Music of ancient Greece

Music was almost universally present inancient Greeksociety, from marriages, funerals, andreligious ceremoniestotheatre,folk music, and the ballad-like reciting of epic poetry. This played an integral role in the lives of ancientGreeks.There are some fragments of actual Greekmusical notation,many literary references,depictionsonceramicsand relevantarchaeologicalremains, such that some things can be known—or reasonably surmised—about what the music sounded like, the general role of music in society, the economics of music, the importance of a professional caste of musicians, etc.

Ancient Greek warrior playing thesalpinx,late 6th–early 5th century BC,Attic black-figure(lekythos)

The wordmusiccomes from theMuses,the daughters ofZeusand patron goddesses of creative and intellectual endeavours.

Concerning the origin of music and musical instruments: the history of music in ancient Greece is so closely interwoven with Greek mythology and legend that it is often difficult to surmise what is historically true and what is myth. The music and music theory of ancient Greece laid the foundation for western music and western music theory, as it would go on to influence the ancient Romans, the early Christian church and the medieval composers.Our understanding of ancient Greek music theory, musical systems, and musical ethos comes almost entirely from the surviving teachings of thePythagoreans,Plato,Aristoxenus,Philodemus,Ptolemy,andAristides.

Some ancient Greek philosophers discussed the study of music in ancient Greece.Pythagorasin particular believed that music was subject to the same mathematical laws of harmony as the mechanics of the cosmos, evolving into an idea known as themusic of the spheres.The Pythagoreans focused on the mathematics and the acoustical science of sound and music. They developed tuning systems and harmonic principles that focused on simple integers and ratios, laying a foundation for acoustic science; however, this was not the only school of thought in ancient Greece.Aristoxenus, who wrote a number of musicological treatises, for example, studied music with a more empirical tendency. Aristoxenus believed that intervals should be judged by ear instead of mathematical ratios,though Aristoxenus was influenced by Pythagoras and used mathematics terminology and measurements in his research.

Music in society and religion

Musical scene with three women painted by theNiobid painter.Side A of a red-figureamphora,Walters Art Museum

Music played an integral role in ancient Greek society. Pericles' teacher Damon said, according to Plato in theRepublic,"when fundamental modes of music change, the fundamental modes of the state change with them." Music andgymnasticscomprised the main divisions in one's schooling. "The word 'music' expressed the entire education".

Instrumental music served a religious and entertaining role in ancient Greece as it would often accompany religious events, rituals, and festivals. Music was also used for entertainment when it accompanied drinking-parties orsymposia.A popular type of piece to be played while drinking at these drinking parties was theskolion,a piece composed to be heard while drinking.Before and after the Greek drinking parties, religiouslibations,or the religious the act of partaking and pouring out drink, would be made to deities, usually theOlympic gods,the heroes, andZeus.The offering of libations were often accompanied by a special libation melody called thespondeion,which was often accompanied by anaulosplayer.

Music occupied an important role in the Greek sacrificial ceremonies. The sarcophagus of Hagia Triada shows that the aulos was present during sacrifices as early as 1300 BC.Music was also present during times of initiation, worship, and religious celebration, playing very integral parts of the sacrificial cults ofApolloandDionysus.

Music (along with intoxication of potions, fasting, and honey) was also integral in preparing for and catalyzing divination, as music would often induce prophets into religious ecstasy and revelation, so much so that the expression for "making music" and "prophesying" were identical in ancient Greek.

Instruments were also present in war time, though it may not have been considered music entirely. Specific notes of the trumpet were played to dictate commands to soldiers on the battlefield. The aulos and percussion instruments also accompanied the verbal commands given to oarsmen by the boatswain. The instruments were used mainly to help keep the oarsmen in time with one another.

Popular song types

• Hymn

Ahymnis a metric composition whose text addresses a god, either directly or indirectly. They are the earliest formal type in Greek music, and survive in relatively large numbers.

• Paean

Paeanswere most commonly sung in honor or worship ofApolloas well asAthena.They usually solemnly expressed the hope for deliverance from a peril, or were sung in thanksgiving after a victory or escape.

• Prosodion

A type of hymn or processional that invoked or praised a god.Prosodionswere usually sung on the road to an altar or shrine, before or after a paean.

