Wikipedia

Public transport

(Redirected fromMass transportation)
This article is about nonexclusive shared passenger journeys for the public. For hired vehicles or hired rides, seeShared transport.
"Mass transit" and "mass transport" redirect here. For other uses, seeMass transit (disambiguation).

Public transport(also known aspublic transportation,public transit,mass transit,or simplytransit) is a system oftransportforpassengersby group travel systems available for use by the general public unlikeprivate transport,typically managed on a schedule, operated on established routes, and that may charge a posted fee for each trip.[1][2]There is no rigid definition of which kinds of transport are included, and air travel is often not thought of when discussing public transport—dictionaries use wording like "buses, trains, etc."[3]Examples of public transport includecity buses,trolleybuses,trams(orlight rail) andpassenger trains,rapid transit(metro/subway/underground, etc.) andferries.Public transport between cities is dominated byairlines,coaches,andintercity rail.High-speed railnetworks are being developed in many parts of the world.

Monorail in China
Ferry in the United States
Bus in England
Rapid transit in Japan
Examples of types of public transport. Clockwise from top left: AmonorailinChina,aferryin theUnited States,acommuter rail systeminJapan,and abusinEngland.

Most public transport systems run along fixed routes with set embarkation/disembarkation points to a prearranged timetable, with the most frequent services running to aheadway(e.g.: "every 15 minutes" as opposed to being scheduled for any specific time of the day). However, most public transport trips include other modes of travel, such as passengers walking or catching bus services to access train stations.[4]Share taxisoffer on-demand services in many parts of the world, which may compete with fixed public transport lines, or complement them, by bringing passengers to interchanges.Paratransitis sometimes used in areas of low demand and for people who need a door-to-door service.[5]

Urban public transit differs distinctly among Asia, North America, and Europe. In Asia, profit-driven, privately owned and publicly traded mass transit andreal estateconglomerates predominantly operate public transit systems.[6][7]In North America, municipaltransit authoritiesmost commonly run mass transit operations. In Europe, both state-owned and private companies predominantly operate mass transit systems.

For geographical, historical and economic reasons, differences exist internationally regarding the use and extent of public transport. TheInternational Association of Public Transport(UITP) is the international network for public transport authorities and operators, policy decision-makers, scientific institutes and the public transport supply and service industry. It has over 1,900 members from more than 100 countries from all over the globe.

In recent years, some high-wealth cities have seen a decline in public transport usage. A number of sources attribute this trend to the rise in popularity of remote work, ride-sharing services, and car loans being relatively cheap across many countries. Major cities such as Toronto, Paris, Chicago, and London have seen this decline and have attempted to intervene by cutting fares and encouraging new modes of transportation, such as e-scooters and e-bikes.[8]Because of the reduced emissions and other environmental impacts of using public transportation over private transportation, many experts have pointed to an increased investment in public transit as an importantclimate change mitigationtactic.[9]

History

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A coach, private or hired, for several passengers
Early trolley car inNewton, Massachusetts

Conveyances designed for public hire are as old as the firstferry service.The earliest public transport waswater transport.[10]Ferries appear inGreek mythologywritings. The mystical ferrymanCharonhad to be paid and would only then take passengers toHades.[11]

Some historical forms of public transport include thestagecoachestraveling a fixed route betweencoaching inns,and thehorse-drawn boatcarrying paying passengers, which was a feature of Europeancanalsfrom the 17th century onwards. The canal itself as a form of infrastructure dates back to antiquity. Inancient Egyptcanals were used forfreight transportationto bypass theAswancataract. The Chinese also built canals for water transportation as far back as thewarring States period[12]which began in the 5th century BCE. Whether or not those canals were used for for-hire public transport remains unknown; theGrand Canalin China (begun in 486 BCE) served primarily thegrain trade.

