Wikipedia

Micronesians

TheMicronesiansorMicronesian peoplesare various closely relatedethnic groupsnative toMicronesia,a region ofOceaniain thePacific Ocean.They are a part of theAustronesianethnolinguistic group, which has anUrheimatinTaiwan.[2]

Micronesians
Total population
450,000
Languages
Micronesian languages,Yapese,Chamorro,Palauan,English
Religion
Christianity(93.1%)[1]
Related ethnic groups
Polynesians,Melanesians,Euronesians,Austronesian peoples

Ethno-linguistic groups classified as Micronesian include theCarolinians(Northern Mariana Islands),Chamorros(Guam&Northern Mariana Islands),Chuukese,Mortlockese,Namonuito,Paafang,PuluwatandPollapese(Chuuk),I-Kiribati(Kiribati),Kosraeans(Kosrae),Marshallese(Marshall Islands),Nauruans(Nauru),Palauan,Sonsorolese,andHatohobei(Palau),Pohnpeians,Pingelapese,Ngatikese,Mwokilese(Pohnpei), andYapese,Ulithian,Woleian,Satawalese(Yap).[3][4]

Origins

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See also:Austronesian peoples
Chronological dispersal ofAustronesian peoplesacross theIndo-Pacific[5]

Based on the current scientific consensus, the Micronesians are considered, by linguistic, archaeological, and human genetic evidence, to be a subset of the sea-migratingAustronesian people,who include thePolynesiansand theMelanesians.Austronesians were the first people to invent oceangoing sailing technologies (notablydouble-hulled sailing canoes,outrigger boats,lashed-lugboat building,and thecrab claw sail), which enabled their rapid dispersal into the islands of theIndo-Pacific.[2][6][7]From 2000 BCE the Austronesians assimilated (or were assimilated by) the earlier populations on the islands in their migration pathway.[8][9][10][11][12]This intermingling occurred in the northern coast of New Guinea and adjacent islands, which was the location where the Oceanic language family developed around four thousand years or so ago, after the Austronesian languages of this area grew distinct and became a separate branch of the Austronesian family.[13]

A map of the Lapita-cultural area

Migrants entered Micronesia from the east and the west. Migrants from the west came from thePhilippinesandIndonesia,and settledthe Marianasaround 3500 years ago, after whichPalauwas settled around 3000 years ago.[13]Migrants from the east came from easternMelanesiaand settled theGilbert Islands,Marshall Islands,eastern and centralCaroline Islands,Sonsorol,Pulo Anna,MerirandTobi.[14][13]The migrants from the east belonged to theLapita cultureand settled eastern Micronesia over the course of several hundreds of years from perhaps theSanta Cruz Islands,around 500-100 BC. In the following centuries, the Oceanic language variant brought by the Lapita migrants diverged and became theMicronesian branchof the Oceanic languages.[13]John Lynchtentatively proposes a relationship between the Micronesian languages and theLoyalty Islands languagesof Melanesia, but with the caveat "that this is something that could well be further investigated, even if only to confirm that Micronesian languages didnotoriginate in the Loyalties. "[15]Yap was settled separately approximately 2000 years ago, as its language was brought by an Oceanic-speaking source in Melanesia,[16]perhaps theAdmiralty Islands.[13]

A 2022 genetic study has shown that the various peoples inhabiting Micronesia have diverse genetic origins and originate from distinct streams of migration. Micronesia was settled by three separate streams of First Remote Oceanian lineage, which corresponds to East Asian ancestry and clusters closely to modern day peoples of the Philippines such as theKankanaeyand theAmisandAtayalofTaiwan.[17]The first wave of First Remote Oceanian lineage settled the Mariana Islands around 2800 BCE. A second separate wave settled Palau around 2400 BCE. A third separate wave settled Central Micronesia around 2100 BCE. The peoples of Central Micronesia and Palau have a degree of Papuan ancestry, but this is absent from the peoples of the Mariana Islands. The study also supports the Admiralty Islands as the source of the Central Micronesian peoples and languages.[17]