• Hyporchema

Hyporchemawas a dance-song with a marked rhythmic movement, commonly associated with the paean, and often difficult to distinguish from it. For example, theFirst Delphic Hymnis titled "Paean or Hyporchema".

• Dithyrambs

Usually merrily sung in celebration at festivals, performed especially in dedication toDionysus,the god of wine.Dithyrambsfeatured choirs (choros) of men and boys who were accompanied by anaulosplayer.

Poetry and drama

Whether or not long narrative poetry, or epic poetry like those ofHomer,was sung is not entirely known. As in Plato's dialogueIon,Socratesuses both the words "sing" and "speak" in connection with the Homeric epics,however there are heavy implications that they have been at least recited unaccompanied by instruments, in a sing-song chant.

Music was also present in ancient Greeklyric poetry,which by definition is poetry or a song accompanied by alyre.Lyric poetry eventually branched into two paths, monodic lyric which were performed by a singular person, and choral lyric which were sung and sometimes danced by a group of peoplechoros.Famous lyric poets include Alkaios andSapphofrom the Island ofLesbos,Sappho being one of the few women whose poetry has been preserved.

Music was also heavily prevalent in ancient Greek Drama. In hisPoetics,Aristotlelinks the origins oftragic dramato dithyrambs.The leaders of dithyrambs were the ones who led the song and dance moves, which would then be responded to by the group. Aristotle implies that this relationship between a single person and a group began the tragic drama, which in its earliest stages had a single actor who played all the parts through either song or speech. The single actor engaged in dialogue with thechoros.Thechorosnarrated most of the story through song and dance. In ancient Greece, the playwright was expected to not only write the script but also expected to compose the music and dance moves.

Mythology

A 17th-century representation of the Greek musesClio,Thalia,andEuterpeplaying a transverse flute, presumably the Greekphotinx.

The ancient Greek myths were never codified or documented into one form; what exists are several different versions from several different authors, across multiple centuries, which can lead to variations and even contradictions among authors and even the same author. According toGreek mythology,music, instruments, and the aural arts are attributed to divine origin, and the art of music was gift of the gods to men.

AlthoughApollowas prominently considered the god of music and harmony, several legendary gods and demigods were purported to have created some aspect of music as well as contributed to its development. Some gods, and especially theMuses,represented specific aspects or elements of music. The 'inventions' or 'findings' of all ancient Greek instruments were accredited to the gods as well. The performance of music was integrated into many different modes of Greek story-telling and art related to mythology, including drama, and poetry, and there are a large number of ancient Greek myths related to music and musicians.

In Greek mythology:Amphionlearned music fromHermesand then with a golden lyre built Thebes by moving the stones into place with the sound of his playing;Orpheus,the master-musician and lyre-player, played so magically that he could soothe wild beasts; the Orphiccreation mythshaveRhea"playing on a brazen drum, and compelling man's attention to the oracles of the goddess";or Hermes [showing to Apollo] "... his newly-invented tortoise-shell lyre and [playing] such a ravishing tune on it with theplectrumhe had also invented, at the same time singing to praise Apollo's nobilitythat he was forgiven at once... "; or Apollo's musical victories overMarsyasandPan.

There are many such references that indicate that music was an integral part of the Greek perception of how their race had even come into existence and how their destinies continued to be watched over and controlled by the Gods. It is no wonder, then, that music was omnipresent at thePythian Games,theOlympic Games,religious ceremonies, leisure activities, and even the beginnings of drama as an outgrowth of thedithyrambsperformed in honor ofDionysus.

It may be that the actual sounds of the music heard at rituals, games, dramas, etc. underwent a change after the traumatic fall of Athens in 404 BC at the end of the firstPeloponnesian War.Indeed, one reads of the "revolution" in Greek culture, andPlato's lament that the new music "... used high musical talent, showmanship and virtuosity... consciously rejecting educated standards of judgement."Although instrumental virtuosity was prized, this complaint included excessive attention to instrumental music such as to interfere with accompanying the human voice, and the falling away from the traditionalethosin music.

Mythical origins

TheCylix of Apollowith the tortoise-shell (chelys)lyre,on a 5th century BC drinking cup (kylix)

• Lyre

According to theHomeric Hymn to Hermes,after stealing his brother Apollo's sacred cattle,Hermeswas inspired to build an instrument out of a tortoise shell; he attached horns, and gut-string, to the shell and invented the firstlyre.Afterwards, Hermes gave his lyre to Apollo, who took interest in the instrument, in repayment for the stolen cattle. In other accounts, Hermes gave his newly invented lyre toAmphion,a son ofZeusand a skilled musician.

