Medieval theatre

Medieval theatreencompassestheatricalin the period between the fall of theWestern Roman Empirein the 5th century and the beginning of theRenaissancein approximately the 15th century. The category of "medieval theatre" is vast, covering dramatic performance inEuropeover a thousand-year period. A broad spectrum of genres needs to be considered, includingmystery plays,morality plays,farcesandmasques.The themes were almost always religious. The most famous examples are the English cycle dramas, theYork Mystery Plays,theChester Mystery Plays,theWakefield Mystery Plays,and theN-Town Plays,as well as themorality playknown asEveryman.One of the first surviving secular plays in English isThe Interlude of the Student and the Girl(c. 1300).

Nineteenth–century engraving of a performance from the Chestermystery playcycle.

Due to a lack of surviving records and texts, low literacy in the general population, and the opposition of the clergy, there are few surviving sources from theEarlyandHighMedieval periods. However, by thelateperiod,performancesbegan to become more secularized; larger number of records survive.

Difficulty of finding appropriate terms

Because contemporary conceptions about theatre differ radically from the performance culture of the pre-modern world, it is difficult to find appropriate terms. First, "medieval" denotes a time period (500–1500) far too large and complex to understand in short descriptions. And within it, there was "a vast and varied spectrum of kinds of performances:ludus,jeu, ordo, representatio, officium, pagina, miraculum, mystère, processus, interlude, morality,mumming,disguising, and, of course, play. "These had little to do with stage performance in the 21st century.

Transition from Rome, 500–900 A.D.

As theWestern Roman Empirefell into severe decay through the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., the seat of Roman power shifted toConstantinopleand theEastern Roman Empire,later called theByzantine Empire.While surviving evidence about Byzantine theatre is slight, existing records show thatmime,pantomime,scenes or recitations fromtragediesandcomedies,dances,and other entertainments were very popular. Constantinople had two theatres that were in use as late as the 5th century A.D. However, the true importance of the Byzantines in theatrical history is their preservation of many classical Greek texts and the compilation of a massive encyclopedia called theSuda,from which is derived a large amount of contemporary information on Greek theatre.In the 6th century, the EmperorJustinianpermanently closed the theatres.

Theatres were considered by many to be a diabolical threat toChristianity,especially because new converts continued to attend. Church fathers such asTatian,TertullianandAugustinecharacterized the stage as an instrument of corruption, whileactingwas consideredsinfulbecause its imitation of life was considered a mockery of God's creation.Roman actors were forbidden to have contact with Christian women, own slaves, or wear gold. They were officiallyexcommunicated,denied thesacraments,includingmarriageandburial,and were defamed throughout Europe. For many centuries thereafter, clerics were cautioned to not allow travelling actors to perform in their jurisdiction.

Hrosvitha(c. 935–973), an aristocratic canoness and historian in northernGermany,wrote six plays modeled onTerence's comedies but using religious subjects in the 10th century. These six plays are the first known plays composed by a female dramatist and the first identifiable Western dramatic works of the post-Classical era.In order to preempt criticism from the Church, Hrosvitha declared that she sought to imitate the "laudable" deeds of women in Terence's plays and discard the "shameless" ones.They were first published in 1501 and had considerable influence in the sixteenth century. Another nun who wrote plays was the abbessHildegard of Bingen(d. 1179), who wrote a drama calledOrdo Virtutumin 1155.

Early Medieval theatre

Hrosvithaof Gandersheim, the first dramatist of the post-classical era.

Faced with the problem of explaining a new religion to a largely illiterate population, churches in theEarly Middle Agesbegan staging dramatized versions of particular biblical events on specific days of the year. The dramatizations were included in order to vivify annual celebrations.Symbolic objects and actions (vestments,altars,censers,andpantomimeperformed by priests) recalled the events which Christian ritual celebrates. TheWhom do you Seek (Quem-Quaeritis)Easter trope, dating from ca. 925, is an example of performing the events surround Christ's empty grave.The text was sung responsively by two groups and was not considered to be "acting" in the sense of impersonation. Sometime between 965 and 975,Æthelwold of Winchestercomposed theRegularis Concordia (Monastic Agreement)which contains a playlet complete with directions for performance.

The anonymous pagan playQuerolus,written around 420, was adapted in the 12th century byVitalis of Blois.Other secular Latin plays, such asBabio,were also written in the 12th century, mainly in France but also in England. It is also known thatmimes,minstrels,bards,storytellers, andjugglerstravelled in search of new audiences and financial support. Not much is known about these performers' repertoire. One of the most famous of the secular plays is the musicalLe Jeu de Robin et Marion,written byAdam de la Hallein the 13th century, which is fully laid out in the original manuscript with lines, musical notation, and illuminations in the margins depicting the actors in motion. Adam also wrote other plays.

