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No-fly zone

(Redirected fromNo fly zone)
This article is about the military zone. For the civil regulatory use, seeProhibited airspace.For the football defensive backfield, see2015 Denver Broncos season.

Ano-fly zone,also known as ano-flight zone(NFZ), orair exclusion zone(AEZ),[1]is a territory or area established by a military power over which certainaircraftare not permitted to fly. Such zones are usually set up in an enemy power's territory during a conflict for humanitarian or military reasons without consent of the enemy state, similar in concept to an aerialdemilitarized zone,and usually intend to prohibit the enemy'smilitary aircraftfrom operating in the region. Military action is employed by the enforcing state and, depending on the terms of the NFZ, may include preemptive attacks to prevent potential violations, reactive forcetargeted atviolating aircraft, or surveillance with no use of force. Air exclusion zones andanti-aircraft defencesare sometimes set up in a civilian context, for example to protect sensitive locations, or events such as the2012 London Olympic Games,againstterroristair attack. A no-fly zone is generally not considered a form of aerial blockade due to its more limited scope compared to an aerial blockade.[2]

Countries previously subject to no-fly zones –Iraq,Bosnia and Herzegovina,andLibya

No-fly zones are a modern phenomenon established in the 1990s. They can be distinguished from traditional air power missions by their coercive appropriation of another nation's airspace only, to achieve aims on the ground within the target nation. While theRoyal Air Force(RAF) conducted prototypical air control operations over various contentiouscoloniesbetween the two World Wars,no-fly zones did not assume their modern form until the end of theGulf Warin 1991.[3]

During theCold War,the risk of local conflict escalating intonuclear showdownmade military intervention as a tool of United States statecraft unappealing. Furthermore, air power was a relatively blunt instrument until the operational maturation ofstealthand precision-strike technologies. Before the Gulf War of 1991, it had not been possible to perform nuanced attacks against transitory, difficult-to-reach targets, and air power thus lacked the ability to produce decisive political effects short of total war. However, thedemise of the Soviet Unionand technological advances in aerospace capabilities made no-fly zones viable in both political and military contexts.[3]

Enforcement of a no-fly zone is subject to the rules of armed conflict underinternational humanitarian law.[2]

Past no-fly zones

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Iraq, 1991–2003

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1990s no-fly zones in Iraq
Main article:Iraqi no-fly zones

Following the 1991Gulf War,theUnited Statesalong with otherCoalition nationsestablished two no-fly zones in Iraq.[4]US and Coalition officials stated that the northern no-fly zone was intended to prevent attacks against theKurdish peopleby the Iraqi regime ofSaddam Hussein,and that the southern no-fly-zone was intended to protectIraq's Shia population.On 16 March 1988, theIraqi Air Forcedeployed chemical weapons againstKurdishcivilians during theHalabja chemical attack,killing roughly 5,000. This air-to-ground event served as part of the motivation used by Coalition Forces in order to extend and expand the NFZs, as well as citing parts of Article 42 within theU.N. Charter.The southern no-fly zone originally extended to the32nd parallel,[4]but was extended to the33rd parallelin 1996.[5]By 1999, over 1,800 bombs had reportedly been dropped on Iraq.[6]

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This military action was not authorised by theUnited Nations.[7]TheSecretary-General of the United Nationsat the time the resolution was passed,Boutros Boutros-Ghalicalled the no-fly zones "illegal" in a February 2003 interview withJohn PilgerforZNet.[8][9]In 1998, France withdrew from the operation,[4]with French Foreign MinisterHubert Vedrinesaying that "there is no basis in international law for this type of bombing".[7]

Civilian deaths

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The United Nations reported that in 1999 alone, 144 civilians had been killed during Coalition bombing efforts.[10]An internal UN Security Sector report found that, in one five-month period, 41% of the victims were civilians.[11]

Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1993–1995

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Main article:Operation Deny Flight

In 1992, theUnited Nations Security CouncilpassedUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 781,prohibiting unauthorized military flights in Bosnian airspace. This led toOperation Sky Monitor,whereNATOmonitored violations of the no-fly zone but did not take action against violators of the resolution. In response to 500 documented violations by 1993,[12]including one combat violation,[13]the Security Council passedResolution 816,which prohibited all unauthorized flights and allowed all UN member states to "take all necessary measures... to ensure compliance with [the no-fly zone restrictions]."[14]This led toOperation Deny Flight,during which theBanja Luka incident,the shooting down of at least four of a flight of six Serbian jets, occurred; the engagement was not only the first combat engagement of the operation, but also the first combat engagement in the history of NATO.[15][16]NATO later launched air strikes during Operation Deny Flight and duringOperation Deliberate Force.[17][18]As many as 400 NATO aircraft participated in the air campaign.[19]

Libya, 2011

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2011 no-fly zone in Libya
Main article:2011 military intervention in Libya