• Aulos

According toPindar'sTwelfth Pythian Ode,afterPerseusbeheadedMedusa,Athena'found' or 'invented' theaulosin order to reproduce the lamentation of Medusa's sisters. Since the same Greek word is used for 'find' and 'invent', it is unclear; however, the writer Telestes in the 5th century states that Athena found the instrument in a thicket. InPlutarch's essayOn the Restraint of Anger,he writes that Athena, after seeing her reflection while playing the aulos, threw the instrument away because it distorted her facial features when played, after whichMarsyasasatyr,picked up her aulos and took it up as his own.

PaninstructingDaphnison thesyrinx

• Syrinx / Pan flute

According toOvid'sMetamorpheses,the originalSyrinxwas aNaiad,a water nymph, who ran away from Pan after he tried to woo her. While she fled, she came upon an uncrossable river and prayed to her sisters to transform her so that she may escape Pan. Her Nymph sisters transformed Syrinx into a bundle of reeds which Pan found and fashioned an instrument out of, thePan fluteor syrinx.

Orpheus myth

Orpheusis a significant figure in the ancient Greek mythology of music. Orpheus was a legendary poet and musician, his lineage is unclear as some sources note him as the son of Apollo, the son of the MuseCalliope,or the son of mortal parents. Orpheus was the pupil and brother of Linus. Linus by some accounts is the son of Apollo and the MuseUrania;Linus was the first to be gifted the ability to sing by the Muses, which he passed to Orpheus. Other accounts state that Apollo gave Orpheus a golden lyre and taught him to play, while the muses taught Orpheus to sing.

Orpheus was said to be such a skilled musician that he could charm inanimate objects.According to theArgonautica,Orpheus in his adventures withJasonand theArgonauts,was able to play music more beautiful and louder than the bewitching sirens, allowing the Argonauts to travel safely without being charmed by the sirens.When Orpheus' wife,Eurydice,died, he played a song so mournful that it caused the gods and all the nymphs to weep. Orpheus was then able to travel to the underworld, and with music, softened the heart ofHadesenough that he was allowed to return with his wife; however, under the condition that he must not set eyes upon his wife until they finished their travel out of the underworld. Orpheus was unable to fulfill this condition and tragically, his wife vanished forever.

Marsyas myth

ApolloflayingMarsyas inApollo and MarsyasbyJosé de Ribera

According to Pseudo-Apollodorus inBibliotheca,Marsyasthe Phrygian satyr once boasted of his skills in the aulos; a musical contest between Marsyas and Apollo was then conducted, where the victor could do "whatever they wanted" to the loser.Marsyas played his aulos so wildly that everyone burst into dance, while Apollo played his lyre so beautifully that everyone cried.

The muses judged the first round to be a draw. According to one account, Apollo then played his lyre upside down, which Marsyas could not do with the aulos. In another account Apollo sang beautifully, which Marsyas could not do. In another account, Marsyas played out of tune and accepted defeat. In all accounts, Apollo thenflayedMarsyas alive for losing.

Greek musical instruments

The following were among the instruments used in the music of ancient Greece. Thelyre,cithara,aulos,barbiton,hydraulis,andsalpinxall found their way into themusic of ancient Rome.

String

A later vivid Roman representation of a woman playing thekithara,frescopainting,c. 30-40 BC

• Lyre

A strummed and occasionallyplucked string instrument,essentially a hand-heldzitherbuilt on a tortoise-shell (chelys) frame, generally with seven or more strings tuned to the notes of one of the modes. Thelyrewas a folk-instrument, associated with the cult of Apollo. It was used to accompany others or even oneself for recitation and song, and was the conventional training-instrument for an aristocratic education.

• Cithara

Citharawas a professional version of the lyre used by paid musicians. Thekitharahad a box-type frame with strings stretched from the cross-bar at the top to thesounding boxat the bottom; it was held upright and played with aplectrum.The strings were tunable by adjusting wooden wedges along the cross-bar. In thePolitics,Aristotledescribes the cithara as an "organon technikon",or an artist's instrument, requiring training.

