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Church Fathers

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"Ante-Nicene Fathers" redirects here. For the book, seeAnte-Nicene Fathers (book).

TheChurch Fathers,Early Church Fathers,Christian Fathers,orFathers of the Churchwere ancient and influentialChristian theologiansand writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations ofChristianity.The historical period in which they worked became known as thePatristic Eraand spans approximately from the late 1st to mid-8th centuries,[a]flourishing in particular during the 4th and 5th centuries, when Christianity was in the process of establishing itself as thestate churchof theRoman Empire.

The Church Fathers,an 11th-centuryKievan Rus'miniature from Svyatoslav's miscellany

For many denominations of Christianity, the writings of theAnte-Nicene Fathers,Nicene FathersandPost-Nicene Fathersare included inSacred Tradition.[1]As such, in traditional dogmatic theology, authors considered Church Fathers are treated as authoritative for the establishment of doctrine.[2][3]The academic field ofpatristics,the study of the Church Fathers, has extended the scope of the term, and there is no definitive list.[4][5][better source needed]Some, such asOrigenandTertullian,made major contributions to the development of later Christian theology, but certain elements of their teaching were later condemned.

Apostolic Fathers

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Main article:Apostolic Fathers

The Apostolic Fathers wereChristian theologianswho lived in the1stand2nd centuriesAD, who are believed to have personally known some of theTwelve Apostles,or to have been significantly influenced by them.[6]Their writings, though popular inEarly Christianity,were ultimately not included in thecanonof theNew Testamentonce it reached its final form. Many of the writings derive from the same time period and geographical location as other works of early Christian literature that did come to be part of the New Testament, and some of the writings found among the Apostolic Fathers' seem to have been just as highly regarded as some of the writings that became the New Testament.[7]The first three, Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp, are considered the chief ones.

Clement of Rome

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Main article:Pope Clement I

Clement of Rome (also known as Pope Clement I) was a late 1st-centurybishop of Romewho, according toTertullian,was ordained bySt. Peter.According toIrenaeus,Clement was the fourth bishop of Rome afterAnacletus.Eusebiusdescribed him as the "co-laborer" of Paul and identified him with the Clement mentioned inPhilippians 4:3.[8]

TheFirst Epistle of Clement(c. 96)[9]is the earliest extantepistlefrom a Church Father.[10]In the epistle, Clement calls on the Christians ofCorinthto maintain harmony and order.[9]Copied and widely read in theEarly Church,[11]First Clement had been considered by some as part of theNew Testament canon,e.g., listed as canonical in Canon 85 of theCanons of the Apostles,[12]among other early canons of the New Testament, showing that it had canonical rank in at least some regions of early Christendom. As late as the 14th centuryIbn Khaldunmentions it as part of the New Testament.[13]

Ignatius of Antioch

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Main article:Ignatius of Antioch

Ignatius of Antioch (also known as Theophorus) (c. 35– c. 110)[14]was the thirdbishop of Antioch,and was said to be a student of theApostle John.En route to his martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved. Important topics addressed in these letters includeecclesiology,thesacraments,the role ofbishops,and theincarnation of Christ.Specifically, concerning ecclesiology, his letter to the Romans is often cited as a testament to the universal bounds of the Roman church.[15]He is the second after Clement to mention Paul's epistles.[9]

Polycarp of Smyrna

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Main article:Polycarp

Polycarp of Smyrna (c. 69– c. 155) was a ChristianbishopofSmyrna(nowİzmirin Turkey). It is recorded that he had been a disciple of "John". The options/possibilities for this John areJohn, the son of Zebedee,traditionally viewed as the author of theGospel of John,orJohn the Presbyter.[16]Traditional advocates followEusebius of Caesareain insisting that the apostolic connection of Polycarp was withJohn the Evangelistand that he was the author of the Gospel of John, and thus the Apostle John.

Polycarp tried and failed to persuadePope Anicetusto have the Westcelebrate Passover on the 14th of Nisan,as in the Eastern calendar. Around AD 155, the Smyrnans of his town demanded Polycarp's execution as a Christian, and he died amartyr.The story of his martyrdom describes how the fire built around him would not burn him, and that when he was stabbed to death, so much blood issued from his body that it quenched the flames around him.[9]

Papias of Hierapolis

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Main article:Papias of Hierapolis

Very little is known of Papias apart from what can be inferred from his own writings. He is described as "an ancient man who was a hearer of John and a companion of Polycarp" by Polycarp's disciple Irenaeus (c. 180). Eusebius adds that Papias wasBishop of Hierapolisaround the time ofIgnatius of Antioch.In this office, Papias was presumably succeeded byAbercius of Hierapolis.The name Papias was very common in the region, suggesting that he was probably a native of the area. The work of Papias is dated by most modern scholars to about AD 95–120.