List of ethnic groups

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The Micronesian peoples can be divided into two cultural groups, thehigh-islandersand thelow-islanders.The Palauans, Chamorros, Yapese, Chuukese, Pohnpeians, Kosraeans, Nauruans and Banabans belong to the high-islander group. The inhabitants of the low islands (atolls) are the Marshallese and the Kiribati, whose culture is distinct from the high-islanders.[18]Low-islanders had better navigation and canoe technology, as a means of survival. High-islanders had access to reliable and abundant resources and did not need to travel much outside of their islands. High islands also possessed larger populations.[14]

Archeological evidence has revealed that some of theBonin Islandswere prehistorically inhabited by members of an unknown Micronesian ethnicity.[19]

Banaban people

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Raobeia Ken Sigrah claims that Banabans, native toBanaba,are ethnically distinct from other I-Kiribati.[20]The Banabans were assimilated throughforced migrationsand the heavy impact of the discovery ofphosphate in 1900.[21]After 1945, the British authorities relocated most of the population toRabi Island,Fiji,with subsequent waves of emigration in 1977, and from 1981 to 1983. Some Banabans subsequently returned, following the end of mining in 1979; approximately 300 were living on the island in 2001. The population of Banaba in the 2010 census was 295.[22]There is an estimated 6,000 people of Banaban descent in Fiji and other countries.[23][24]

Banaban language

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The Banabans spoke theBanaban language,which has gone extinct due to a shift to the Gilbertese language, introduced by Christian missionaries that translated the Bible into Gilbertese and encouraged the Banabans to read it. Today, only a few words remain of the original Banaban language.[20]Today, the Banabans speak the Banaban dialect of Gilbertese, whichincludes words fromthe old Banaban language.[25]

Refaluwasch people

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Main article:Carolinian people
Carolinian/Refaluwasch people in 1915

The Refaluwasch people are aMicronesianethnic group who originated in Oceania, in theCaroline Islands,with a total population of over 8,500 people innorthern Mariana.They are also known asRemathauin the Yap's outer islands. TheCarolinianword means "People of the Deep Sea." It is thought that their ancestors may have originally immigrated fromAsia,Indonesia,Melanesiaand toMicronesiaaround 2,000 years ago. Their primary language isCarolinian,calledRefaluwaschby native speakers, which has a total of about 5,700 speakers. TheRefaluwaschhave amatriarchalsociety in which respect is a very important factor in their daily lives, especially toward thematriarchs.MostRefaluwaschare of theRoman Catholicfaith.

The immigration ofRefaluwaschtoSaipanbegan in the early 19th century, after theSpanishreduced the local population ofChamorronatives to just 3,700. They began toimmigratemostly sailing from smallcanoesfrom other islands, which atyphoonpreviously devastated. TheRefaluwaschhave a much darker complexion than the nativeChamorros.

Chamorro people

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Main article:Chamorro people
Chamorro people in 1915

TheChamorro peopleare theindigenous peoplesof theMariana Islands,which are politically divided between theUnited States territoryofGuamand the United StatesCommonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islandsin Micronesia. The Chamorro are commonly believed to have come fromSoutheast Asiaat around 2000BC.They are most closely related to otherAustronesiannatives to the west in thePhilippinesandTaiwan,as well as theCarolinesto the south.

TheChamorro languageis included in theMalayo-Polynesian subgroupof theAustronesianfamily. Because Guam was colonized by Spain for over 300 years, many words derive from theSpanish language.The traditional Chamorro number system was replaced by Spanish numbers.[26]

Chuukese people

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Main article:Chuukese people
Chuukese man on Moen (Weno), 1900s

TheChuukese peopleare anethnic groupofChuuk State.They constitute 48% of the population of theFederated States of Micronesia.Their language isChuukese.The home atoll ofChuukis also known by the former name "Truk".

In Chuukese culture, the men were expected to defend and protect their family. They were very protective of their clan, lineage identity and property. Backing down from a fight is not seen as manly.[27]

Kiribati people

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Kiribati woman performaing a dance known as “Te Buki”.
"Kiribati people" redirects here. For information on the population of Kiribati, seeDemographics of Kiribati.