As part of the 2011 military intervention in Libya, the United Nations Security Councilapproved a no-fly zoneon 17 March 2011. The resolution includes provisions for further actions to prevent attacks on civilian targets.[20][21]On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone.[22][23][24]Shortly thereafter, several NATO members proceeded to mount an aerial offensive campaign, in which numerous Libyan government positions would be intentionally bombed.[25][26][27]Some NATO members did not contribute or did little to participate in the air campaign, leading to public criticism from US Secretary of DefenseRobert Gates.[28]The NATO no fly zone was terminated on 27 October aftera unanimous vote by the UNSC,[29]despite requests made by the LibyanNational Transitional Councilfor its mission to be extended to the end of the year.[30]

Libya, 2018 and 2019

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A no-fly zone was declared by theTobruk-basedLNAover the country's south during its offensive in the region in 2018.[31]It was later re-implemented for 10 days in 2019 as the LNA established control over oil fields in the region.[32]The LNA declared another no-fly zone across the country's west during the2019 Western Libya offensive.[33][34]

Discussion of a no-fly zone over Ukraine, 2022

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Main article:Proposed no-fly zone in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Ukraine, with the annexedCrimeain the south and two self-proclaimed separatist republics inDonbasin the east

Shortly after the start of theRussian invasion of Ukrainein February 2022, the Ukrainian leadership repeatedly urgedNATOto enforce a no-fly zone over Ukraine, but the alliance rejected the request on account of risking further escalation and direct military confrontation withRussia.[35][36]There were also questions over the effectiveness of implementing such a zone for the purpose of protecting the Ukrainian settlements, which have been subject to heavy and indiscriminate attacks from Russian artillery and other largely ground-based forces.[37][38]On 18 March, the Russian-backed separatist government of theDonetsk People's Republicclaimed that Russia would establish a no-fly zone over theDonbasregion of Ukraine.[39]

