,Systemain Soviet-era Russia, andSanshouin the People's Republic of China are examples of such systems. TheUS militaryde-emphasized hand-to-hand combat training during theCold War period,but revived it with the introduction ofLINEin 1989.[citation needed]

1990 to present

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In 1993, the firstPancraseevent was held in Japan.[25]TheK-1rules of kickbo xing were introduced, based on 1980sSeidokaikankarate.[26]

During the 1990s,Brazilian jiu-jitsubecame popular and proved to be effective inmixed martial arts(MMA) competitions such as theUFCandPRIDE.[27]

Mixed martial arts championship in Russia in 2021

Jackie ChanandBruce Leewere prominent martial artists who became major movie figures. Their popularity and media presence has been at the forefront for promoting Chinese martial arts in theWestern worldsince the late 20th and early 21st centuries.[28]

With the continual discovery of more medieval and Renaissance fighting manuals, the practice ofHistorical European Martial Artsand otherWestern Martial Artshave been growing[citation needed]in popularity across the United States and Europe.[citation needed]

On 29 November 2011,UNESCOinscribedTaekkyononto its Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity List.[29]

Revival

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Many styles ofIndian martial artswere banned by the colonial authorities during the period ofBritish rule in India,which led to a decline in their popularity.[30]Some, such asKalaripayattu,were able to resist this decline by practicing in secret. Other Indian martial art, such asSilambam,while not widely practiced in India, continue to be practiced in other countries in theIndian cultural spheresuch as Indonesia and Malaysia. Many other Indian martial arts such asMardhani KhelandPaika Akhadasurvived by practitioners practicing the art in secret, or by telling the colonial authorities that it was a form of dance. While many regional Indian martial arts forms are fading into obscurity, martial arts such asGatkaandKalaripayattuare experiencing a gradual resurgence.[31]

Testing and competition

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Testing or evaluation is important to martial artists of many disciplines who wish to determine their progression or own level of skill in specific contexts. Students often undergo periodic testing and grading by their own teacher in order to advance to a higher level of recognized achievement, such as a differentbeltcolor or title. The type of testing used varies from system to system but may include forms orsparring.

Steven Hoexecuting a Jump SpinHook Kick

Various forms and sparring are commonly used in martial art exhibitions and tournaments. Some competitions pit practitioners of different disciplines against each other using a common set of rules, these are referred to as mixed martial arts competitions. Rules for sparring vary between art and organization but can generally be divided intolight-contact,medium-contact,andfull-contactvariants, reflecting the amount of force that should be used on an opponent.[citation needed]

Light- and medium-contact

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These types of sparring restrict the amount of force that may be used to hit an opponent, in the case of light sparring this is usually to 'touch' contact, e.g. a punch should be 'pulled' as soon as or before contact is made. In medium-contact (sometimes referred to as semi-contact) the punch would not be 'pulled' but not hit with full force. As the amount of force used is restricted, the aim of these types of sparring is not toknock outan opponent; a point system is used in competitions.[citation needed]

A referee acts to monitor for fouls and to control the match, while judges mark down scores, as in bo xing. Particular targets may be prohibited, certain techniques may be forbidden (such as headbutting or groin hits), and fighters may be required to wearprotective equipmenton their head, hands, chest, groin, shins or feet. Some grappling arts, such as aikido, use a similar method of compliant training that is equivalent to light or medium contact.[citation needed]

In some styles (such as fencing and some styles of taekwondo sparring), competitors score points based on the landing of a single technique or strike as judged by the referee, whereupon the referee will briefly stop the match, award a point, then restart the match. Alternatively, sparring may continue with the point noted by the judges. Some critics of point sparring feel that this method of training teaches habits that result in lower combat effectiveness. Lighter-contact sparring may be used exclusively, for children or in other situations when heavy contact would be inappropriate (such as beginners), medium-contact sparring is often used as training for full contact.[citation needed]

Full-contact

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Further information:Full-contact

Full-contact sparring or competition, where strikes or techniques are not pulled but used with full force as the name implies, has a number of tactical differences from light and medium-contact sparring. It is considered by some to be requisite in learning realistic unarmed combat.[32]

In full-contact sparring, the aim of a competitive match is toknock outthe opponent or to force the opponent tosubmit. Where scoring takes place it may be a subsidiary measure, only used if no clear winner has been established by other means; in some competitions, such as theUFC 1,there was no scoring, though most now use some form of judging as a backup.[33]Due to these factors, full-contact matches tend to be more aggressive in character, but rule sets may still mandate the use of protective equipment, or limit the techniques allowed.[citation needed]