The Kiribati people, also known asI-Kiribati,Tungaru,orGilbertese,are the indigenous people ofKiribati.They speak theGilbertese language.They numbered 103,000 as of 2008.[citation needed]

Kosraean people

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The Kosraeans or Kusaieans are the indigenous people ofKosrae.They speak theKosraean language.They number around 8,400 as of 2013.[citation needed]

Marshallese people

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Marshallese women in the 1880s wearing traditional jaki-ed woven mats and western-style dresses[28]
"Marshallese people" redirects here. For information on the population of the Marshall Islands, seeDemographics of the Marshall Islands.

The Marshallese people (Marshallese:kajoor ri-Ṃajeḷ,laḷ ri-Ṃajeḷ) are the indigenous inhabitants of theMarshall Islands.They numbered 70,000 as of 2013.[citation needed]Marshallese society was organized into three social classes; theirojiwas the chief or landowner that headed several clans, thealapmanaged the clan and therijerbal(worker) were commoners that worked the land. The three social classes treated each other well and with mutual respect.[27][need quotation to verify]

Nauruan people

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Main article:Nauruans

TheNauruansare anethnicityinhabiting thePacificislandofNauru.They are most likely a blend ofother Pacific peoples.[29]

The origin of the Nauruan people has not yet been finally determined. It can possibly be explained by the last Malayo-Pacifichuman migration(c. 1200). It was probably seafaring or shipwreckedPolynesiansorMelanesiansthat established themselves in Nauru because there was not already anindigenous peoplepresent, whereas the Micronesians were already crossed with the Melanesians in this area.

Palauan people

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"Palauans" redirects here. For information on the population of Palau, seeDemographics of Palau.

The Palauans or Belauans (Palauan:Belau,ngukokl a Belau) — are the indigenous people ofPalau.They numbered around 26,600 as of 2013.[citation needed]Palauans are not noted for being great long-distance voyagers and navigators when compared to other Micronesian peoples. The taro is the center of their farming practices, although breadfruit has a symbolic importance.[13]

Pohnpeian people

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The Pohnpeians or Ponapeans are the indigenous people ofPohnpei.They number around 28,000. They speak thePohnpeian language.

Pohnpeian historic society was highly structured into five tribes, various clans and sub-clans; each tribe headed by two principal chiefs. The tribes were organized on a feudal basis. In theory, "all land belonged to the chiefs, who received regular tribute and whose rule was absolute." Punishments administered by chiefs included death and banishment. Tribal wars included looting, destruction of houses and canoes and killing of prisoners.[30]

Sonsorolese people

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The Sonsorolese are Micronesian people, that inhabit the islands ofPulo Anna,MerirandSonsorolin the island nation ofPalau.A small proportion live in both theNorthern Mariana Islandsand theFederated States of Micronesia.The Sonsorolese are linguistically related to the Tobians. Most Sonsorolese live in the village ofEchangnearKoror,where they moved for economic reasons.[31]

The Sonsorolese are both linguistically and culturally most closely related to Carolinians. Ethnographic information about them was left byJose Somera,a member of theDon Francisco Padillaexpedition who discovered the islands in 1710. According to him, their clothing consisted of an apron, cloak and conical hat, and was similar to that described by Paul Klein in 1696 among the Carolinians.[32]

Tobian people

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Tobianis aMicronesian languagespoken in theHatohobei(Tobi) andKoror statesinPalauby about 150 people. In particular it is spoken on the island of Tobi (Torovei) in Hatohobei State, and also on Koro Island in Koror State.

Tobian is also known asHatohobeior Tobi. It is closely related toSonsorolese.

The Tobians share a cultural heritage that shows close ties with peoples of the centralCaroline Islands,more than 1000 km to the northeast and on the other side of Palau.[33]

Yapese people

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TheYapese peopleare a Micronesian ethnic group that number around 15,000. They are native to the main island ofYapand speak theYapese language.

Languages

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Languages of Micronesia.

