Wikipedia

Misandry

Misandry(/mɪsˈændri/) is the hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice againstmenorboys.[1][2]

Men's rights activists(MRAs) and othermasculinistgroups have characterized modern laws concerningdivorce,domestic violence,conscription,circumcision(known asmale genital mutilationby opponents), and treatment ofmale rape victimsas examples of institutional misandry. However, in virtually all societies, misandry lacks institutional and systemic support comparable tomisogyny,the hatred of women.[3][4][5]

In theInternet Age,users posting onmanosphereinternet forums such as4chanandsubredditsaddressing men's rights activism have claimed that misandry is widespread, established in preferential treatment of women, and shown bydiscrimination against men.[4][6]

Many scholars criticize MRAs for promoting afalse equivalencebetween misandry and misogyny,[7]: 132 [8][9]arguing that modern activism around misandry represents anantifeministbacklash, promoted by marginalized[citation needed]men.[8][10][11][12][13]The false idea that misandry is commonplace amongfeministsis so widespread that it has been called the "misandry myth" by 40 topic experts.[14]

Etymology

Misandry is formed from the Greekmisos(μῖσος'hatred') andanēr,andros(ἀνήρ,gen.ἀνδρός'man').[15]"Misandrous" or "misandrist" can be used as adjectival forms of the word.[16]Use of the word can be found as far back as the 19th century, including an 1871 use inThe Spectatormagazine.[17]It appeared inMerriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary(11th ed.) in 1952. Translation of the Frenchmisandrieto the GermanMännerhass(Hatred of Men)[18]is recorded in 1803.[19]

A term with a similar but distinct meaning isandrophobia,which describes a fear, but not necessarily hatred, of men.[20][better source needed]Anthropologist David D. Gilmore coined the term "viriphobia" in line with his view that misandry typically targetsmachismo,"the obnoxious manlypose",along with the oppressive male roles of patriarchy. Gilmore says that misandry is not the hatred of men as men; this kind of loathing is present only inmisogyny,which is the hatred of women as women.[3]

History

The termmisandryoriginated in the late 19th century. According to information policy scholarsAlice Marwickand Robyn Caplan, the term was used as a synonym forfeminismfrom its inception, drawing an equivalence between misandry ('man-hating') and misogyny ('woman-hating').[12][21]Newspapers in the 1890s occasionally referred to feminist "new women"as" man haters ", and a 1928 article inHarper's Monthlysaid that misandry "distorts the more querulous of [modern] feminist arguments."[22]The term re-emerged inmen's rightsliterature and academic literature on structural sexism in the 1980s. It was in use onUsenetsince at least 1989, and on websites andblogsdedicated to men's rights issues in the late 1990s and early 2000s.[23]Marwick and Caplan argue that usage of the termmisandryin theinternet ageis an outgrowth of misogyny andantifeminism.[8][further explanation needed]The term is commonly used in themanosphere,such as on men's rights discussion forums on websites such as4chanandReddit,to counter feminist accusations of misogyny.[9][6][24]The critique and parody of the concept of misandry by feminist bloggers has been reported on in periodicals such asThe Guardian,SlateandTime.[25]

Overview

Men's rights activists(MRAs) invoke the idea of misandry in warning against what they see as the advance of a female-dominated society.[26]The idea of feminism as threatening towards men, encapsulated in the termmisandry,forms a core part of the vocabulary of themanosphere[27]and is used within the men's rights movement (MRM) to counter feminist accusations of misogyny.[24]The idea of feminism as a misandrist movement has provided justification for harassment of people espousing feminist ideas, one example being theGamergateharassment campaign against women in the video games industry.[28] MRAs and othermasculinistgroups have criticized modern laws concerningdivorce,domestic violence,the draft, circumcision (known asgenital mutilationby opponents), and treatment ofmale rape victimsas examples of institutional misandry.[4]Other proposed examples include social problems that lead to men'sshorter lifespans,highersuiciderates, requirements to participate inmilitary drafts,and lack of tax benefits afforded to widowers compared to widows.[4][29]