Analysis

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A 2004Stanford Universitypaper published in theJournal of Strategic Studies,"Lessons from Iraq and Bosnia on the Theory and Practice of No-fly Zones", reviewed the effectiveness of the air-based campaigns in achieving military objectives. The paper's findings were: First, a clear, unified command structure is essential. InBosnia and Herzegovina,during Operation Deny Flight, a confusing dual-key coordination structure provided inadequate authority and resulted in air forces not being given authority to assist in key situations; Second, to avoid a "perpetual patrol problem", states must know in advance their policy objectives and the exit strategy for no-fly zones; Third, that the effectiveness of no-fly zones is highly dependent on regional support. A lack of support from Turkey for the 1996 Iraq no-fly zone ultimately constrained the coalition's ability to enforce it.[40]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^Long, Robert A. (June 2012).The Coercive Efficacy of Air Exclusion Zones Myth or Reality(PDF)(Thesis). United States Air Force School of Advanced Air and Space Studies.Archived(PDF)from the original on February 16, 2022.Retrieved31 January2019.Fortunately, a more complete concept, the Air Exclusion Zone (AEZ), will satisfy those seeking clarity.
  2. ^abSchmitt, Michael N. (2022-03-18)."A No-Fly Zone over Ukraine and International Law".Lieber Institute of West Point.
  3. ^ab"Air Exclusion Zones: An Instrument for Engagement in a New Century," Brig General David A. Deptula, in "Airpower and Joint Forces: The Proceeding of a Conference Held In Canberra by the RAAF, 8–9 May 2000,""Conference Proceedings".airforce.gov.au. Archived fromthe originalon 20 March 2015.Retrieved16 May2015.
  4. ^abc"Containment: The Iraqi no-fly zones".BBC News.29 December 1998.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-12-09.Retrieved5 March2011.
  5. ^"2nd Cruise Missile Strikes in Iraq".3 September 1996. Archived fromthe originalon 9 February 2005.
  6. ^Salvage, Jane (2002)."The health and environmental costs of war on Iraq"(PDF).MedAct.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2014-10-09.
  7. ^Pilger, John(23 February 2003)."A People Betrayed".ZNet.Archived fromthe originalon 14 November 2007.Retrieved5 March2011..
  8. ^Pilger, John(7 August 2000)."Labour Claims Its Actions Are Lawful While It Bombs Iraq, Strarves Its People and Sells Arms To Corrupt States".johnpilger.Retrieved5 March2011.
  9. ^Sponeck, Graf Hans-Christof; Sponeck, H. C. von; Amorim, Celso N. (October 2006).A Different Kind of War: The UN Sanctions Regime in Iraq.Berghahn Books.ISBN9781845452223.
  10. ^Guardian Staff (4 March 2000)."Squeezed to death".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved17 October2019.
  11. ^Beale, Michael (1997).Bombs over Bosnia – The Role of Airpower in Bosnia-Herzegovina.Air University Press(Maxwell Air Force Base,Montgomery,Alabama). p. 19.OCLC444093978.
  12. ^Lewis, Paul (19 March 1993)."U.N. Moving To Toughen Yugoslav Flight Ban".The New York Times.Retrieved5 March2011.
  13. ^Resolution (31 March 1993)."Resolution 816 (1993) – Adopted by the Security Council at Its 3191st Meeting, on 31 March 1993".United Nations Security Council(viaThe UN Refugee Agency).Retrieved9 March2011.
  14. ^Beale, pp. 2–3
  15. ^Owen, p. 21
  16. ^"A/54/549, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica".United Nations.15 November 1999.
  17. ^Bethlehem, Daniel L.; Weller, Marc (1997).The 'Yugoslav' Crisis in International Law.Cambridge International Documents Series. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. p. liiv.ISBN978-0-521-46304-1.
  18. ^Mahnken, Thomas G. (2010).Technology and the American Way of War Since 1945.New York: Columbia University Press. p. 182.ISBN978-0-231-12337-2.
  19. ^Bilefsky, Dan; Landler, Mark (17 March 2011)."U.N. Approves Airstrikes to Halt Attacks by Qaddafi Forces".The New York Times.
  20. ^"Security Council Approves 'No-Fly Zone' over Libya, Authorizing 'All Necessary Measures' to Protect Civilians, by Vote of 10 in Favour with 5 Abstentions".United Nations.2011.
  21. ^Brunnstrom, David; Taylor, Paul (24 March 2011)."NATO reaches agreement on Libya command (Google cached page)".National Post.Archived fromthe originalon 6 December 2021.Retrieved22 September2016.
  22. ^"NATO to police Libya no-fly zone".Al Jazeera. 24 March 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 26 April 2012.Retrieved24 April2012.
  23. ^Burns, Robert; Werner, Erica (24 March 2011)."NATO Agrees To Take Over Command of Libya No-Fly Zone, U.S. Likely To Remain in Charge of Brunt of Combat".Huffington Post.Washington D.C. Associated Press.Archivedfrom the original on 17 February 2012.Retrieved16 January2012.
  24. ^"HC 119 Libya: Examination of intervention and collapse and the UK's future policy options"(PDF).14 September 2016. p. 14.Archived(PDF)from the original on 27 September 2018.Retrieved28 October2018.
  25. ^Steinhauer, Jennifer (3 June 2011)."House Rebukes Obama for Continuing Libyan Mission Without Its Consent".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2019.Retrieved30 December2018.
  26. ^"Libya: US, UK and France attack Gaddafi forces".BBC News.20 March 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 20 March 2011.Retrieved20 March2011.
  27. ^Cloud, David S. (11 June 2011). "Gates Tells NATO It Must Hold Up Its End".McClatchy-Tribune News Services(viaStars and Stripes). p. 3.
  28. ^"UN votes to end no-fly zone over Libya".Aljazeera. 28 October 2011.
  29. ^"Libya's Mustafa Abdul Jalil asks Nato to stay longer".BBC News. 26 October 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 26 October 2011.Retrieved27 October2011.
  30. ^"Southern region of Libya is no-fly zone, LNA declares".The Libyan Address Journal.8 February 2019. Archived fromthe originalon 8 April 2019.
  31. ^"Haftar's forces confirm control of Libya's Sharara oilfield | The Libya Observer".libyaobserver.ly.Retrieved8 April2019.
  32. ^"Haftar forces announce no-fly zone after being targeted by air strike".english.alarabiya.net.6 April 2019.Retrieved8 April2019.
  33. ^"Libya's Khalifa Haftar declares 'no-fly zone' over Tripoli".Al Jazeera. 24 November 2019.
  34. ^Basu, Zachary (5 March 2022)."Furious Zelensky tears into" weak "NATO for ruling out" no-fly "zone".Axios.Archivedfrom the original on 8 March 2022.Retrieved8 March2022.
  35. ^"Putin Warns Against No-Fly Zone Over Ukraine, Likens Western Sanctions To Declaration Of War".RFE/RL.5 March 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2022.Retrieved8 March2022.
  36. ^Antrobus, Sophy (5 March 2022)."No-fly zones would escalate the Ukraine war – but they shouldn't be off the table | Sophy Antrobus".The Guardian.Retrieved7 March2022.
  37. ^Levitz, Eric (8 March 2022)."The Terrible Case for a No-Fly Zone in Ukraine".NYMag.Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2022.Retrieved8 March2022.
  38. ^"Russia sets up no-fly zone over Ukraine's Donbass -Interfax".Reuters.18 March 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2022.Retrieved19 March2022.
  39. ^"Lessons from Iraq and Bosnia on the Theory and Practice of No-fly Zones".The Journalist's Resource.Journalist's Resource.org. 22 April 2011.

Bibliography

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