Despite indications that the work of Papias was still extant in theLate Middle Ages,the full text is now lost; however, extracts appear in a number of other writings, some of which cite a book number.

Greek Fathers

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Those who wrote inGreekare called the Greek (Church) Fathers. In addition to the Apostolic Fathers, famous Greek Fathers include:Justin Martyr,Irenaeus of Lyons,Clement of Alexandria,Athanasius of Alexandria,theCappadocian Fathers(Basil of Caesarea,Gregory Nazianzus,Gregory of Nyssa),Peter of Sebaste,Diodorus of Tarsus,Theodore of Mopsuestia,John Chrysostom,Cyril of Alexandria,Maximus the Confessor,andJohn of Damascus.

Justin Martyr

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Main articles:Justin MartyrandFirst Apology of Justin Martyr

Justin Martyr was an earlyChristian apologist,and is regarded as the foremost interpreter of the theory of theLogosin the 2nd century.[17][18]He wasmartyred,alongside some of his students, and is considered asaintby theCatholic Church,[19]Anglicanism,[20]theEastern Orthodox Church,[21]and theOriental Orthodox Churches.

Irenaeus of Lyons

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Main article:Irenaeus

Irenaeus wasbishop of LugdunuminGaul,which is nowLyon(s), France. His writings were formative in the early development of Christian theology, and he is recognized as a saint by both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church. He was a notable earlyChristian apologist.He was also a disciple of Polycarp.

In his best-known book,Against Heresies(c. 180) he enumerated heresies and attacked them. Irenaeus wrote that the only way for Christians to retain unity was to humbly accept one doctrinal authority—episcopal councils.[9]Irenaeus proposed that the Gospels ofMatthew,Mark,LukeandJohnallbe accepted as canonical.

Clement of Alexandria

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Main article:Clement of Alexandria

Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–215) was the first member of the church ofAlexandriawhose writings have survived, and was one of its most distinguished teachers. He saw wisdom in Greek philosophy and sought to harmonize it with Christian doctrine. Clement opposedGnosticism,and yet used some of its terminology; for instance, he valuedgnosisthat with communion for all people could be held by common Christians. He developed a ChristianPlatonism[9]and has been described by scholars as "the founder of what was to become the great tradition of Christian philosophical theology."[22]Due to his teaching on salvation and divine judgement in passages such asPaedagogus1.8 andStromata7.2, Clement is often regarded as one of the firstChristian universalists.[23]Like Origen, he arose from theCatechetical School of Alexandriaand was well-versed in pagan and biblical literature.[9]

Origen of Alexandria

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Main article:Origen

Origen, or Origen Adamantius (c. 185– c. 254) was a scholar and theologian. According to tradition, he was anEgyptian[24]who taught in Alexandria, reviving the Catechetical School where Clement had taught. The patriarch of Alexandria at first supported Origen but later expelled him for being ordained without the patriarch's permission. He relocated toCaesarea Maritimaand died there[25]after being tortured during a persecution. He later became a controversial figure and some of his writings were condemned as heretical. Using his knowledge of Hebrew, he produced a correctedSeptuagint.[9]He wrote commentaries on all the books of the Bible.[9]InPeri Archon(First Principles), he articulated a systematic philosophical exposition of Christian doctrine.[9]He at times employed an allegorical hermeneutic in his interpretation of the Old Testament, and was partly influenced byStoic,Neo-Pythagorean,andPlatonistthought.[9]LikePlotinus,he has been thought to believe that the soul passes through successive stages before incarnation as a human and after death, eventually reaching God.[9]However, more recent scholarship has concluded that Origen actually denied the preexistence of disembodied souls, and simply taught the preexistence of individuals'logoiin the mind of God.[26]Yet Origen did suggest, based on 1 Corinthians 15:22–28, that all creatures, possibly including even the fallen angels, will eventually be restored and reunited to God when evil is finally eradicated. For Origen, God was theFirst Principle,andChrist,theLogos[9]through whom salvation is accomplished. Origen's various writings were interpreted by some to imply a hierarchical structure in theTrinity,the temporality of matter, "the fabulous preexistence of souls", and "the monstrous restoration which follows from it." These alleged "Origenist errors" were declaredanathemaby a council in 553, three centuries after Origen had died in the peace of the church.[27][28]

Athanasius of Alexandria

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St. Athanasius, depicted with a gospel book, an iconographic symbol used mostly for priests and bishops as preachers of the gospel
Main article:Athanasius of Alexandria

Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 293– 373) was a theologian,Pope of Alexandria,and a notedEgyptianleader of the 4th century. He is remembered for his role in the conflict withArianismand for his affirmation of the Trinity. At theFirst Council of Nicaea(325), Athanasius argued against the Arian doctrine that Christ is of a distinct substance from the Father.[9]

Cappadocian Fathers

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Main article:Cappadocian Fathers

The Cappadocian Fathers areBasil the Great(330–379), who was bishop ofCaesarea;Basil's younger brotherGregory of Nyssa(c. 332– 395), who was bishop ofNyssa;and a close friend,Gregory of Nazianzus(329–389), who becamePatriarch of Constantinople.[29]The Cappadocians promoted early Christian theology and are highly respected in both Western and Eastern churches as saints. They were a 4th-centurymonasticfamily, led byMacrina the Younger(324–379) to provide a central place for her brothers to study and meditate, and also to provide a peaceful shelter for their mother. Abbess Macrina fostered the education and development of her three brothers Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa andPeter of Sebaste(c. 340– 391) who became bishop of Sebaste.