Nearly all mixed martial arts organizations such asUFC,Pancrase,Shootouse a form of full-contact rules as doprofessional bo xingorganizations andK-1.Kyokushinkaraterequires advanced practitioners to engage in bare-knuckled, full-contact sparring allowing kicks, knees and punching although punching to the head is disallowed while wearing only a karategi,mouthguard,groin guardformales,or chest guard worn under the karategiforfemales.Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo matches do not allow striking, but are full-contact in the sense that full force is applied in the permitted grappling and submission techniques. Competitions held byWorld Taekwondorequires the use ofHeadgearand padded vest, but are full contact in the sense that full force is applied to strikes to the head and body, and win byknockoutis possible.[citation needed]

Martial sport

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See also:Combat sport
Several martial arts, such asjudo,areOlympic sports.

Martial arts have crossed over into sports when forms ofsparringbecome competitive, becoming a sport in its own right that is dissociated from the original combative origin, such as with western fencing. TheSummer Olympic Gamesincludes judo, taekwondo, western archery, bo xing, javelin, wrestling and fencing as events, whileChinese wushurecently failed in its bid to be included, but is still actively performed in tournaments across the world. Practitioners in some arts such askickbo xingand Brazilian jiu-jitsu often train for sport matches, whereas those in other arts such asaikidogenerally spurn such competitions. Some schools believe that competition breeds better and more efficient practitioners, and gives a sense of good sportsmanship. Others believe that the rules under which competition takes place have diminished the combat effectiveness of martial arts or encourage a kind of practice which focuses on winning trophies rather than a focus such as cultivating a particular moral character.[citation needed]

The question of "which is the best martial art" has led to inter style competitions fought with very few rules allowing a variety of fighting styles to enter with few limitations. This was the origin of the firstUltimate Fighting Championshiptournament (later renamedUFC 1: The Beginning) in the USA inspired by the BrazilianVale tudotradition and along with other minimal rule competitions, most notably those from Japan such asShootoandPancrase,have evolved into thecombat sportof Mixed Martial Arts (MMA).[citation needed]

Some martial artists compete in non-sparring competitions such asbreakingor choreographed routines of techniques such aspoomse,kataandaka,or modern variations of the martial arts which include dance-influenced competitions such as tricking. Martial traditions have been influenced by governments to become more sport-like for political purposes; the central impetus for the attempt by thePeople's Republic of Chinain transforming Chinese martial arts into the committee-regulated sport ofwushuwas suppressing what they saw as the potentiallysubversiveaspects of martial training, especially under the traditional system of family lineages.[34]

Health and fitness benefits

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Martial arts training aims to result in several benefits to trainees, such as their physical, mental, emotional and spiritual health.[35]

Through systematic practice in the martial arts a person'sphysical fitnessmay be boosted (strength, stamina, speed, flexibility, movement coordination, etc.) as the whole body is exercised and the entire muscular system is activated.[citation needed] Beyond contributing to physical fitness, martial arts training also has benefits formental health,contributing toself-esteem,self-control,emotionalandspiritualwell-being. For this reason, a number of martial arts schools have focused purely on therapeutic aspects, de-emphasizing the historical aspect of self-defense or combat completely.[citation needed]

According toBruce Lee,martial arts also have the nature of an art, since there is emotional communication and complete emotional expression.[citation needed]

Self-defense, military and law enforcement applications

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Main articles:Hand-to-hand combatandSelf-defense
U.S. Armycombatives instructor demonstrates achokehold.

Some traditional martial concepts have seen new use within modern military training. Perhaps the most recent example of this ispoint shootingwhich relies onmuscle memoryto more effectively use afirearmin a variety of awkward situations, much the way aniaidokawould master movements with their sword.

Demonstration of aJu-Jitsudefense against aknife attack.Berlin1924

During the World War II eraWilliam E. FairbairnandEric A. Sykeswere recruited by theSpecial Operations Executive(SOE) to teach their martial art ofDefendu(itself drawing on Western bo xing and Jujutsu) and pistol shooting to UK, US, and Canadian special forces. The bookKill or Get Killed,written by ColonelRex Applegate,was based on the Defendu taught by Sykes and Fairbairn. Both Fairbairn'sGet Toughand Appelgate'sKill or Get Killedbecame classic works on hand-to-hand combat.[citation needed]