Marc A. Ouellette argues inInternational Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinitiesthat "misandry lacks the systemic, transhistoric, institutionalized, and legislated antipathy of misogyny"; in his view, assuming a parallel between misogyny and misandry overly simplifies relations of gender and power.[4] Anthropologist David Gilmore argues that misogyny is a "near-universal phenomenon" and that there is no male equivalent.[3]He states that misandry is "different from the intenselyad feminamaspect of misogyny that targets women no matter what they believe or do ".[3] Marwick and Caplan have examined the use of the termmisandrywithin the manosphere as a weapon against feminist language and ideas.[12]They characterize men's rights activists' use of the term—as a gender-reversed counterpart tomisogyny—as an appropriation of leftistidentity politics.[30]Marwick and Caplan also argue that coverage of the discourse of misandry by mainstream journalists serves to reinforce the MRM's framing of feminist activism as oppressive toward men, along with its denial of institutionalized sexism against women.[31]

Racialization

Further information:Gendered racism

Misandry can beracialized.[4]According to some researchers inBlack male studiessuch asTommy J. Curry,Black men and boys face anti-Black misandry.[32][33][34][35]E. C. Krell, a gender researcher, uses the term racializedtransmisandrydescribing the experience of Black transmasculine people.[36][37]

Psychological studies

Glick and Fiske developedpsychometric constructsto measure the attitudes of individuals towards men in theirAmbivalence toward Men Inventory, AMI,which includes a factorHostility toward Men.These metrics were based on a small group discussion with women which identified factors, these number of questions were then reduced using statistical methods.Hostility toward Menwas split into three factors:Resentment of Paternalism,the belief men supported male power;Compensatory Gender Differentiation,the belief that men were supported by women; andHeterosexual Hostility,which looked at beliefs that men were likely to engage in hostile actions.[38]The combined construct, Hostility toward Men, was found to be inversely correlated with measures of gender equality when comparing difference countries[39]and in a study with university students, self-describing feminists were found to have a lower score.[40]

Criminal justice system

In the United States, men tend to receive longer sentences than women for committing the same crimes, although the disparity is more pronounced for minor offenses, and is also dependent on the race of the perpetrator.[41]Criminologist Nathan A. Kruis ofPennsylvania State Universityand colleagues write that a body of research suggests the presence of "potential institutional misandry" in the U.S. criminal justice system.[41]

In literature

Ancient Greek literature

ClassicistFroma Zeitlinwrites:

The most significant point of contact, however, betweenEteoclesand the suppliantDanaidsis, in fact, their extreme positions with regard to the opposite sex: the misogyny of Eteocles' outburst against all women of whatever variety has its counterpart in the seeming misandry of the Danaids, who although opposed totheir Egyptian cousinsin particular (marriage with them is incestuous, they are violent men) often extend their objections to include the race of males as a whole and view their cause as a passionate contest between the sexes.[42]

Shakespeare

Literary criticHarold Bloomargued that even though the word misandry is relatively unheard of in literature, it is not hard to find implicit, even explicit, misandry. In reference to the works ofShakespeare,Bloom argued:[43]

I cannot think of one instance of misogyny whereas I would argue that misandry is a strong element. Shakespeare makes perfectly clear that women in general have to marry down and that men are narcissistic and not to be trusted and so forth. On the whole, he gives us a darker vision of human males than human females.

Modern literature

Sociologist Anthony Synnott argues that there is a tendency in literature to represent men as villains and women as victims and argues that there is a market for "anti-male" novels with no corresponding "anti-female" market, citingThe Women's Room,byMarilyn French,andThe Color Purple,byAlice Walker.He gives examples of comparisons of men to Nazi prison guards as a common theme in literature.[44]: 156 

Racialized misandry occurs in both "high" and "low" culture and literature. For instance,African-Americanmen have often been disparagingly portrayed as either infantile or as eroticized and hyper-masculine, depending on prevailing cultural stereotypes.[4]