Fifteen distinct languages are spoken by the Micronesians.[27]The largest group of languages spoken by the Micronesians are theMicronesian languages.They belong to the family ofOceanic languages,part of theAustronesian languagegroup. They descended from theProto-Oceaniclanguage, which in turn descended viaProto-Malayo-PolynesianfromProto-Austronesian.The languages in the Micronesian family areMarshallese,Gilbertese,Kosraean,Nauruan,as well as a large sub-family called theChuukic–Pohnpeic languagescontaining 11 languages. TheYapese languageis a separate branch of the Oceanic languages, outside of the Micronesian branch.[14]

TwoMalayo-Polynesian languagesare spoken that do not belong to theOceanic languages:Chamorroin theMariana IslandsandPalauaninPalau.[14]

Micronesian navigation

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Micronesian navigational chart,these were used by Micronesians to navigate through wind and water currents.
Main article:Micronesian navigation

Micronesian navigation techniques are those navigation skills used for thousands of years by the navigators who voyaged between the islands ofMicronesiain theopenPacific Ocean.These voyagers used wayfinding techniques such as the navigation by the stars, and observations of birds, ocean swells, and wind patterns, and relied on a large body of knowledge from oral tradition.[34][35][36]Weriyeng[37]is one of the last two schools of traditionalnavigationfound in the centralCaroline Islandsin Micronesia, the other beingFanur.[38]

Culture

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Badrulchau stone monoliths
A building of Nan Madol

Micronesian culture is very diverse across island atolls[39]and influenced by the surrounding cultures. In the east one finds a morePolynesian culturewithsocial classes(nobility, commoners and slaves) and in the west a more Melanesian-Indonesian influenced culture led bytribal chiefswithout nobility, withthe Marianasbeing an exception.[citation needed]Nonetheless, the Micronesians form a cultural region, as they have much more in common with each other in cultural practices and social organization than with other neighboring societies in the Philippines, Indonesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia.[13][specify]

The Micronesian cultures evolved from a common foundation and share a common dominator in the relationship and dependence they have with their ancestral lands. The ancestral land influenced the social organization, family structures, the economy, shared food and common work. The Micronesian family is formed from four equally important components, the household, the nuclear family, the extended family, and a lineage. The family and the community would cooperate with fishing, farming, raising children and passing knowledge to the next generations. Individuals and families would conform their behavior to cooperate with the community.[27]

Authority was based on age, and Micronesians were taught to respect and hold their elders in high regard, which they would express by being silent in the presence of their elders. The elders would mediate and resolve conflicts.[27]

Music and dance

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Most Micronesian peoples lacked musical instruments, and thus produced music only by song and chants. Important men would have songs composed about their abilities or deeds, by wives or partners. These songs could live on even after death and give the men a heroic status.[14]

Religion

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The traditional religions of Micronesia were extremely heterogeneous. However, very little is known about most of them, as the islands were evangelized very early (from the 16th to 18th centuries) so that the indigenous religions could only survive on a few islands. However, some important manifestations of religious practice and thought can be identified for the entire Micronesian cultural space:[40]

  • Similarcreation myths(origin of people from mythical ancestors - mostly ancestral mothers)
  • Culture heroes(mythical seafarers as bearers of important cultural goods)
  • Mythicalworldviews(land and sea areas in different "layers" and cardinal points)
  • Dualistic concepts (every material thing and every living being has a spiritual double)
  • Free souls, which can leave the body in a dream
  • Mana(transcendent power that can be transferred to people, but also to natural phenomena, through performance and deeds, among other things)
  • Religiously motivated art styles (carvings on traditional meeting houses and religious facilities)

The traditional Micronesian religions emphasizedancestor worshipand embraced spirits and ghosts. After death, one's spirit would either pass on to an afterworld or stay on the island to either help or harm the living. A natural death would produce a benevolent ghost while an unnatural death would produce a malovent ghost. Other spirits were associated with places, natural objects, special crafts and activities. Various professions would make chants and offerings to their patron spirits, which they believed would control the outcome of their efforts. Micronesians believed that all sickness was caused by spirits. Shamans, mediums, diviners and sorcerers could be consulted to deal with the spirit world. Taboos would often be placed on food and sexual activities before a person would engage in an important pursuit. Violating this taboo would cause a spirit to send sickness or death to the offender or even the entire community.[14]

Mythology

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Micronesian mythologycomprises the traditional belief systems of the Micronesians. There is no single belief system in the islands of Micronesia, as each island region has its ownmythological beings.