Thebus,the first organized public transit system within a city, appears to have originated inParisin 1662,[13]although the service in question,Carrosses à cinq sols(English: five-sol coaches), which have been developed by mathematician and philosopherBlaise Pascal,lasted only fifteen years until 1677.[14]Buses are known to have operated inNantesin 1826. The public bus transport system was introduced toLondonin July 1829.[15]

The first passengerhorse-drawn vehicleopened in 1806. It ran along theSwansea and Mumbles Railway.[16] In 1825George Stephensonbuilt theLocomotion No 1for theStockton and Darlington RailwayinnortheastEngland, the first public steam railway in the world. The world's first steam-poweredunderground railwayopened in London in 1863.[17]

The first successful electricstreetcarwas built for 11 miles of track for the Union Passenger Railway in Tallahassee, Florida, in 1888. Electric streetcars could carry heavier passenger loads than predecessors, which reduced fares and stimulated greater transit use. Two years after the Richmond success, over thirty two thousand electric streetcars were operating in America. Electric streetcars also paved the way for the firstsubwaysystem in America. Before electric streetcars, steam powered subways were considered. However, most people believed that riders would avoid the smoke filled subway tunnels from the steam engines. In 1894, Boston built the first subway in the United States, an electric streetcar line in a 1.5-mile tunnel under Tremont Street's retail district. Other cities quickly followed, constructing thousands of miles of subway in the following decades.[18]

In March 2020, Luxembourg abolished fares for trains, trams and buses and became the first country in the world to make all public transport free.[19]

TheEncyclopædia Britannicaspecifies that public transportation is within urban areas, but does not limit its discussion of the topic to urban areas.[20]

Types of public transport

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Comparing modes

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Passenger Capacity of different Transport Modes

Seven criteria estimate the usability of different types of public transport and its overall appeal. The criteria are speed, comfort, safety, cost, proximity, timeliness and directness.[21]Speed is calculated from total journey time including transfers. Proximity means how far passengers must walk or otherwise travel before they can begin the public transport leg of their journey and how close it leaves them to their desired destination. Timeliness is how long they must wait for the vehicle. Directness records how far a journey using public transport deviates from a passenger's ideal route.

In selecting between competingmodes of transport,many individuals are strongly motivated bydirect cost(travel fare/ ticket price to them) andconvenience,as well as being informed byhabit.The same individual may accept the lost time and statisticallyhigher risk of accidentinprivate transport,together with the initial, running and parking costs.Loss of control,spatial constriction,overcrowding,high speeds/accelerations, height and otherphobiasmay discourage use of public transport.

Actual travel time on public transport becomes a lesser consideration whenpredictableand when travel itself is reasonablycomfortable(seats, toilets, services), and can thus be scheduled and used pleasurably, productively or for (overnight) rest. Chauffeured movement is enjoyed by many people when it is rela xing, safe, but not too monotonous. Waiting, interchanging, stops and holdups, for example due to traffic or for security, are discomforting.Jet lagis a human constraint discouraging frequent rapid long-distance east–west commuting, favoring modern telecommunications and VR technologies.

Airline

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Main articles:AirlineandBush airplane
EmiratesAirbus A380atPerth Airport,Australia

An airline provides scheduled service with aircraft between airports. Air travel has high speeds, but incurs large waiting times before and after travel, and is therefore often only feasible over longer distances or in areas where a lack of surface infrastructure makes other modes of transport impossible. Bush airlines work more similarly to bus stops; an aircraft waits for passengers and takes off when the aircraft is full.

Bus and coach

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Main articles:Public transport bus serviceandCoach (scheduled transport)

Bus servicesusebuseson conventional roads to carry numerous passengers on shorter journeys. Buses operate with low capacity (compared with trams or trains), and can operate on conventional roads, with relatively inexpensive bus stops to serve passengers. Therefore, buses are commonly used in smaller cities, towns, and rural areas, and forshuttleservices supplementing other means of transit in large cities.

Bus rapid transit(BRT) is a term used for buses operating on dedicated right-of-way, much like a light rail.

Coach servicesusecoaches(long-distance buses) for suburb-to-CBD or longer-distance transportation. The vehicles are normally equipped with more comfortable seating, a separate luggage compartment, video and possibly also a toilet. They have higher standards than city buses, but a limited stopping pattern.