These scholars set out to demonstrate that Christians could hold their own in conversations with learned Greek-speaking intellectuals. They argued that Christian faith, while it was against many of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle (and other Greek philosophers), was an almost scientific and distinctive movement with the healing of the soul of man and his union with God at its center. They made major contributions to the definition of theTrinityfinalized at theFirst Council of Constantinoplein 381 and the final version of theNicene Creed.

Subsequent to the First Council of Nicea, Arianism did not simply disappear. The semi-Arians taught that the Son is of like substance with the Father (homoiousios), as against the outright Arians who taught that the Son was unlike the Father (heterousian). So the Son was held to belikethe Father but not of the same essence as the Father. The Cappadocians worked to bring these semi-Arians back to the Orthodox cause. In their writings they made extensive use of the formula "three substances (hypostases) in one essence (homoousia) ", and thus explicitly acknowledged a distinction between the Father and the Son (a distinction that Nicea had been accused of blurring) but at the same time insisting on their essential unity.

John Chrysostom

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Main article:John Chrysostom

John Chrysostom (c. 347– c. 407),archbishopofConstantinople,is known for his eloquence inpreachingandpublic speaking;his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, recorded sermons and writings making him the most prolific of the eastern fathers, and hisasceticsensibilities. After his death (or according to some sources, during his life) he was given the Greek epithetchrysostomos,meaning "golden mouthed", rendered in English as Chrysostom.[30][31]

Chrysostom is known within Christianity chiefly as a preacher and theologian, particularly in the Eastern Orthodox Church; he is the patron saint of orators in the Catholic Church. Chrysostom is also noted for eight of his sermons that played a considerable part in the history ofChristian antisemitism,diatribes againstJudaizerscomposed while a presbyter in Antioch, which were extensively exploited and misused by theNazisin their ideological campaign against the Jews.[32][33]Patristic scholars such as Robert L Wilken point out that applying modern understandings of antisemitism back to Chrysostom is anachronistic due to his use of the Psogos. The Psogos, along with the encomium, were both rhetorical techniques used in the ancient world in a polemical context. With the encomium "one passes over a man's faults in order to praise him, and in a psogos, one passed over his virtues to defame him. Such principles are explicit in the handbooks of the rhetors, but an interesting passage from the church historian Socrates, writing in the mid-fifth century, shows that the rules for invective were simply taken for granted by men and women of the late Roman world."[34]

Chrysostom's sermons along with Basil the Great's have greatly influenced the Christian Church's understanding of economic and distributive justice for the poor, being cited extensively by the Catechism of the Catholic Church[35]as well as Pope Francis in his own sermons critiquing modern-day forms of capitalism.[36][37]

Theodore of Mopsuestia

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Main article:Theodore of Mopsuestia

Theodore of Mopsuestia (c. 350 – 428) was a Christian theologian, andBishop of Mopsuestia(as Theodore II) from 392 to 428 AD. He is also known as Theodore of Antioch, from the place of his birth and presbyterate. He is the best known representative of the middleAntioch Schoolofhermeneutics.[38]He is known to be a prolific writer and exegete with strong emphases on the literal, historical and rational interpretation of Christian scriptures. Throughout his lifetime, he was hailed as one of the outstanding, prolific biblical theologians and staunch defender of Christ's humanity. More than a century after his death, he was condemned in person in the Chalcedonian Church at theSecond Council of Constantinople.[39]However he continues to be recognised as a Greek Doctor in the Church of the East, which honours him with the title 'Theodore the Interpreter'.[40]

In 394, he attended a synod at Constantinople on a question which concerned the see ofBostrain the patriarchate of Antioch. While there, Theodore had the opportunity to preach before the emperorTheodosius I,who was then starting for his last journey to the West. The sermon made a deep impression, and Theodosius, who had sat at the feet ofAmbroseandGregory Nazianzus,declared that he had never met with such a teacher (John of Antioch, ap. Facund. ii.2).Theodosius IIinherited his grandfather's respect for Theodore, and often wrote to him. Another glimpse of Theodore's episcopal life is supplied by a letter of Chrysostom to him fromCucusus(AD 404–407) (Chrys. Ep. 212). The exiled patriarch "can never forget the love of Theodore, so genuine and warm, so sincere and guileless, a love maintained from early years, and manifested but now." Chrysostom (Ep. 204) thanks him profoundly for frequent though ineffectual efforts to obtain his release, and praises their friendship in such glowing terms that Theodore's enemies at the fifth Ecumenical Council made unsuccessful efforts to deny the identity of Chrysostom's correspondent with the bishop of Mopsuestia.[41]