A seated woman playing thebarbiton(detail), Atticred-figureamphora,c. 460 BC

• Barbiton

A larger, bass-version of the cithara, considered to be east-Ionian, an exotic and somewhat foreign instrument. Thebarbitonwas the primary instrument of the highly regarded ancient lyricistSappho,as well as often associated with satyrs.

• Kanonaki

A trapezoidalpsaltery,invented by the Pythagoreans in the 6th century BC, however, may have had Mycenaean origins. Thekanonakiwas held on the thighs of the player, and plucked with both hands with bone pickings.

• Harp

Harpsare among the oldest known string instruments, and were in use by Sumerians and Egyptians long before they were present in Greece. The ancient version of the harp resembles a bow, with the strings connecting to the top and bottom of the arch. The strings are perpendicular to the soundbox, while the strings on a lyre are parallel.

Wind

A youth playing theaulonto a bearded man and his goose. Atticblack-figureamphora,c. 560 BC.

• Aulos

Usually double, consisting of two double-reed (like an oboe) pipes, not joined but generally played with a mouth-band to hold both pipes steadily between the player's lips. Modern reconstructions of theaulosindicate that they produced a low, clarinet-like sound. There is some confusion about the exact nature of the instrument; alternate descriptions indicate single-reeds instead of double reeds. It was associated with the cult of Dionysus.

• Syrinx or Pan flute

Syrinx(σύριγξ), also known asPan flute,is an ancient musical instrument based on the principle of the stopped pipe, consisting of a series of such pipes of gradually increasing length, tuned (by cutting) to a desired scale. Sound is produced by blowing across the top of the open pipe (like blowing across a bottle top).

• Hydraulis

Thehydraulis.Note the presence of the curved trumpet, called thebukanēby the Greeks and, later,cornuby the Romans.

A keyboard instrument, the forerunner of the modern pipe organ. As the name indicates, thehydraulisused water to supply a constant flow of pressure to the pipes. Two detailed descriptions have survived: that of Vitruviusand Heron of Alexandria.These descriptions deal primarily with the keyboard mechanism and with the apparatus that supplied the instrument with air.

• Salpinx

A brass trumpet used for military calls, and evencontested in the Olympics.A number of sources mentionthis metal instrumentwith a bone mouthpiece.

Percussion

• Tympanum

Tympanum,also calledtympanon,is a type offrame drumortambourine.It was circular, shallow, and beaten with the palm of the hand or a stick.

• Crotalum

Thecrotalumwas a kind ofclapperorcastanetused in religious dances by groups.

• Koudounia

TheKoudouniaare bell-like percussion instruments made of copper.

Music and philosophy

Pythagoras

Main article:Pythagorean tuning

The Enigma tic ancient Greek figure ofPythagoraswith mathematical devotion laid the foundations of our knowledge of the study ofharmonics—how strings and columns of air vibrate, how they produceovertones,how the overtones are related arithmetically to one another, etc.It was common to hear of the "music of the spheres"from the Pythagoreans. After studying the sound hammers made in a blacksmith's forge, Pythagoras invented themonochord,which has a movable bridge along with a string stretched over a sounding board. Using the monochord, he found the association between the vibrations and the lengths of the strings.

Plato

At a certain point,Platocomplained about the new music:

Our music was once divided into its proper forms... It was not permitted to exchange the melodic styles of these established forms and others. Knowledge and informed judgment penalized disobedience. There were no whistles, unmusical mob-noises, or clapping for applause. The rule was to listen silently and learn; boys, teachers, and the crowd were kept in order by threat of the stick.... But later, an unmusical anarchy was led by poets who had natural talent, but were ignorant of the laws of music... Through foolishness they deceived themselves into thinking that there was no right or wrong way in music, that it was to be judged good or bad by the pleasure it gave. By their works and their theories they infected the masses with the presumption to think themselves adequate judges. So our theatres, once silent, grew vocal, and aristocracy of music gave way to a pernicioustheatrocracy... the criterion was not music, but a reputation for promiscuous cleverness and a spirit of law-breaking.

Photograph of the original stone at Delphi containing thesecond of the two hymns to Apollo.The music notation is the line of occasional symbols above the main, uninterrupted line of Greek lettering.

From his references to "established forms" and "laws of music" we can assume that at least some of the formality of the Pythagorean system of harmonics and consonance had taken hold of Greek music, at least as it was performed by professional musicians in public, and that Plato was complaining about the falling away from such principles into a "spirit of law-breaking".