High and Late Medieval theatre

Stage drawing from 15th–centuryvernacularmorality playThe Castle of Perseverance(as found in theMacro Manuscript).

Performance of religious plays outside of the church began sometime in the 12th century through a traditionally accepted process of merging shorter dramas into longer plays, which were then translated intovernacularand performed by laymen, and thus accessible to a wider segment of society inclusive of the working class. The use of vernacular enabled drama to be understood and enjoyed by a larger audience.The Mystery of Adam(1150) gives credence to this theory, as its detailed stage direction suggest that it was staged outdoors. A number of other plays from the period survive, includingLa Seinte Resurrection(Norman),The Play of the Magi Kings(Spanish), andSponsus(French).

TheFeast of Foolswas especially important in the development of comedy. The festival inverted the status of the lesser clergy and allowed them to ridicule their superiors and the routine of church life. Sometimes plays were staged as part of the occasion, and a certain amount ofburlesqueandcomedymay have entered the liturgical drama as a result of its influence.

Economic and political changes in theHigh Middle Agesled to the formation ofguildsand the growth of towns, and this would lead to significant changes for theatre starting in this time and continuing into in theLate Middle Ages.Trade guilds began to perform plays, usually religiously based, and often dealing with a biblical story that referenced their profession. For instance, a baker's guild would perform a reenactment of theLast Supper.In theBritish Isles,plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacular "mystery plays"were written in cycles of a large number of plays:York(48 plays),Chester(24),Wakefield(32) andUnknown(42). A larger number of plays survive fromFranceandGermanyin this period, and some type of religious dramas were performed in nearly every European country in theLate Middle Ages.Many of these plays containedcomedy,devils,villainsandclowns.

The majority of actors in these plays were drawn from the local population. For example, atValenciennesin 1547, more than 100 roles were assigned to 72 actors.Plays were staged onpageant wagonstages, which were platforms mounted on wheels used to move scenery. They allowed for abrupt changes in location. Often providing their own costumes, amateur performers in England were exclusively male, but other countries had female performers.

TheValenciennesPassion Play

Morality playsemerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550. One notable example isThe Castle of Perseverancewhich depictsmankind's progress from birth to death. ThoughEverymanmay possibly be the best known of this genre, it is atypical in many ways. Everyman receivesDeath's summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted byKindred,Goods,andFellowship– onlyGood Deedsgoes with him to the grave.

The earliest secular drama isThe Play of the GreenwoodbyAdam de la Hallein 1276. It contains satirical scenes andfolkmaterial such asfaeriesand other supernatural occurrences.Farcesalso rose dramatically in popularity after the 13th century. The majority of these plays come fromFranceandGermanyand are similar in tone and form, emphasizingsexand bodily excretions.The best-known playwright of farces isHans Sachs(1494–1576), who wrote 198 dramatic works. In England,The Second Shepherds' Playof theWakefield Cycleis the best-known early farce. However, farce did not appear independently in England until the 16th century with the work ofJohn Heywood(1497–1580).

A significant forerunner of the development ofElizabethandrama was theChambers of Rhetoricin theLow CountriesdHenry VIIboth maintained small companies of professional actors. Their plays were performed in thegreat hallof a nobleman's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important wereMummers' plays,performed during theChristmasseason, and courtmasques.These masques were especially popular during the reign ofHenry VIII,who had a house of revels built and anoffice of revelsestablished in 1545.

Changes in the Early Modern Period

Changing political and economic factors greatly affected theatre at the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of theModern Era.First, theProtestant Reformationtargeted the theatre, especially in England, in an effort to stamp out allegiance to Rome. InWakefield,for example, the local mystery cycle text shows signs of Protestant editing, with references to thepopecrossed out. It was not just Protestants who attacked the theatre: TheCouncil of Trentbanned religious plays in an attempt to rein in the extrabiblical material.

A revival of interest inancient RomanandGreek culturechanged the tastes of the learned classes in the performing arts.GreekandRomanplays were performed and new plays were written that were heavily influenced by the classical style. This led to the creation ofCommedia dell'arteand influencedRenaissance theatre.

A change of patronage also caused drastic changes to the theatre. In England, the monarch and nobility started to support professional theatre troupes (includingShakespeare'sLord Chamberlain's MenandKing's Men), which catered to their upper-class patrons' tastes.