Cyril of Alexandria

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Main article:Cyril of Alexandria

Cyril of Alexandria (c. 378– 444) was the Bishop of Alexandria when the city was at its height of influence and power within theRoman Empire.Cyril wrote extensively and was a leading protagonist in theChristologicalcontroversies of the late 4th and early 5th centuries. He was a central figure in theFirst Council of Ephesusin 431, which led to the deposition ofNestoriusas Archbishop ofConstantinople.Cyril's reputation within the Christian world has resulted in his titles "Pillar of Faith" and "Seal of all the Fathers".

Maximus the Confessor

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Main article:Maximus the Confessor

Maximus the Confessor (also known as Maximus the Theologian and Maximus of Constantinople) (c. 580– 662) was a Christian monk, theologian, and scholar. In his early life, he was a civil servant and an aide to the Byzantine EmperorHeraclius;however, he gave up this life in the political sphere to enter into the monastic life.

After moving toCarthage,Maximus studied severalNeo-Platonistwriters and became a prominent author. When one of his friends began espousing the Christological position known asMonothelitism,Maximus was drawn into the controversy, in which he supported the Chalcedonian position that Jesus had both a human and a divine will. Maximus is venerated in both Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity. His Christological positions eventually resulted in his torture and exile, soon after which he died; however, his theology was vindicated by theThird Council of Constantinople,and he was venerated as a saint soon after his death. Hisfeast dayis celebrated twice during the year: on 21 January and on 13 August. His title ofConfessormeans that he suffered for the faith, but not to the point of death, and thus is distinguished from a martyr. HisLife of the Virginis thought to be the earliest complete biography of Mary, the mother of Jesus.

John of Damascus

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Main article:John of Damascus

John of Damascus (c. 676– 749) was a Syrian Christian monk, priest, hymnographer and apologist. Born and raised inDamascus,he died at his monastery,Mar Saba,near Jerusalem.

A polymath whose fields of interest and contribution included law, theology, philosophy, and music, he was given the by-name of Chrysorrhoas (Χρυσορρόας, literally "streaming with gold", i.e. "the golden speaker" ). He wrote numerous works expounding the Christian faith, and composed hymns which are still used both liturgically in Eastern Christian practice throughout the world as well as in western Lutheranism at Easter.[42]He was particularly known for his defense oficons.[43]

The Catholic Church regards him as aDoctor of the Church,often referred to as the Doctor of the Assumption because of his writings on the Assumption of Mary.

Latin Fathers

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Those fathers who wrote inLatinare called the Latin (Church) Fathers.

The Four Great Latin Church Fathers byJacob Jordaens

Tertullian

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Main article:Tertullian

Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (c. 155– c. 222), who was converted to Christianity before 197, was a prolific writer of apologetic, theological, controversial and ascetic works.[44]He was born in Carthage, the son of a Roman centurion.

Tertullian denounced Christian doctrines he considered heretical, such as allowing widows to remarry and permitting Christians to flee from persecution, but later in life adoptedMontanism,regarded as heretical by the mainstream Church, which prevented his canonization. He wrote three books in Greek and was the first great writer of Latin Christianity, thus sometimes known as the "Father of the Latin Church".[45]He was evidently a lawyer in Rome.[46]He is said to have introduced the Latin termtrinitaswith regard to the Divine (Trinity) to the Christian vocabulary[47](butTheophilus of Antiochhad already written of "the Trinity, of God, and His Word, and His Wisdom", which is similar but not identical to the Trinitarian wording),[48]and also probably the formula "three Persons, one Substance" as the Latin "tresPersonae,una Substantia"(itself from theKoine Greek"τρεῖς ὑποστάσεις, ὁμοούσιος;treíshypostasis,Homoousios"), and also the termsvetus testamentum(Old Testament) andnovum testamentum(New Testament).

In hisApologeticus,he was the first Latin author who qualified Christianity as thevera religio,and systematically relegated the classical Roman imperial religion and other accepted cults to the position of mere "superstitions".

He used the early church's symbol for fish—the Greek word for "fish" beingΙΧΘΥΣ,which is an acronym for Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ (Jesus Christ, God's Son, Saviour)—to explain the meaning of baptism, since fish are born in water. He wrote that human beings are like little fish.