Electric buses

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Main articles:Electric busandTrolleybus

Trolleybusesareelectrically powered busesthat receive power fromoverhead power lineby way of a set of trolley poles for mobility.Online Electric Vehiclesare buses that run on a conventional battery, but arerechargedfrequently at certain points via underground wires.[22]

Certain types of buses, styled after old-style streetcars, are also called trackless trolleys, but are built on the same platforms as a typicaldiesel,CNG,orhybridbus; these are more often used for tourist rides than commuting and tend to be privately owned.

ViennaWest railway station

Train

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Main article:Rail transport

Passenger rail transport is the conveyance of passengers by means of wheeled vehicles specially designed to run on railways. Trains allow high capacity at most distance scales, but requiretrack,signalling,infrastructure andstationsto be built and maintained resulting in high upfront costs.

Intercity and High-speed rail

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Two types of Japanese "bullet trains".
Main articles:Intercity railandhigh-speed rail

Intercity railis long-haul passenger services that connect multiple urban areas. They have few stops, and aim at high average speeds, typically only making one of a few stops per city. These services may also be international.

High-speed railis passenger trains operating significantly faster than conventional rail—typically defined as at least 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph). The most predominant systems have been built in Europe and East Asia, and compared with air travel, offer long-distance rail journeys as quick as air services, have lower prices to compete more effectively and use electricity instead of combustion.[23]

Urban rail transit

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MerseyrailClass 777005 at lime street low level inLiverpool
Main article:Urban rail transit

Urban rail transitis an all-encompassing term for various types of local rail systems, such as these examplestrams,light rail,rapid transit,people movers,commuter rail,monorail,suspension railwaysandfuniculars.

Commuter rail

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AS-Bahncommuter train
Main article:Commuter rail

Commuter railis part of an urban area's public transport. It provides faster services to outersuburbsand neighboringsatellite cities.Trains stop attrain stationsthat are located to serve a smaller suburban or town center. The stations are often combined withshuttle busorpark and ridesystems. Frequency may be up to several times per hour, and commuter rail systems may either be part of the national railway or operated by local transit agencies.

Common forms of commuter rail employ eitherdiesel electriclocomotives, orelectric multiple unittrains. Some commuter train lines share a railway withfreight trains.[24]

Rapid transit

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Arapid transittrain from Singapore.
Main article:Rapid transit

A rapid transit railway system (also called a metro, underground, heavy rail, or subway) operates in an urban area with high capacity and frequency, andgrade separationfrom other traffic.[25][26]Heavy rail is a high-capacity form of rail transit, with 4 to 10 units forming a train, and can be the most expensive form of transit to build. Modern heavy rail systems are mostly driverless, which allows for higher frequencies and less maintenance cost.[24]

Systems are able to transport large numbers of people quickly over short distances with little land use. Variations of rapid transit includepeople movers,small-scalelight metroand the commuter rail hybridS-Bahn.More than 160 cities have rapid transit systems, totalling more than 8,000 km (4,971 mi) of track and 7,000 stations. Twenty-five cities have systems under construction.

People mover

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Main article:People mover

People movers are a special term for grade-separated rail which uses vehicles that are smaller and shorter in size.[24]These systems are generally used only in a small area such as a theme park or an airport.

Atram in Toronto

Tram

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Main article:Tram

Trams (also known as streetcars or trolleys) are railborne vehicles that originally ran in city streets, though over decades more and more dedicated tracks are used. They have higher capacity than buses, but must follow dedicated infrastructure with rails and wires either above or below the track, limiting their flexibility.

In the United States, trams were commonly used prior to the 1930s, before being superseded by the bus. In modern public transport systems, they have been reintroduced in the form of the light rail.[24]

Light rail inAddis Ababa

Light rail

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Main article:Light rail

Light rail is a term coined in 1972 and uses mainly tram technology. Light rail has mostly dedicated right-of-ways and less sections shared with other traffic and usually step-free access. Light rails line are generally traversed with increased speed compared to a tram line. Light rail lines are, thus, essentially modernizedinterurbans.Unlike trams, light rail trains are often longer and have one to four cars per train.[24]

Monorail

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AmonorailinKuala Lumpur
Main article:Monorail

Somewhere between light and heavy rail in terms ofcarbon footprint,monorail systems usually use overhead single tracks, either mounted directly on the track supports or put in an overhead design with the train suspended.