Finally, the construction of permanent theaters, such asThe Theatre,signaled a major turning point. Permanent theaters allowed for more sophisticated staging and storytelling.

Modern productions of Medieval theatre

Mummers plays

Mummers playsare still performed regularly throughout theUnited Kingdomas well as the U.S., such as the annualMummers ParadeinPhiladelphia.What relation they may bear to their medieval antecedents is unknown. The surviving texts of this oral tradition were recorded in the 18th century, at a time when theIndustrial Revolutionbegan to break up the rural communities in which the plays were performed.

Mystery plays

Mystery plays are still produced regularly throughout theUnited Kingdom.The local cycles were revived in bothYorkandChesterin 1951 as part of theFestival of Britain,and are still performed by the local guilds.The N-Town cycle was revived in 1978 as theLincoln mystery plays, and in 1994 theLichfieldMysteries were inaugurated (now the largestcommunity theatreevent in the United Kingdom).

In 1977, theNational TheatrecommissionedTony Harrisonto createThe Mysteries,a re-working of theWakefield Cycleand others.It was revived in 1985 (whereupon the production was filmed forChannel 4 Television), and again as a part of the theatre's millennium celebration in 2000.The productions wonBill Brydenthe "Best Director" title in both theEvening Standard Theatre Awardsand theOlivier Awardsfor 1985, the year the three plays first appeared together in performance at theLyceum Theatre.An adaptation of Harrison's play was staged atShakespeare's Globein 2011 asThe Globe Mysteries.

In 2001, theIsango Ensembleproduced an African version of the Chester Cycle at theGarrick Theatrein London asThe Mysteries – Yiimimangaliso,performing in a combination ofXhosa,Zulu,English,LatinandAfrikaans.They revived an adapted version of the production at Shakespeare's Globe in 2015 asThe Mysteries.In 2004, two mystery plays (one focusing on the Creation and the other on the Passion) were performed atCanterbury Cathedral,with actorEdward Woodwardin the role of God. The large cast also includedDaniel MacPherson,Thomas James LongleyandJoseph McManners.

Morality plays

The first modern stage production ofEverymandid not appear until July 1901, when TheElizabethan Stage SocietyofWilliam Poelgave three outdoor performances at theCharterhousein London.Poel then partnered with British actorBen Greetto produce the play throughout Britain, with runs on the AmericanBroadway stagefrom 1902 to 1918,and concurrent tours throughout North America. These productions differed from past performances in that women were cast in the title role, rather than men. Film adaptations of the 1901 version of the play appeared in 1913 and 1914, with the 1913 film being made inKinemacolor,an early two color process.

Another well-known version of the play isJedermannby theAustrianplaywrightHugo von Hofmannsthal,which has been performed annually at theSalzburg Festivalsince 1920.The play was made intoa film of the same titlein 1961. A direct-to-video movie version ofEverymanwas made in 2002, directed by John Farrell, which updated the setting to the early 21st century.An adaptation byCarol Ann Duffy,theBritish Poet Laureate,was performed at theNational Theatre (UK)in 2015 withChiwetel Ejioforin the title role.

Miracle plays

Performances of Christ's Nativity are frequent during the Christmas season, and many schools andSunday schoolgroups regularly perform scenes from the bible with children. The reenactment of Jesus Christ's Passion is performed throughout the world inLent.

See also

• Wakefield Mystery Plays
• The Second Shepherds' Play
• History of theatre
• Medieval French literature
• Carnival
• The Vice

Sources

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• Bate, Keith, ed. 1976.Three Latin Comedies.Toronto: Centre for Medieval Studies.
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• Hannant, Sara. 2011.Mummers, Maypoles and Milkmaids: A Journey Through the English Ritual Year.London: Merrell.ISBN978-1-8589-4559-0.
• Klaus, Carl H., Miriam Gilbert, and Braford S. Field Jr. 1991. "Stages of Drama." New York: St. Martin's.
• Knight, Alan E. 1983. "Aspects of Genre in Late Medieval French Drama." Manchester University Press.
• McAlister, Linda. 1996. "Hypatia's Daughters: 1500 Years of Women Philosophers." Hypatia Inc.
• Nelson, Alan H. 1972. "Some Configurations of Staging in Medieval English Drama"Medieval English Drama: Essays Critical and ContextualChicago: University of Chicago Press. 116–147.
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• Wise, Jennifer and Craig S. Walker, eds. 2003.The Broadview Anthology of Drama: Plays from the Western Theatre, Volume 1.Toronto: Braodview Press.