Cyprian of Carthage

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Main article:Cyprian of Carthage

Cyprian (c. 200– 258) was bishop of Carthage and an important early Christian writer. He was born inNorth Africa,probably at the beginning of the 3rd century, perhaps at Carthage, where he received an excellent classical (pagan) education. After converting to Christianity, he became a bishop and eventually died a martyr at Carthage. He emphasized the necessity of the unity of Christians with their bishops, and also the authority of the Roman See, which he claimed was the source of "priestly unity" '.

Hilary of Poitiers

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Main article:Hilary of Poitiers

Hilary of Poitiers (c. 300– c. 368) was Bishop of Poitiers and is a Doctor of the Church. He was sometimes referred to as the "Hammer of the Arians" (Latin:Malleus Arianorum) and the "Athanasius of the West." His name comes from the Graeco-Latin word for happy or cheerful. His optional memorial in theGeneral Roman Calendaris 13 January. In the past, when this date was occupied by the Octave Day of the Epiphany, his feast day was moved to 14 January.

Ambrose of Milan

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Main article:Ambrose of Milan

Ambrose[b]was anarchbishop of Milanwho became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He was a governor before becoming bishop. He is counted as one of the four original doctors of the Church. He offered a new perspective on thetheory of atonement.[which?]

Pope Damasus I

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Pope Damasus I(305–384) was active in defending the Catholic Church against the threat of schisms. In two Roman synods (368 and 369) he condemned the heresies of Apollinarianism and Macedonianism, and sent legates (papal representatives) to the First Council of Constantinople that was convoked in 381 to address these heresies. He also wrote in defense of the Roman See's authority, and inaugurated use of Latin in theMass,instead of the Koine Greek that was still being used throughout the Church in the west in the liturgy.

Jerome of Stridonium

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Main article:Jerome
Print of Jerome in his study. Preserved in theGhent University Library.[49]

Jerome (c. 347– 420) is best known as the translator of theBiblefrom Greek andHebrewinto Latin. He also was a Christian apologist. Jerome's edition of the Bible, theVulgate,is still an important text ofCatholicism.He is recognised by the Catholic Church as a Doctor of the Church.

Augustine of Hippo

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Main article:Augustine of Hippo

Augustine (354–430), Bishop of Hippo, was a philosopher and theologian. Augustine, a Latin Father and Doctor of the Church, is one of the most important figures in the development ofWestern Christianity.In his early life, Augustine read widely in Greco-Roman rhetoric and philosophy, including the works of Platonists such asPlotinus.[50]He framed the concepts oforiginal sinandjust waras they are understood in the West. When Rome fell and the faith of many Christians was shaken, Augustine wroteThe City of God,in which he defended Christianity from pagan critics and developed the concept of the Church as a spiritualCity of God,distinct from the material City of Man.[9]Augustine's work defined the start of themedievalworldview,an outlook that would later be firmly established byPope Gregory the Great.[9]

Augustine was born in present-dayAlgeriato a Christian mother,Monica of Hippo.He was educated in North Africa and resisted his mother's pleas to become Christian. He took a concubine and became aManichean.He later converted to Christianity, became a bishop, and opposed heresies, such asPelagianism.His many works—includingThe Confessions,which is often called the first Westernautobiography—have been read continuously since his lifetime. The Catholic religious order, theOrder of Saint Augustine,adopted his name and way of life. Augustine is also the patron saint of many institutions and a number have been named after him.

Pope Leo the Great

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Pope Leo I(c.400 – 461) was pope from 29 September 440 until his death. He was active in defending the Latin Church against the threat ofschismassociated withMonophysitism,MiaphysitismandDyophysitism,most remembered theologically for issuing theTome of Leo,a document which was a major foundation to the debates of theCouncil of Chalcedon,the fourthecumenical council.[51][52][53][54]

Pope Gregory the Great

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Main article:Gregory the Great

Gregory I the Great (c. 540– 604) was pope from 3 September 590 until his death. He is also known as Gregorius Dialogus (Gregory the Dialogist) in Eastern Orthodoxy because of theDialogueshe wrote. He was the first of the popes from a monastic background. Gregory is a Doctor of the Church and one of the four great Latin Fathers of the Church (the others being Ambrose, Augustine, and Jerome). Of all popes, Gregory I had the most influence on theearly medievalchurch.[55]

Isidore of Seville

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Main article:Isidore of Seville

Isidore of Seville (c. 560– 636) was Archbishop of Seville for more than three decades and is considered, as the historian Montalembert put it in an oft-quoted phrase, "le dernier savant du monde ancien" ( "the last scholar of the ancient world" ). Indeed, all the later medieval history-writing of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) was based on his histories.

At a time of disintegration of classical culture and aristocratic violence and illiteracy, he was involved in the conversion of the royalVisigothicArians to Nicene Christianity, both assisting his brother Leander of Seville and continuing after his brother's death. He was influential in the inner circle of Sisebut, Visigothic king of Hispania. Like Leander, he played a prominent role in the Councils of Toledo and Seville. The Visigothic legislation which resulted from these councils is regarded by modern historians as exercising an important influence on the beginnings of representative government.