Playing what "sounded good" violated the establishedethosof modes that the Greeks had developed by the time of Plato: a complex system of relating certain emotional and spiritual characteristics to certainmodes (scales).The names for the various modes derived from the names of Greek tribes and peoples, the temperament and emotions of which were said to be characterized by the unique sound of each mode. Thus, Dorian modes were "harsh", Phrygian modes "sensual", and so forth. In hisRepublic,Plato talks about the proper use of various modes, theDorian,Phrygian,Lydian,etc. It is difficult for the modern listener to relate to that concept ofethosin music except by comparing our own perceptions that a minor scale is used for melancholy and a major scale for virtually everything else, from happy to heroic music.

The sounds of scales vary depending on the placement oftones.Modern Western scales use the placement of whole tones, such as C to D on a modern piano keyboard, and half tones, such as C to C-sharp, but not quarter-tones ( "in the cracks" on a modern keyboard) at all. This limit on tone types creates relatively few kinds of scales in modern Western music compared to that of the Greeks, who used the placement of whole-tones, half-tones, and even quarter-tones (or still smaller intervals) to develop a large repertoire of scales, each with a uniqueethos.The Greek concepts of scales (including the names) found its way into later Roman music and then the European Middle Ages to the extent that one can find references to, for example, a "Lydianchurch mode",although name is simply a historical reference with no relationship to the original Greek sound orethos.

Detail fromPiero di Cosimo's 16th-century version ofPerseusrescuingAndromeda.The instrument in the hands of the musician is ananachronismand appears to be an imaginary combination of a pluckedstring instrumentandbassoon.

From the descriptions that have come down to us through the writings of those such asPlato,Aristoxenusand, later,Boethius,we can say with some caution that the ancient Greeks, at least before Plato, heard music that was primarily monophonic; that is, music built on single melodies based on a system of modes / scales, themselves built on the concept that notes should be placed between consonant intervals. It is a commonplace of musicology to say that harmony, in the sense of a developed system of composition, in which many tones at once contribute to the listener's expectation of resolution, was invented in the European Middle Ages and that ancient cultures had no developed system of harmony—that is, for example, playing the third and seventh above the dominant, in order to create the expectation for the listener that the tritone will resolve to the third.

Plato'sRepublicnotes that Greek musicians sometimes played more than one note at a time, although this was apparently considered an advanced technique. TheOrestesfragment of Euripides seems to clearly call for more than one note to be sounded at once.Researchin the field of music from the ancient Mediterranean—decipherings of cuneiform music script—argue for the sounding of different pitches simultaneously and for the theoretical recognition of a "scale" many centuries before the Greeks learned to write, which they would have done before they developed their system for notating music and recorded the written evidence for simultaneous tones. All we can say from the available evidence is that, while Greek musicians clearly employed the technique of sounding more than one note at the same time, the most basic, common texture of Greek music was monophonic.

That much seems evident from another passage from Plato:

... The lyre should be used together with the voices... the player and the pupil producing note for note in unison,Heterophonyand embroidery by the lyre—the strings throwing out melodic lines different from themelodiawhich the poet composed; crowded notes where his are sparse, quick time to his slow... and similarly all sorts of rhythmic complications against the voices—none of this should be imposed upon pupils...

Aristotle

Girls dancing with an instructress and a youth,c. 430 BC,found at Capua.British Museum

Aristotlehad a strong belief that music should be a part of one's education, alongside reading and writing, and gymnastics. Just as men must work hard in their duties, they must also be able to relax well. According to Aristotle, all men could agree that music was one of the most pleasurable things, so to have this as a means of leisure was only logical. Amusing oneself was not considered a viable hobby, or else we would not want to help in society. Since music combined rela xing ourselves, along with others, Aristotle claimed that learning an instrument was essential to our development.

Virtuesis a topic that Aristotle is widely known for, and he also used them to justify why music should be involved in education. Since virtues consist of loving and rejoicing in something, then music could be pursued without issue. Music forms our character, so it should also be a part of our education. Aristotle also comments on how getting children involved in music would be a way to keep them occupied and quiet. It is important to note that since music helps in forming the character, it could cause either adverse or pleasant effects. The way in which music is taught can have a large impact on development.