Traditional hand-to-hand, knife, and spear techniques continue to see use in the composite systems developed for today's wars. Examples of this include EuropeanUnifight,theUS Army'sCombativessystem developed by Matt Larsen, theIsraeli army'sKAPAPandKrav Maga,and theUS Marine Corps'sMarine Corps Martial Arts Program(MCMAP). Unarmed dagger defenses identical to those found in the manual ofFiore dei Liberiand theCodex Wallersteinwere integrated into the U.S. Army'straining manualsin 1942[36] and continue to influence today's systems along with other traditional systems such aseskrimaandsilat.[citation needed]

The rifle-mountedbayonetwhich has its origin in thespear,has seen use by theUnited States Army,theUnited States Marine Corps,and theBritish Armyas recently as theIraq War.[37]

Many martial arts are also seen and used in Law Enforcement hand-to-hand training. For example, the Tokyo Riot Police's use ofaikido.[38]

Martial arts industry

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Martial arts since the 1970s has become a significant industry, a subset of the widersport industry(includingcinemaandsports television).[citation needed]

Hundreds of millions of people worldwide practice some form of martial art. Web Japan (sponsored by theJapanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) claims there are 50 million karate practitioners worldwide.[39] The South Korean government in 2009 published an estimate that taekwondo is practiced by 70 million people in 190 countries.[40]

The wholesale value of martial arts related sporting equipment shipped in the United States was estimated at US$314 million in 2007; participation in the same year was estimated at 6.9 million (ages 6 or older, 2% of US population).[41]R. A. Court, CEO of Martial Arts Channel, stated the total revenue of the US martial arts industry at US$40 billion and the number of US practitioners at 30 million in 2003.[42]

Equipment

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Martial arts equipment can include that which is used for conditioning, protection andweapons.Specialized conditioning equipmentcan includebreaking boards,dummy partners such as thewooden dummy,and targets such aspunching bagsand themakiwara.Protective equipmentfor sparring and competition includesbo xing gloves,headgearandmouthguards.[43]

Martial arts fraud

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Asian martial artsexperienced a surge of popularity in the West during the 1970s, and the rising demand resulted in numerous low quality or fraudulent schools. Fueled by fictional depictions in martial arts movies, this led to theninja crazeof the 1980s in the United States.[44]There were also numerous fraudulent ads for martial arts training programs, inserted into comic books circa the 1960s and 1970s, which were read primarily by adolescent boys.[45]

In the seventies, lower ranks (kyu) began to be given colorful belts to show progress. This proved to be commercially viable and colored-belt systems were adopted in many martial artsdegree mills(also known asMcDojosandbelt factories) as a means to generate additional cash.[46]This was covered in thePenn & Teller: Bullshit!episode "Martial Arts"(June 2010).[citation needed]

See also

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References

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    Now, there's going to be an invasion of "chow mein spies." It's the newest rage, the superhero Chinese agent, who takes on 84 adversaries at one time and pounds them into the ground — without a dangerous weapon, except his hands and his feet.
    They're coming here under the label of "martial sciences," an umbrella label that takes in all of the oriental arts of self-defense, such as karate, jujitso, kung fu and so on.
    They're made in Hong Kong and the biggest hero of them all at the moment, surely the biggest box-office attraction there, is a face pretty familiar to American television audiences. Remember Bruce Lee, the swift, agile oriental chauffeur in "The Green Hornet"?
    (...) Lee already has starred in three Chinese boxer (another label) pictures and there are several dozen others available to the international market. They reportedly are sweeping the European market and have just started to infiltrate the American scene.
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  38. ^Twigger, R. (1997).Angry White Pyjamas.London: Phoenix.ISBN978-0753808580[page needed]
  39. ^"Martial Arts: Fact Sheet"(PDF).Web-japan.org.Archived(PDF)from the original on 13 June 2010.Retrieved13 August2015.
  40. ^Kim, H.-S. (2009):Taekwondo: A new strategy for Brand KoreaArchived23 July 2011 at theWayback Machine(21 December 2009). Retrieved on 8 January 2010.
  41. ^Jack W. Plunkett (2009).Plunkett's Sports Industry Almanac,ISBN978-1593921408.
  42. ^Black Belt MagazineSeptember 2003, p. 20.
  43. ^"The Importance Of A Mouthguard When Playing Sport".Orthodontics Australia.21 February 2020.Retrieved6 October2020.
  44. ^see “The Real Deal, The Buzzwords and the Latest Trend”Black Belt Magazine,June 1999, p. 78.
  45. ^Tom Heintjes (20 June 2017)."The Deadliest Ads Alive! | Hogan's Alley".Cartoonician. Archived fromthe originalon 25 August 2015.Retrieved13 August2015.
  46. ^Ford, Justin Lee (7 October 2022)."The McDojo Excuse".Black Belt Magazine.
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