Traditional beliefs declined and changed with the arrival of Europeans, which occurred increasingly after the 1520s. In addition, the contact with European cultures led to changes in local myths and legends.[citation needed]

Further reading

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  • Flores, Evelyn; Kihleng, Emelihter (2019-04-30).Indigenous Literatures from Micronesia.Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-8248-7746-0.

See also

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References

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  1. ^Center for the Study of Global Christianity (June 2013),Christianity in its Global Context, 1970–2020: Society, Religion, and Mission(PDF),South Hamilton, Massachusetts, USA:Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary,archived fromthe original(PDF)on 15 August 2013
  2. ^abDoran, Edwin B. (1981).Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins.Texas A&M University Press.ISBN9780890961070.
  3. ^Mason, Leonard (November 1989). "A Marshallese nation emerges from the political fragmentation of American Micronesia".Pacific Studies.13(1). The Brigham Young University – Hawaii, the Pacific Institute:1–46.CiteSeerX10.1.1.455.1089.
  4. ^"Hawaii Health Data Warehouse Race-Ethnicity Documentation"(PDF).August 2011.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  5. ^Chambers, Geoff (15 January 2013). "Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians".eLS.John Wiley & Sons, Inc.doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2.ISBN978-0470016176.
  6. ^Dierking, Gary (2007).Building Outrigger Sailing Canoes: Modern Construction Methods for Three Fast, Beautiful Boats.International Marine/McGraw-Hill.ISBN9780071594561.
  7. ^Horridge, Adrian (1986). "The Evolution of Pacific Canoe Rigs".The Journal of Pacific History.21(2):83–89.doi:10.1080/00223348608572530.JSTOR25168892.
  8. ^Bellwood, Peter (1988)."A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins"(PDF).Asian Perspectives.26(1):107–117.Archived(PDF)from the original on 1 May 2019.Retrieved1 May2019.
  9. ^Bellwood, Peter (1991). "The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages".Scientific American.265(1):88–93.Bibcode:1991SciAm.265a..88B.doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0791-88.JSTOR24936983.
  10. ^Hill, Adrian V.S.; Serjeantson, Susan W., eds. (1989).The Colonization of the Pacific: A Genetic Trail.Research Monographs on Human Population Biology No. 7. Oxford University Press.ISBN9780198576952.
  11. ^Bellwood P, Fox JJ, Tryon D (2006).The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives.Australian National University Press.ISBN9781920942854.Archivedfrom the original on 2 April 2020.Retrieved23 March2019.
  12. ^Blench, Roger (2012)."Almost Everything You Believed about the Austronesians Isn't True"(PDF).In Tjoa-Bonatz, Mai Lin; Reinecke, Andreas; Bonatz, Dominik (eds.).Crossing Borders.National University of Singapore Press. pp.128–148.ISBN9789971696429.Archived(PDF)from the original on 30 December 2019.Retrieved23 March2019.
  13. ^abcdefgPetersen, Glenn (2009).Traditional Micronesian Societies Adaptation, Integration, and Political Organization in the Central Pacific.
  14. ^abcdefAlkire, William H (1977).An introduction to the peoples and cultures of Micronesia.
  15. ^Lynch, John(2003). "The Bilabials in Proto Loyalties". In Lynch, John (ed.).Issues in Austronesian Historical Phonology.Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 153-173 (171).doi:10.15144/PL-550.153.