Syriac Fathers

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A few Church Fathers wrote inSyriac;many of their works were also widely translated into Latin and Greek. This includesAphrahat,Jacob of Nisibis,Ephrem,Narsai,Jacob of Serug,Henana,Aba,Abraham of Izla,Babai,HormizdandIsaac of Nineveh.

Aphrahat

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Main article:Aphrahat

Aphrahat (c. 270 – c. 345) was aSyriac-Christianauthor of the 3rd century from theAdiabeneregion of NorthernMesopotamia,which was within thePersian Empire,who composed a series of twenty-three expositions or homilies on points of Christian doctrine and practice. He was born in Persia around 270, but all his known works, theDemonstrations,come from later on in his life. He was anasceticandcelibate,and was almost definitely ason of the covenant(an early Syriac form of communalmonasticism). He may have been abishop,and later Syriac tradition places him at the head ofMar Mattimonastery nearMosul,in what is now northernIraq.He was a near contemporary to the slightly youngerEphrem the Syrian,but the latter lived within the sphere of theRoman Empire.Called thePersian Sage(Syriac:ܚܟܝܡܐ ܦܪܣܝܐ,ḥakkîmâ p̄ārsāyā), Aphrahat witnesses to the concerns of the early church beyond the eastern boundaries of the Roman Empire.

Ephrem the Syrian

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Main article:Ephrem the Syrian

Ephrem the Syrian (c. 306 – 373) was aSyriacdeacon and a prolific Syriac-languagehymnographerandtheologianof the 4th century from theregion of Syria.[56][57][58][59]His works are hailed byChristiansthroughout the world, and many denominations venerate him as asaint.He has been declared aDoctor of the Churchin the Catholic Church. He is especially beloved in theSyriac Orthodox Churchand in theChurch of the East.

Ephrem wrote a wide variety of hymns,poems,andsermonsin verse, as well asprosebiblical exegesis.These were works of practical theology for the edification of thechurchin troubled times. So popular were his works, that, for centuries after his death, Christian authors wrote hundreds ofpseudepigraphalworks in his name. He has been called the most significant of all of the fathers of the Syriac-speaking church tradition.[60]

Isaac of Antioch

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Main article:Isaac of Antioch

Isaac of Antioch (451–452), one of the stars ofSyriac literature,is the reputed author of a large number of metrical homilies (The fullest list, byGustav Bickell,contains 191 which are extant in MSS), many of which are distinguished by an originality and acumen rare among Syriac writers.

Isaac of Nineveh

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Main article:Isaac of Nineveh

Isaac of Nineveh was a 7th-centurySyriacbishopandtheologianbest remembered for his written work. He is also regarded as asaintin theChurch of the East,theCatholic Church,theEastern Orthodox Churchand among theOriental OrthodoxChurches, making him the last saint chronologically to be recognised by every apostolic Church. Hisfeast dayfalls on January 28 and in the Syriac Orthodox calendar on March 14. Isaac is remembered for his spiritual homilies on the inner life, which have a human breadth and theological depth that transcends theNestorian Christianityof the Church to which he belonged. They survive inSyriacmanuscripts and in Greek and Arabic translations.

Desert Fathers

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TheDesert Fatherswere early monastics living in the Egyptian desert. Although they did not write as much as other Church Fathers, their influence was also great, and they are credited with beginning the practice ofmonasticism,and codifying many of its features. Among them arePaul of Thebes,Anthony the GreatandPachomius.Many of their, usually short, sayings are collected in theApophthegmata Patrum( "Sayings of the Desert Fathers" ).

Modern positions

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In the Catholic Church, the patristic era is believed to have passed, andJohn of Damascusis most commonly considered to be the last of the Fathers, although occasionallySt. Bernard of Clairvauxhas been named; however, the Church does grant the similar title ofDoctor of the Churchto notable post-patristic saints who made significant contributions to Catholic theology or doctrine.[61][62]

The Eastern Orthodox Church does not consider the age of Church Fathers to be over and includes later influential writers up to the present day. The Orthodox view is that men do not have to agree on every detail, much less be infallible, to be considered Church Fathers. Rather, Orthodox doctrine is determined by theconsensusof the Holy Fathers—those points on which they do agree. This consensus guides the church in questions ofdogma,the correctinterpretation of scripture,and to distinguish the authenticsacred traditionof the Church from false teachings.[63]

The originalLutheranAugsburg Confessionof 1530, for example, and the laterFormula of Concordof 1576–1584, each begin with the mention of the doctrine professed by the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea.