Monorail systems are used throughout the world (especially in Europe and eastAsia,particularlyJapan), but apart from public transit installations in Las Vegas and Seattle, most North American monorails are either short shuttle services or privately owned services (With 150,000 daily riders, theDisney monorail systemsused at their parks may be the most famous in the world).[27]

Personal rapid transit

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People mover vehicle ofMorgantown Personal Rapid Transit
Main article:Personal rapid transit

Personal rapid transitis an automated cab service that runs on rails or aguideway.This is an uncommon mode of transportation (excludingelevators) due to the complexity of automation. A fully implemented system might provide most of the convenience of individual automobiles with the efficiency of public transit. The crucial innovation is that the automated vehicles carry just a few passengers, turn off the guideway to pick up passengers (permitting other PRT vehicles to continue at full speed), and drop them off to the location of their choice (rather than at a stop). Conventional transit simulations show that PRT might attract many auto users in problematic medium-density urban areas. A number of experimental systems are in progress. One might compare personal rapid transit to the more labor-intensivetaxiorparatransitmodes of transportation, or to the (by now automated)elevatorscommon in many publicly accessible areas.

Cable-propelled transit

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Gulmarg GondolainGulmarg,India
Main articles:Aerial tramway,Gondola lift,andCable car (railway)

Cable-propelled transit (CPT) is a transit technology that moves people in motor-less, engine-less vehicles that are propelled by a steel cable.[28]There are two sub-groups of CPT—gondola liftsandcable cars (railway).Gondola lifts are supported and propelled from above by cables, whereas cable cars are supported and propelled from below by cables.

While historically associated with usage inski resorts,gondola lifts are now finding increased consumption and utilization in many urban areas—built specifically for the purposes of mass transit.[29]Many, if not all, of these systems are implemented and fully integrated within existing public transportation networks. Examples includeMetrocable (Medellín),Metrocable (Caracas),Mi TeleféricoinLa Paz,Portland Aerial Tram,Roosevelt Island Tramwayin New York City, and theLondon Cable Car.

Ferry

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Main article:Ferry
Water bus (vaporetto) at bus stop inVenice,Italy

A ferry is a boat used to carry (orferry) passengers, and sometimes their vehicles, across a body of water. Afoot-passengerferry with many stops is sometimes called awater bus.Ferries form a part of the public transport systems of many waterside cities and islands, allowing direct transit between points at a capital cost much lower than bridges or tunnels, though at a lower speed. Ship connections of much larger distances (such as over long distances in water bodies like theMediterranean Sea) may also be called ferry services.

Cycleway network

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Main articles:Cycling infrastructureandBike path
Cycle Superhighway CS6 is part of Central London's Cycle Network mass transit infrastructure.

A report published by the UK National Infrastructure Commission in 2018 states that "cycling is mass transit and must be treated as such."Cycling infrastructureis normally provided without charge to users because it is cheaper to operate than mechanised transit systems that use sophisticated equipment and do not usehuman power.[30]

Electric bikes and scooters

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Main articles:Electric bicycleandScooter (motorcycle)
eTricks C01, electric bycicle made inFrance

Many cities around the world have introduced electric bikes and scooters to their public transport infrastructure. For example, in the Netherlands many individuals use e-bikes to replace their car commutes. In major American cities, start-up companies such as Uber and Lyft have implemented e-scooters as a way for people to take short trips around the city.[31]

Operation

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Timelapse video ofDowntown Seattlefrom atop aCommunity Transitdouble-decker bus

Infrastructure

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All public transport runs on infrastructure, either on roads, rail, airways or seaways. The infrastructure can be shared with other modes, freight and private transport, or it can be dedicated to public transport. The latter is especially valuable in cases where there are capacity problems for private transport. Investments in infrastructure are expensive and make up a substantial part of the total costs in systems that are new or expanding. Once built, the infrastructure will require operating and maintenance costs, adding to the total cost of public transport. Sometimes governments subsidize infrastructure by providing it free of charge, just as is common with roads for automobiles.