  16. ^Carson, Mike T. (2013). "Austronesian Migrations and Developments in Micronesia".{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  17. ^abLiu, Yue-Chen (1 July 2022)."Ancient DNA reveals five streams of migration into Micronesia and matrilocality in early Pacific seafarers"(PDF).Retrieved25 May2024.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  18. ^"High-island and low-island cultures".Retrieved14 November2021.
  19. ^"Tiểu nón nguyên chư đảo の lịch sử".iwojima.jp.
  20. ^abSigrah, Raobeia Ken, and Stacey M. King (2001).Te rii ni Banaba..Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.ISBN982-02-0322-8.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^"Banaba: The island Australia ate".Radio National.30 May 2019.Retrieved6 June2019.
  22. ^"19. Banaba"(PDF).Office of Te Beretitenti – Republic of Kiribati Island Report Series.2012.Retrieved28 April2015.
  23. ^Teaiwa, Katerina Martina (2014).Consuming Ocean Island: Stories of People and Phosphate from Banaba.Bloomington: Indiana University Press.ISBN9780253014528.
  24. ^Prestt, Kate (2017)."Australia's shameful chapter".49(1) ANUReporter.Retrieved19 September2021.
  25. ^Kiribati
  26. ^Rodríguez-Ponga Salamanca, Rafael (2009).Del español al chamorro: Lenguas en contacto en el Pacífico[From Spanish to Chamorro: languages in contact in the Pacific] (in Spanish). Madrid: Ediciones Gondo.ISBN978-84-933774-4-1.OCLC436267171.
  27. ^abcdePalafox, Neal; Riklon, Sheldon; Esah, Sekap; Rehuher, Davis; Swain, William; Stege, Kristina; Naholowaa, Dale; Hixon, Allen; Ruben, Kino (1980). "People and Cultures of Hawaii". University of Hawaii Press. 15. The Micronesians.doi:10.1515/9780824860264-018.S2CID239441571.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  28. ^Mückler 2016,p. 214; 240
  29. ^Bay-Hansen, C.D. (2006).FutureFish 2001: FutureFish in Century 21: The North Pacific Fisheries Tackle Asian Markets, the Can-Am Salmon Treaty, and Micronesian Seas.Trafford Publishing.p. 277.ISBN1-55369-293-4.
  30. ^Riesenberg, Saul H (1968).The Native Polity of Ponape.Contributions to Anthropology. Vol. 10. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 38, 51.ISBN9780598442437.Retrieved1 January2012.
  31. ^"Sonsorolese language".Archived fromthe originalon 14 March 2007.Retrieved14 November2021.
  32. ^"Early European Contact with the Western Carolines".micsem.org.
  33. ^Snyder, David.; Adams, William Hampton; Butler, Brian M. (1997).Archaeology and historic preservation in Palau.Anthropology research series / Division of Cultural Affairs, Republic of Palau 2. San Francisco: U.S. National Park Service.
  34. ^Holmes, Lowell Don (1 June 1955)."Island Migrations (1): The Polynesian Navigators Followed a Unique Plan".XXV(11) Pacific Islands Monthly.Retrieved1 October2021.
  35. ^Holmes, Lowell Don (1 August 1955)."Island Migrations (2): Birds and Sea Currents Aided Canoe Navigators".XXVI(1) Pacific Islands Monthly.Retrieved1 October2021.
  36. ^Holmes, Lowell Don (1 September 1955)."Island Migrations (3): Navigation was an Exact Science for Leaders".XXVI(2) Pacific Islands Monthly.Retrieved1 October2021.
  37. ^Gladwin, Thomas (1970).East Is a Big Bird.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp.200.ISBN0-674-22425-6.
  38. ^Woodward, David (1998).History of Cartography.University of Chicago Press. p. 470.ISBN0-226-90728-7.Retrieved2010-08-04.
  39. ^Kirch, Patrick Vinton (2017).On the Road of the Winds: An Archeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact(2nd Rev. ed.). Oakland: University of California Press. pp.42–45.ISBN978-0520292819.
  40. ^Erckenbrecht, Corinna (2002). "Traditionelle Religionen".Harenberg Lexikon der Religionen.Harenberg, Dortmund. pp.942–943.ISBN361101060-X.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
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