Learning music should not interfere with the younger years, nor should it damage the body in a way that a person is unable to fulfill duties in the military. Those that have learned music in education should not be at the same level as a professional, but they should have a greater knowledge than the slaves and other commoners.Aristotle was specific in what instruments should be learned. Theharpandfluteshould not be taught in school, as they are too complicated. Additionally, only certain melodies have benefits in an educational setting. Ethical melodies should be taught, but melodies of passion and melodies of action should be for performances.

Surviving music

Classical Period

• Eleusis inv. 907 (trumpet signal)
• Dionysius of Halicarnassus,Comp. 63 f.
• Euripides,Orestes,Papyrus Vienna G 2315
• Papyrus Leiden inv. P. 510 (Euripides,Iphigenia in Aulis)

Hellenistic Period

• Papyrus Ashm. inv. 89B/31, 33
• Papyrus Ashm. inv. 89B/29-32 (citharodic nomes)
• Papyrus Hibeh 231
• Papyrus Zeno 59533
• Papyrus Vienna G 29825 a/b recto
• Papyrus Vienna G 29825 a/b verso
• Papyrus Vienna G 29825 c
• Papyrus Vienna G 29825 d-f
• Papyrus Vienna G 13763/1494
• Papyrus Berlin 6870
• Epidaurus, SEG 30. 390 (Hymn to Asclepius)

Roman imperial period

• Delphic Hymns
• Seikilos epitaph
• Hymns ofMesomedes

See also

• Nomos (music)
• Oxyrhynchus hymn
• Ancient Roman music
• For a technical discussion,Musical system of ancient GreeceorAncient Greek Musical Notation

References

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• Aristoxenus (1902).The Harmonics of Aristoxenus,translated by H. S. Macran (Oxford, Calrendon; facs. Hildesheim, G. Olms, 1974).
• Boethius (1989).Fundamentals of Music (De institutione musica),translated by Calvin Bower. edited byClaude Palisca,New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
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• Graves, Robert (1955).The Greek Myths.Mt. Kisco, New York: Moyer Bell.
• Henderson, Isobel(1957). "Ancient Greek Music". InThe New Oxford History of Music, vol.1: Ancient and Oriental Music,edited by Egon Wellesz, pp. 336–403. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn, and Richard L. Crocker. (1976)Sounds from Silence: Recent Discoveries in Ancient Near Eastern Music.(CD BTNK 101 plus booklet) Berkeley: Bit Enki Records.
• Landels, John G. (1999).Music in Ancient Greece and Rome.London and New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-203-27050-9.
• Olson, Harry Ferdinand. (1967).Music, Physics and Engineering,second edition. New York: Dover Publications.ISBN0-486-21769-8.
• Ovid (1989).Ovid's Metamorphoses.Dallas, Texas: Spring Publications.
• Pindar (1969).The Odes of Pindar,edited and translated by C. M. Bowra. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
• Plato.Laws,(700-701a).
• Plato.Republic,(398d-399a).
• Quasten, Johannes (1983).Music and Worship in Pagan and Christian Antiquity.Washington, D.C.: National Association of Pastoral Musicians.
• Richardson, N. J. (2010).Three Homeric Hymns: To Apollo, Hermes, and Aphrodite: Hymns 3, 4, and 5.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Sendrey, Alfred (1974).Music in the Social and Religious Life of Antiquity.Rutherford N.J: Fairleigh Dickinson University.
• Strunk, Oliver;Leo Treitler,and Thomas Mathiesen (eds.) (1997).Source Readings in Music History: Greek Views of Music,revised edition. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
• Trehub, Sandra (2000). "Human Processing Predispositions and Musical Universals". InThe Origins of Music,edited by Nils L. Wallin, Björn Merker, and Steven Brown. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
• Ulrich, Homer, and Paul Pisk (1963).A History of Music and Musical Style.New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanoich.
• Virgil (1830).The Eclogues Translated by Wrangham, the Georgics by Sotheby, and the Æneid by Dryden,edited by William Sotheby. 2 vols. London. Reprinted, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1834.
• Virgil (1909).Virgil's Æneid,translated by John Dryden. The Harvard Classics, edited by C. W. Eliot. New York: P. F. Collier & Son.
• Virgil (1938).The Aeneid of Virgil,translated by John Dryden, selections, edited by Bruce Pattison. The Scholar's Library. London: Macmillan Publishers.
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• Virgil (1975).The Aeneid of Virgil, in the Verse Translation of John Dryden,illustrated with the woodcuts of John Grüninger. The Oxford Library of the World's Great Books. Franklin Center, Pa.: Franklin Library. Reissued 1982.
• Virgil (1989).Vergil's Aeneid and Fourth ( "Messianic" ) Eclogue,translated by John Dryden, edited, with introduction and notes, by Howard W. Clarke. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.ISBN0-271-00651-X.
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• Ruck, Carl A.P. and Danny Staples,The World of Classical Myth(Carolina Academic Press) 1994.