Interchanges

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Main articles:Transport hubandIntermodal passenger transport

Interchanges are locations where passengers can switch from one public transport route to another. This may be between vehicles of the same mode (like a bus interchange), or e.g. between bus and train. It can be between local and intercity transport (such as at acentral stationor airport).

Timetables

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Main article:Public transport timetable

Timetables(or 'schedules' inNorth American English) are provided by the transport operator to allow users to plan their journeys. They are often supplemented bymapsand fare schemes to help travelers coordinate their travel. Onlinepublic transport route plannershelp make planning easier.Mobile appsare available for multiple transit systems that provide timetables and other service information and, in some cases, allow ticket purchase, some allowing to plan your journey, with time fares zones e.g.

Services are often arranged to operate at regular intervals throughout the day or part of the day (known asclock-face scheduling). Often, more frequent services or even extra routes are operated during the morning and eveningrush hours.Coordination between services at interchange points is important to reduce the total travel time for passengers. This can be done by coordinating shuttle services with main routes, or by creating a fixed time (for instance twice per hour) when all bus and rail routes meet at a station and exchange passengers. There is often a potential conflict between this objective and optimising the utilisation of vehicles and drivers.

Financing

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The main sources of financing are ticket revenue, government subsidies and advertising. The percentage of revenue from passenger charges is known as thefarebox recovery ratio.A limited amount of income may come fromland developmentand rental income from stores and vendors, parking fees, and leasing tunnels and rights-of-way to carryfiber opticcommunication lines.

Fare and ticketing

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A contactless validator inBrno
Smart fare cardsfor public transportation tickets in the four biggest cities in Canada.

Most—but not all—public transport requires the purchase of aticketto generaterevenuefor the operators. Tickets may be bought either in advance, or at the time of the journey, or the carrier may allow both methods. Passengers may be issued with a paper ticket, a metal or plastictoken,or a magnetic or electronic card (smart card,contactless smart card). Sometimes a ticket has to be validated, e.g. a paper ticket has to be stamped, or anelectronic tickethas to be checked in.

Tickets may be valid for a single (or return) trip, or valid within a certain area for a period of time (seetransit pass). Thefareis based on the travel class, either depending on the traveled distance, or based onzone pricing.

The tickets may have to be shown or checked automatically at the station platform or when boarding, or during the ride by aconductor.Operators may choose to control all riders, allowing sale of the ticket at the time of ride. Alternatively, aproof-of-paymentsystem allows riders to enter the vehicles without showing the ticket, but riders may or may not be controlled by aticket controller;if the rider fails to show proof of payment, the operator may fine the rider at the magnitude of the fare.

Multi-use tickets allow travel more than once. In addition to return tickets, this includes period cards allowing travel within a certain area (for instance month cards), or to travel a specified number of trips or number of days that can be chosen within a longer period of time (calledcarnetticket). Passes aimed at tourists, allowing free or discounted entry at many tourist attractions, typically includezero-fare public transportwithin the city. Period tickets may be for a particular route (in both directions), or for awhole network.Afree travel passallowing free and unlimited travel within a system is sometimes granted to particular social sectors, for example students, elderly, children, employees (job ticket) and the physically or mentallydisabled.

Zero-fare public transportservices are funded in full by means other than collecting a fare from passengers, normally through heavysubsidyor commercialsponsorshipby businesses. Several mid-size European cities and many smaller towns around the world have converted their entire bus networks to zero-fare. The only European capitals with free public transport areTallinnandLuxembourg.Local zero-fare shuttles or inner-city loops are far more common than city-wide systems. There are also zero-fare airport circulators and university transportation systems.