Julie M. Thompson, afeministauthor, connects misandry with envy of men, in particular "penis envy",a term coined bySigmund Freudin 1908, in his theory of female sexual development.[45]Nancy Kang has discussed "the misandric impulse" in relation to the works ofToni Morrison.[46]

In his book,Gender and Judaism: The Transformation of Tradition,Harry Brod,a Professor of Philosophy and Humanities in the Department of Philosophy and Religion at theUniversity of Northern Iowa,writes:[47]

In the introduction toThe Great Comic Book Heroes,Jules Feiffer writes that this is Superman's joke on the rest of us. Clark is Superman's vision of what other men are really like. We are scared, incompetent, and powerless, particularly around women. Though Feiffer took the joke good-naturedly, a more cynical response would see here the Kryptonian's misanthropy, his misandry embodied in Clark and his misogyny in his wish that Lois be enamored of Clark (much like Oberon takes out hostility toward Titania by having her fall in love with an ass in Shakespeare'sMidsummer-Night's Dream).

In 2020, the explicitly misandric essayMoi les hommes, je les déteste(I Hate Men) by the French writerPauline Harmangecaused controversy in France after a government official threatened its publisher with criminal prosecution.[48]

In feminism

Entrepreneurs onEtsysold embroidery parodying the concept of misandry.[49]

Opponents of feminismoften argue that feminism is misandrist; citing examples such as opposition to shared parenting by NOW, or opposition to equal rape and domestic violence laws. The validity of these perceptions and of the concept has been claimed[by whom?]as promoting afalse equivalencebetween misandry and misogyny.[7]Radical feminismhas often been associated with misandry in the public consciousness. However, radical feminist arguments have also been misinterpreted, and individual radical feminists such asValerie Solanas,best known for herattempted assassinationof artistAndy Warholin 1968, have historically had a higher profile in popular culture than within feminist scholarship.[50][51][failed verification]

HistorianAlice Echolsargues that the misandry displayed by Solanas in her tract theSCUM Manifestowas not typical for radical feminists of the time: "Solanas's unabashed misandry—especially her belief in men's biological inferiority—her endorsement of relationships between 'independent women,' and her dismissal of sex as 'the refuge of the mindless' contravened the sort of radical feminism which prevailed in most women's groups across the country."[52] Radical feministAndrea Dworkincriticized what she called abiological deterministstrand that she found "with increasing frequency in feminist circles"; according to Dworkin, this included the view that males are biologically inferior to women and violent by nature, requiring agendercideto allow for the emergence of a "newÜbermenschWomon ".[53][non-primary source needed]

Melinda Kanner and Kristin J. Anderson argue that "man-hater feminist" represents the popular antifeminist myth which has no any scientific evidences, and it's rather the antifeminists who perhaps hate men.[54][further explanation needed]

The feminist authorbell hookswrites that the contemporaryfeminist movementwas from its beginnings portrayed in the mass media as man-hating, even though anti-male factions were a small minority ofwomen's liberationadvocates.[55][56]Hooks argues thatliberal feminists' demonization of men as all-powerful misogynist oppressors was a product ofbourgeoiswhite women's envy of the privileges held by upper-class white men, and that such anti-male sentiments "alienated many poor and working class women, particularly non-white women" from the movement.[57]She writes that anti-male factions received outsized attention from the mass media, leading themen's movementto take an anti-female stance which "mirrored the most negative aspects" of the women's movement.[56]

Sociologist Anthony Synnott argues that certain forms offeminismpresent misandristic view of gender. He argues that men are presented as having power over others regardless of the actual power they possess[44]: 161 and that some feminists define the experience of being male inaccurately through writing onmasculinity.He further argues that some forms of feminism create anin-groupof women, simplifies the nuances of gender issues, demonizes those who are not feminists and legimitizes victimization by way of retributive justice.[44]: 162  Reviewing Synnott, Roman Kuhar argues that Synnott might not accurately represent the views of feminism, commenting that "whether it re-thinks men in a manner in which men have not been thought of in feminist theory, is another question."[58]