Further reading

• Anderson, Warren D. (1966).Ethos and Education in Greek Music: The Evidence of Poetry and Philosophy.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
• Anderson, Warren D. (1994).Music and Musicians in Ancient Greece.Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.ISBN0-8014-3083-6(cloth);ISBN0-8014-3030-5(pbk).
• Barker, Andrew(ed.) (1984–89).Greek Musical Writings,2 vols. Cambridge Readings in the Literature of Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Limited preview of vol. 1online.
• Barker, Andrew (2007).The Science of Harmonics in Classical Greece.Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521879514.
• Bundrick, Sheramy (2005).Music and Image in Classical Athens.Cambridge University Press.
• Comotti, Giovanni (1989).Music in Greek and Roman Culture.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN0-8018-3364-7.
• Hagel, Stefan (2010).Ancient Greek Music: A New Technical History.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-51764-5.
• Kramarz, Andreas (2016).The Power and Value of Music. Its Effect and Ethos in Classical Authors and Contemporary Music Theory.New York/Bern: Peter Lang Publishing.ISBN9781433133787.
• Landels, John G. (1999).Music in Ancient Greece and Rome.London and New York: Routledge.ISBN0-415-16776-0(cloth);ISBN0-415-24843-4(pbk reprint, 2001). Limited previewonline.
• Le Ven, Pauline A. (2014).The Many-Headed Muse. Tradition and Innovation in Late Classical Greek Lyric Poetry.Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781107018532.
• Lord, Albert B. (1960).The Singer of Tales.Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Maas, Martha, and Jane McIntosh Snyder (1989)Stringed Instruments of Ancient Greece.New Haven: Yale University Press.ISBN0-300-03686-8.Limited previewonline.
• Mathiesen, Thomas J. (1999).Apollo's Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the Middle Ages.Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Limited previewonline.
• Mathiesen, Thomas J. (1974).Bibliography of Sources for the Study of Ancient Greek Music.New Jersey: Joseph Boonin, Inc.
• Michaelides, S. (1978)The Music of Ancient Greece: An Encyclopaedia.London: Faber & Faber.
• Monro, David Binning (1894).The Modes of Ancient Greek Music.Oxford: Clarendon Press. Republished as an unabridged facsimile by Elibron, limited previewonline.
• Murray, Penelope, and Peter Wilson (eds.) (2004).Music and the Muses: The Culture of 'Mousike' in the Classical Athenian City.Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-924239-9.Limited previewonline.
• Pöhlmann, Egert, and Martin L. West (2001).Documents of Ancient Greek Music: The Extant Melodies and Fragments Edited and Transcribed with Commentary.Oxford: Clarendon Press.ISBN0-19-815223-X.
• Power, Timothy (2010).The Culture ofKitharôidia (Hellenic Studies: 15). Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: Center for Hellenic Studies, Trustees for Harvard University.ISBN9780674021389.
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• Webster, T. B. L. (1970).The Greek Chorus.London: Methuen anc Co. Ltd.ISBN0-416-16350-5.
• Winnington-Ingram, R. P. (1968).Mode in Ancient Greek Music.Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert.
• Plato.The Symposium.Trans. Alexander Nehamas and Pay Woodruff. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1989. Print.
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External links

• Ensemble Kérylos,a music group led by scholarAnnie Bélisand dedicated to the recreation of ancient Greek and Roman music.
• EnsembleDe Organographia,Music from the Ancient Greeks, 24 recordings on historical instruments from the documents published by Pöhlmann and West.
• Ancient Greek musicat the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Audio-edition of the published fragments; reconstructed instruments played.
• A modern reconstruction of an ancienthydraulis.
• Ancient Greek scores from IMSLP
• Ancient Greek poetry performed with Ancient Greek instruments
• Rediscovering Ancient Greek Music: A performance reconstructs the pastby Aeon