Revenue, profit and subsidies

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Main article:Subsidy

Governments frequently opt to subsidize public transport for social, environmental or economic reasons. Common motivations include the desire to provide transport to people who are unable to use an automobile[32]and to reduce congestion, land use and automobile emissions.[32]

Subsidies may take the form of direct payments for financially unprofitable services, but support may also include indirect subsidies. For example, the government may allow free or reduced-cost use of state-owned infrastructure such as railways and roads, to stimulate public transport's economic competitiveness over private transport, that normally also has free infrastructure (subsidized through such things as gas taxes). Other subsidies include tax advantages (for instanceaviation fuelis typically not taxed), bailouts if companies that are likely to collapse (often applied to airlines) and reduction of competition through licensing schemes (often applied to taxis and airlines). Private transport is normally subsidized indirectly through free roads and infrastructure,[33]as well as incentives to build car factories[34]and, on occasion, directly via bailouts of automakers.[35][36]Subsidies also may take the form of initial or increased tolls for drivers, such as theSan Francisco Bay Arearaising tolls on numerous bridges and proposing more hikes to fund theBay Area Rapid Transitsystem.[37]

Land development schemes may be initialized, where operators are given the rights to use lands near stations, depots, or tracks for property development. For instance, in Hong Kong,MTR Corporation LimitedandKCR Corporationgenerate additional profits from land development to partially cover the cost of the construction of the urban rail system.[38]

Some supporters of mass transit believe that use of taxpayer capital to fund mass transit will ultimately save taxpayer money in other ways, and therefore, state-funded mass transit is a benefit to the taxpayer. Some research has supported this position,[39]but the measurement of benefits and costs is a complex and controversial issue.[40]A lack of mass transit results in more traffic, pollution,[41][42][43]and road construction[44]to accommodate more vehicles, all costly to taxpayers;[45]providing mass transit will therefore alleviate these costs.[46]

A study found that support for public transport spending is much higher amongconservativeswho have high levels of trust in government officials than those who do not.[47]

Safety and security

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ALASDdeputy and apolice dogpatrol aLA Metrolight rail train
Main article:Public transport security

Relative to other forms of transportation, public transit is safe (with a low crash risk) and secure (with low rates ofcrime).[48]The injury and death rate for public transit is roughly one-tenth that of automobile travel.[48]A 2014 study noted that "residents of transit-oriented communities have about one-fifth the per capita crash casualty rate as in automobile-oriented communities" and that "Transit also tends to have lower overall crime rates than automobile travel, and transit improvements can help reduce overall crime risk by improving surveillance and economic opportunities for at-risk populations."[48]

Although relatively safe and secure, public perceptions that transit systems are dangerous endure.[48]A 2014 study stated that "Various factors contribute to the under-appreciation of transit safety benefits, including the nature of transit travel, dramatic news coverage of transit crashes and crimes, transit agency messages that unintentionally emphasize risks without providing information on its overall safety, and biased traffic safety analysis."[48]

Some systems attract vagrants who use the stations or trains as sleeping shelters, though most operators have practices that discourage this.[49]

Impact

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Accessibility

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Main article:Accessibility § Transportation
Sydney MetroHills Showground stationfeaturing a lift for disabled people.

Public transport is means of independent transport for individuals (without walking or bicycling) such as children too young to drive, the elderly without access to cars, those who do not hold a drivers license, and the infirm such as wheelchair users. Kneeling buses, low-floor access boarding on buses and light rail has also enabled greater access for the disabled in mobility. In recent decades low-floor access has been incorporated into modern designs for vehicles. In economically deprived areas, public transport increases individual accessibility to transport where private means are unaffordable.

Environmental

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Main article:Sustainable transport
The pinkbus rapid transitofMetzuses adiesel-electric hybriddriving system, developed by BelgianVan Hoolmanufacturer.[50]

Although there is continuing debate as to the true efficiency of different modes of transportation, mass transit is generally regarded as significantly moreenergy efficientthan other forms of travel. A 2002 study by theBrookings Institutionand theAmerican Enterprise Institutefound that public transportation in the U.S. uses approximately half the fuel required by cars, SUVs and light trucks. In addition, the study noted that "private vehicles emit about 95 percent more carbon monoxide, 92 percent morevolatile organic compoundsand about twice as much carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide than public vehicles for every passenger mile traveled ".[51]