Though muchProtestantreligious thought is based onsola scriptura(the principle that the Bible itself is the ultimate authority in doctrinal matters),[citation needed]the first Protestant reformers, like the Catholic and Orthodox churches, used the theological interpretations of scripture set forth by the early Church Fathers.John Calvin'sFrench Confession of Faithof 1559 states, "And we confess that which has been established by the ancient councils, and we detest all sects and heresies which were rejected by the holy doctors, such as St. Hilary, St. Athanasius, St. Ambrose and St. Cyril."[64]TheScots Confessionof 1560 deals with general councils in its 20th chapter. TheThirty-nine Articlesof theChurch of England,both the original of 1562–1571 and the American version of 1801, explicitly accept the Nicene Creed in Article VII. Even when a particular Protestant confessional formula does not mention the Nicene Council or its creed, its doctrine is nonetheless always asserted, as, for example, in thePresbyterianWestminster Confessionof 1647. Many Protestantseminariesprovide courses onpatristicsas part of their curriculum, and many historic Protestant churches emphasize the importance of tradition and of the fathers in scriptural interpretation. Such an emphasis is even more pronounced in certain streams of Protestant thought, such asPaleo-Orthodoxy.

Patristics

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Main article:Patristics

The study of the Church Fathers is known aspatristics.

Works of fathers inearly Christianity,prior toNicene Christianity,were translated into English in a 19th-century collectionAnte-Nicene Fathers.Those of the First Council of Nicaea and continuing through theSecond Council of Nicea(787) are collected inNicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Byzantine Iconoclasmbegan in AD 726,John of Damascusdied in AD 749; the last of theseven ecumenical councilstook place in AD 787.
  2. ^Known in Latin andLow FranconianasAmbrosius,inItalianasAmbrogioand inLombardasAmbroeus.