SociologistAllan G. Johnsonargues inThe Gender Knot: Unraveling our Patriarchal Legacythat accusations of man-hating have been used to put down feminists and to shift attention onto men, reinforcing a male-centered culture.[59]Johnson posits that culture offers no comparable anti-male ideology to misogyny and that "people often confuse men as individuals with men as a dominant and privileged category of people. Given the reality of women's oppression, male privilege, and men's enforcement of both, it's hardly surprising thateverywoman should have moments where she resents or even hates 'men.'"[59][emphasis in original]

Ameta-analysisin 2023 published in the journalPsychology of Women Quarterlyinvestigated the stereotype of feminists' attitudes to men and concluded that feminist views of men were no different than that of non-feminists or men towards men, and titled the phenomenon themisandry myth:"We term the focal stereotype the misandry myth in light of the evidence that it is false and widespread, and discuss its implications for the movement."[14]

See also

References

  1. ^"Misandry"Archived19 February 2020 at theWayback Machineat Oxford English Dictionary Online (ODO), Third Edition, June 2002. Accessed through library subscription on 25 July 2014. Earliest recorded use: 1885.Blackwood's Edinb. Mag,Sept. 289/1 No man whom she cared for had ever proposed to marry her. She could not account for it, and it was a growing source of bitterness, of misogyny as well as misandry.
  2. ^"Misandry"Archived19 July 2013 at theWayback MachineatMerriam-Webster online( "First Known Use: circa 1909" )
  3. ^abcdGilmore, David G. (2001).Misogyny: The Male Malady.University of Pennsylvania Press. pp.10–13.ISBN978-0-8122-0032-4.
  4. ^abcdefgOuellette, Marc (2007). "Misandry". InFlood, Michael;et al. (eds.).International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities.Routledge. pp.442–443.ISBN978-1-1343-1707-3.
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  6. ^abRiggio, Heidi R. (2020). "Online Sexism and Anti-Feminism Movements".Sex and Gender: A Biopsychological Approach.Routledge.ISBN978-1-000-06630-2.
  7. ^abKimmel, Michael S. (5 November 2013).Angry white men: American masculinity at the end of an era.New York.ISBN978-1-56858-696-0.OCLC852681950.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  8. ^abcMarwick, Alice E.; Caplan, Robyn (2018). "Drinking male tears: language, the manosphere, and networked harassment".Feminist Media Studies.18(4) (Online Misogyny ed.):553–554.doi:10.1080/14680777.2018.1450568.ISSN1471-5902.S2CID149246142.
  9. ^abGing, Debbie; Siapera, Eugenia (July 2018)."Special issue on online misogyny: Introduction"(PDF).Feminist Media Studies.18:515–524.doi:10.1080/14680777.2018.1447345.ISSN1471-5902.S2CID149613969.Retrieved21 January2023– via Dublin City University.
  10. ^Barker, Kim; Jurasz, Olga (2018).Online Misogyny as Hate Crime: A Challenge for Legal Regulation?.Routledge. p. 4.ISBN978-1-138-59037-3.
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  18. ^"Männerhaß".Pons Dictionary German to English.Stuttgart: PONS-Verlag. Archived fromthe originalon 6 May 2015.
  19. ^Krünitz, Johann Georg (1803). "Männerhass".Oekonomische Encyklopädie oder allgemeines System der Staats-, Stadt-, Haus- u. Landwirthschaft: in Alpha betischer Ordnung. Von Lebens-Art bis Ledecz: Nebst einer einzigen Fig. Friedrich's des Einzigen, u. 3 Karten(in German). Vol. 90. Pauli. p. 461.
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  22. ^Marwick & Caplan (2018),pp. 548–549.
  23. ^Marwick & Caplan (2018),pp. 549, 551.
  24. ^abHodapp, Christa (2017).Men's Rights, Gender, and Social Media.Rowman & Littlefield. pp.4–5.ISBN978-1-4985-2617-3.
  25. ^Marwick & Caplan (2018),p. 553.
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