Studies have shown that there is a strong inverse correlation betweenurban population densityandenergy consumption per capita,and that public transport could facilitate increased urban population densities, and thus reduce travel distances and fossil fuel consumption.[52]

Supporters of thegreen movementusually advocate public transportation, because it offers decreased airbornepollutioncompared to automobiles. A study conducted in Milan, Italy, in 2004 during and after a transportation strike serves to illustrate the impact that mass transportation has on the environment. Air samples were taken between 2 and 9 January, and then tested for methane, carbon monoxide, non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs), and other gases identified as harmful to the environment. The figure below is a computer simulation showing the results of the study "with 2 January showing the lowest concentrations as a result of decreased activity in the city during the holiday season. 9 January showed the highest NMHC concentrations because of increased vehicular activity in the city due to a public transportation strike."[53]

Based on the benefits of public transport, the green movement has affected public policy. For example, the state of New Jersey releasedGetting to Work: Reconnecting Jobs with Transit.[54]This initiative attempts to relocate new jobs into areas with higher public transportation accessibility. The initiative cites the use of public transportation as being a means of reducing traffic congestion, providing an economic boost to the areas of job relocation, and most importantly, contributing to a green environment by reducingcarbon dioxide(CO2) emissions.

A survey by the European Development Bank found that a majority of Europeans wanted to prioritize public transit inClimate change mitigation policies.

Using public transportation can result in a reduction of an individual's carbon footprint. A single person, 20-mile (32 km) round trip by car can be replaced using public transportation and result in a net CO2emissions reduction of 4,800 pounds (2,200 kg) per year.[55]Using public transportation saves CO2emissions in more ways than simply travel as public transportation can help to alleviate traffic congestion as well as promote more efficient land use. When all three of these are considered, it is estimated that 37 million metric tons of CO2will be saved annually.[55]Another study claims that using public transit instead of private in the U.S. in 2005 would have reduced CO2emissions by 3.9 million metric tons and that the resulting traffic congestion reduction accounts for an additional 3.0 million metric tons of CO2saved.[56]This is a total savings of about 6.9 million metric tons per year given the 2005 values.

In order to compare energy impact of public transportation to private transportation, the amount of energy per passenger mile must be calculated. The reason that comparing the energy expenditure per person is necessary is to normalize the data for easy comparison. Here, the units are in per 100 p-km (read as person kilometer or passenger kilometer). In terms of energy consumption, public transportation is better than individual transport in a personal vehicle.[57]In England, bus and rail are popular methods of public transportation, especially in London. Rail provides rapid movement into and out of the city of London while busing helps to provide transport within the city itself. As of 2006–2007, the total energy cost of London's trains was 15 kWh per 100 p-km, about 5 times better than a personal car.[58]

For busing in London, it was 32 kWh per 100 p-km, or about 2.5 times that of a personal car.[58]This includes lighting, depots, inefficiencies due to capacity (i.e., the train or bus may not be operating at full capacity at all times), and other inefficiencies. Efficiencies of transport in Japan in 1999 were 68 kWh per 100 p-km for a personal car, 19 kWh per 100 p-km for a bus, 6 kWh per 100 p-km for rail, 51 kWh per 100 p-km for air, and 57 kWh per 100 p-km for sea.[58]These numbers from either country can be used in energy comparison calculations orlife-cycle assessmentcalculations.

Public transportation also provides an arena to test environmentally friendly fuel alternatives, such as hydrogen-powered vehicles. Swapping out materials to create lighter public transportation vehicles with the same or better performance will increase environmental friendliness of public transportation vehicles while maintaining current standards or improving them. Informing the public about the positive environmental effects of using public transportation in addition to pointing out the potential economic benefit is an important first step towards making a difference.