References

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  1. ^Plekon, Michael (2003).Tradition Alive: On the Church and the Christian Life in Our Time: Readings from the Eastern Church.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 70.ISBN978-0-7425-3163-5.
  2. ^Brown, Stephen F. (2011). "Church Fathers".Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy.Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy. pp. 209–216.doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9729-4_125.ISBN978-1-4020-9728-7.These teachers, both in the East and the West, manifested the strength of Christian truth and the power of Christian life in their writings that marked this period as the Golden Age of the Fathers. The end of the Patristic era is generally marked in the West with the death of St. Isidore of Seville (d. c. 636) and in the East with the death of St. John of Damascus (d. c. 750). The writings of the Fathers have been given great respect both in their role of establishing the Christian tradition of beliefs and patterns of living and also as works that provide a deeper grasp of the meaning of Christian truths or provoke questions that lead Christians to a deeper understanding of their beliefs.
  3. ^Preus, J.A.O. (1984). "The Use of the Church Fathers in the Formula of Concord".Concordia Theological Quarterly.48(2–3): 97—112.
  4. ^Kelly, John N. D. "Patristic literature".Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved11 May2018.
  5. ^Rasmussen, Adam (10 June 2011)."Who are the Fathers of the Church? A chronological list".Catholic Theology.Retrieved11 May2018.
  6. ^Peterson, John Bertram(1913)."The Apostolic Fathers".In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company.Retrieved30 June2016.
  7. ^Wolfson, Harry Austryn (1956).The Philosophy of the Church Fathers: Faith, Trinity, Incarnation.Harvard University Press.
  8. ^"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Clement I".newadvent.org.Retrieved2024-07-18.
  9. ^abcdefghijklmnopDurant, Will(1972).Caesar and Christ.New York: Simon and Schuster.
  10. ^Di Berardino, Angelo (2014).Encyclopedia of Ancient Christianity.IVP Academic. p. 1:549.
  11. ^Elliott, John.1 Peter.Doubleday, Toronto, 2000. Page 138.
  12. ^"The Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles".Christian Classics Ethereal Library.Ante-Nicene Fathers.Grand Rapids, Michigan,U.S.A.: Eerdmans Pub Co.Retrieved2020-10-09.
  13. ^Ibn Khaldun (1958) [1377],"Chapter 3.31. Remarks on the words" Pope "and" Patriarch "in the Christian religion and on the word" Kohen "used by the Jews",Muqaddimah,translated by Rosenthal, Franz.
  14. ^See "Ignatius" inThe Westminster Dictionary of Church History,ed. Jerald Brauer (Philadelphia:Westminster, 1971) and also David Hugh Farmer, "Ignatius of Antioch" inThe Oxford Dictionary of the Saints(New York:Oxford University Press, 1987).
  15. ^EPISTLE OF IGNATIUS TO THE MAGNESIANS,chapter IX
  16. ^Polycarp of Smyrna; Ignatius of Antioch; Clement of Rome (1912).The Apostolic Fathers.Loeb classical library. Translated by Lake, Kirsopp. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 280.hdl:2027/hvd.32044016963696.ISBN9780674990289.
  17. ^Rokeah (2002)Justin Martyr and the Jewsp.22.
  18. ^Philippe Bobichon,Dialogue with Trypho,critical edition and French translation,vol. 1;vol. 2.
  19. ^Lebreton, Jules (1910)."St. Justin Martyr".In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company.Retrieved13 October2024.
  20. ^"For All the Saints"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2010-05-24.Retrieved2012-11-08.
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  22. ^Bray.God Has Spoken.p. 202.
  23. ^Ramelli.The Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis.pp. 119–136.
  24. ^Sarton, George(1936). "The Unity and Diversity of the Mediterranean World".Osiris.2:430.doi:10.1086/368462.S2CID143379839.
  25. ^About Caesarea
  26. ^Ramelli(2019).A Larger Hope, Volume 1.Cascade Books. pp. 226–227.
  27. ^The Anathemas Against Origen,by theFifth Ecumenical Council(Schaff, Philip, "The Seven Ecumenical Councils",Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,Series 2, Vol. 14. Edinburgh: T&T Clark)
  28. ^The Anathematisms of the Emperor Justinian Against Origen(Schaff,op. cit.)
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  32. ^Walter Laqueur,The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day,(Oxford University Press: 2006), p.48.ISBN0-19-530429-2.48
  33. ^Yohanan (Hans) Lewy (1997). "John Chrysostom". In Roth, Cecil (ed.).Encyclopaedia Judaica(CD-ROM version 1.0 ed.). Keter Publishing House.ISBN965-07-0665-8.
  34. ^John Chrysostom and the Jews: Rhetoric and Reality in the Late 4th Century, by Robert L. Wilken (University of California Press: Berkeley, 1983), p. 112.
  35. ^"Catechism of the Catholic Church – The seventh commandment".vatican.va.Archived fromthe originalon 2002-09-10.
  36. ^"St. John Chrysostom and Pope Francis: What they have in common".12 September 2014.
  37. ^"What St. John Chrysostom Can Teach Us About Social Justice".6 September 2018.
  38. ^"Theodore Of Mopsuestia | Syrian theologian | Britannica".Retrieved2023-03-12.
  39. ^McLeod 2009.
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  41. ^McLeod, Frederick (2009). Harrison, Carol (ed.).Theodore of Mopsuestia.The Early Church Fathers. United Kingdom: Routledge.ISBN9781134079278.
  42. ^Lutheran Service Book(Concordia Publishing House, St. Louis, 2006), pp. 478, 487.
  43. ^Aquilina, Mike (1999).The Fathers of the Church: An Introduction to the First Christian Teachers(illustrated ed.). Our Sunday Visitor Publishing. p. 222.ISBN978-0-87-973689-7.
  44. ^Cross, F. L., ed. (2005). "Tertullian".The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church.New York: Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/acref/9780192802903.001.0001.ISBN9780192802903.
  45. ^Vincent of Lerins in 434 AD,Commonitorium,17, describes Tertullian as 'first of us among the Latins' (Quasten IV, p.549)
  46. ^Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913)."Tertullian".Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  47. ^A History of Christian Thought,Paul Tillich,Touchstone Books, 1972.ISBN0-671-21426-8(p. 43)
  48. ^To Autolycus, Book 2, chapter XV
  49. ^"Hiëronymus in zijn studeervertrek".lib.ugent.be.Retrieved2020-10-02.
  50. ^Cross, F. L., ed.The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church.New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, articlePlatonism
  51. ^Neil, B. (2009).Leo the Great.The Early Church Fathers. Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-1-135-28408-4.
  52. ^Davis,SJ,Leo Donald (1990).The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325–787): Their History and Theology (Theology and Life Series 21).Collegeville, MN: Michael Glazier/Liturgical Press. pp.342.ISBN978-0-8146-5616-7.
  53. ^"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Leo I (The Great)".Newadvent.org.Retrieved24 January2022.
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  59. ^Cameron, Averil; Kuhrt, Amélie (1993).Images of women in antiquity.Psychology Press. p. 288.ISBN978-0-415-09095-7.Retrieved8 June2011.
  60. ^Parry, Ken, ed. (1999).The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity.Malden: Blackwell Publishing. p. 180.doi:10.1002/9781405166584.ISBN9781405166584.
  61. ^Pius XII."Doctor Mellifluus".The Holy See.Retrieved6 August2020.
  62. ^Stephen Beale (20 February 2018)."Who Was the Last of the Church Fathers?".National Catholic Register.Retrieved26 February2023.
  63. ^Pomazansky, Michael(1984) [1973, in Russian],Orthodox Dogmatic Theology (English trans.),Platina CA: SaintHerman of AlaskaBrotherhood, pp. 37, ff
  64. ^Henry Beveridge,trans.Calvin's Tracts(Calvin Translation Society, Edinburgh. 1849)
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