In the 2023 study titled "Subways and CO₂ Emissions: A Global Analysis with Satellite Data," research reveals that subway systems significantly reduceCO₂ emissionsby approximately 50% in the cities they serve, contributing to an 11% global reduction. The study also explores potential expansion in 1,214 urban areas lacking subways, suggesting a potential emission cut by up to 77%. Economically, subways are viable in 794 cities under optimistic financial conditions (SCC at US$150/ton and SIC at US$140 million/km), but this figure drops to 294 cities with more pessimistic assumptions. Despite high costs—about US$200 million per kilometer for construction—subways offer substantial co-benefits, such as reduced traffic congestion and improved public health, making them a strategic investment forurban sustainabilityandclimate mitigation.[59][60]

Land use

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Traffic jaminSão Paulo,Brazil

Dense areas with mixed-land uses promote daily public transport use while urban sprawl is associated with sporadic public transport use. A recent European multi-city survey found that dense urban environments, reliable and affordable public transport services, and limiting motorized vehicles in high density areas of the cities will help achieve much needed promotion of public transport use.[61]

Urban space is a precious commodity and public transport utilises it more efficiently than a car dominant society, allowing cities to be built more compactly than if they were dependent on automobile transport.[62]Ifpublic transport planningis at the core ofurban planning,it will also force cities to be built more compactly to create efficient feeds into the stations and stops of transport.[4][63]This will at the same time allow the creation of centers around the hubs, serving passengers' daily commercial needs and public services. This approach significantly reducesurban sprawl.Public land planning for public transportation can be difficult but it is the State and Regional organizations that are responsible to planning and improving public transportation roads and routes. With public land prices booming, there must be a plan to using the land most efficiently for public transportation in order to create better transportation systems. Inefficient land use and poor planning leads to a decrease in accessibility to jobs, education, and health care.[64]

Societal

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Main article:Automobile dependency
A developed country is not a place where the poor have cars; it's where the rich use public transport —Enrique Peñalosa,former mayor of Bogotá[65]

The consequences for wider society and civic life, is public transport breaks down social and cultural barriers between people in public life. An important social role played by public transport is to ensure that all members of society are able to travel without walking or cycling, not just those with a driving license and access to an automobile—which include groups such as the young, the old, the poor, those with medical conditions, and people banned from driving.Automobile dependencyis a name given by policy makers to places where those without access to a private vehicle do not have access to independent mobility.[66]This dependency contributes to thetransport divide.A 2018 study published in theJournal of Environmental Economics and Managementconcluded that expanded access to public transit has no meaningful impact on automobile volume in the long term.[67]

Above that, public transportation opens to its users the possibility of meeting other people, as no concentration is diverted from interacting with fellow-travelers due to any steering activities. Adding to the above-said, public transport becomes a location of inter-social encounters across all boundaries of social, ethnic and other types of affiliation.

Social issues

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Impact of COVID-19 pandemic

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TheCOVID-19pandemic had a substantial effect on public transport systems, infrastructures and revenues in various cities across the world.[68] The pandemic negatively impacted public transport usage by imposing social distancing, remote work, or unemployment in theUnited States.It caused a 79% drop in public transport riders at the beginning of 2020. This trend continued throughout the year with a 65% reduced ridership as compared to previous years.[69] Similarly inLondon,at the beginning of 2020, ridership in theLondon Undergroundandbusesdeclined by 95% and 85% respectively.[70] A 55% drop in public transport ridership as compared to 2019 was reported inCairo, Egyptafter a period of mandatory halt. To reduce COVID-spread through cash contact, inNairobi, Kenya,cashless payment systems were enforced by National Transport and Safety Authority (NTSA). Public transport was halted for three months in 2020 in Kampala,Ugandawith people resorting to walking or cycling. Post-quarantine, upon renovating public transport infrastructure, public transport such as minibus taxis were assigned specific routes. The situation was difficult in cities where people are heavily dependent on the public transport system. InKigali, Rwandasocial distancing requirements led to fifty percent occupancy restrictions, but as the pandemic situation improved, the occupancy limit was increased to meet popular demands.Addis Ababa, Ethiopiaalso had inadequate bus services relative to demand and longer wait times due to social distancing restrictions and planned to deploy more buses. Both Addis Ababa and Kampala aim to improve walking and cycling infrastructures in the future as means of commuting complementary to buses.[71]

See also

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References

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