Wikipedia

Non-lethal weapon

(Redirected fromNon-lethal force)

Non-lethal weapons,also callednonlethal weapons,less-lethal weapons,[1][2][3][4]less-than-lethal weapons,non-deadly weapons,compliance weapons,orpain-inducing weaponsareweaponsintended to beless likely to kill a living targetthanconventional weaponssuch asknivesandfirearmswith liveammunition.It is often understood that unintended or incidental casualties are risked wherever force is applied, however non-lethal weapons minimise the risk of casualties (e.g. serious/permanent injuries or death) as much as possible. Non-lethal weapons are used inpolicingandcombatsituations to limit theescalation of conflictwhere employment of lethal force is prohibited or undesirable, where rules of engagement require minimum casualties, or where policy restricts the use of conventional force. However, these weapons occasionally cause serious injuries or death due to allergic reactions, improper use and/or other factors; for this reason the term "less-lethal" has been preferred by some organizations as it describes the risks of death more accurately than the term "non-lethal", which some have argued is amisnomer.[2][5][6][7]

An instruction on oleoresin capsicum (pepper spray) atMarine Corps Base Camp Lejeune

Non-lethal weapons may be used by conventional military in a range of missions across theforce continuum.They may also be used bymilitary police,byUnited Nationsforces, and byoccupation forcesforpeacekeepingand stability operations. Non-lethal weapons may also be used to channelize a battlefield, control the movement of civilian populations, or to limit civilian access to restricted areas (as they were utilized by theUSMC's1st Marine Expeditionary ForceinSomaliain 1995). Similar weapons, tactics, techniques and procedures are employed by police forces domestically inriot control,prisoner control,crowd control,refugee control, andself-defense,where the terminology of "less-than-lethal" is often used.

History

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Military

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Demonstration of the use of a Taser gun on US military personnel. The device was originally developed for use by civilian police.

In the past, military and police faced with undesirable escalation of conflict had few acceptable options. Military personnel guarding embassies often found themselves restricted to carrying unloaded weapons. National guards or policing forces charged with quellingriotswere able to use onlybatonsor similar club-like weapons, orbayonetorswordcharges, or firelive ammunitionat crowds. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Non-lethality Policy Review Group at U.S. Global Strategy Council[8]in Washington and other independentthink tanksaround the world called for a concerted effort to develop weapons that were more life-conserving, environmentally friendly, and fiscally responsible than weapons available at that time.[9]The U.S. Congress and other governments agreed and began an organized development of non-lethal weapons to provide a range of options between talking and shooting.

Recognizing the need to limit the escalation of force, research and development of a range of non-lethal weapons has since been undertaken internationally by governments and weapons manufacturers to fill the need for such weapons. Some non-lethal weapons may provide more effective riot control than firearms, truncheons or bayonets with less risk of loss of life or serious injury. Before the general availability of early military non-lethal weapons in the mid 1990s, war-fighters had few or no casualty-limiting options for the employment of scalable force and were continually at risk whenever lethal force was prohibited during sensitive missions.

In 2001, theUnited States Marine Corpsrevealed its development of a less-than-lethal energy weapon called theActive Denial System,a focused high frequency microwave device said to be capable of heating all living matter in the target area rapidly and continuously for the duration of the beam, causing transient intolerablepainbut no lasting damage. The skin temperature of a person subjected to this weapon can jump to approximately 130 °F (54 °C) in as little as 2 seconds depending on the skin's starting temperature. The system is nonlethal (the penetration of the beam into human skin is only a few millimeters).[10]

In 2004, author Jon Ronson cited an unclassified military report titled "Non-Lethal Weapons: Terms and References"[11][12]21 acoustic weapons were listed, in various stages of development, including the Infrasound ( "Very low-frequency sound which can travel long distances and easily penetrate most buildings and vehicles... biophysical effects are projected to be: nausea, loss of bowels, disorientation, vomiting, potential internal organ damage or death may occur. Superior to ultrasound...)", however no such effects had been achieved as of 2002.[13]

In 2010, theJoint Non-Lethal Weapons Directorate Non-Lethal Weapons Reference Bookwas created. The weapons in this book are currently in development.[14]

Police

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Until the development of non-lethal weapons, police officers around the world had few if any non-lethal options for riot control. Common tactics used by police that were intended to be non-lethal or less lethal included a slowly advancing wall of men with batons, officers on horses trained to deal with policing situations, or a charge into a riot using the flats of sabers. Other reasonably successful approaches included shotguns with lower-powered cartridges, "salt shells", usingbean-bag roundsand ricocheting shots off of the ground. In the mid-20th century, with the integration of fire-control systems into major cities, police found that high-pressure fire hoses could be effective in dispersing a crowd (the use ofwater cannonsandfire truckshas remained an effective non-lethal tactic to disperse riots). Trainedpolice dogswere also commonly used to scare and disperse rioters and apprehend individuals. In the 1980s the development of high-tensile plastics likeKevlarandLexanrevolutionizedpersonal armorand shields, and led to new tactics for riot squads and other special-purpose teams. Officers could now stand up against violent rioters throwing dangerous projectiles without having to resort to lethal methods to quickly disperse the danger. Coupled with the introduction of effective non-lethal chemical agents such astear gasand offensive-odor canisters, and non-lethal impact rounds such asrubber bulletsand "bean bag"flexible baton rounds,riot tactics were modified to rely less on violent response to attacking rioters than on a return to the slowly advancing wall, with supporting officers firing non-lethal ordnance into the crowd to discourage advance.[citation needed]

Police officers on patrol were traditionally armed with batons or pistols or both, and non-lethal methods of subduing an attacker centered on hand-fighting techniques such asjujutsuand baton use. In the 1980s and 1990s officers began deploying non-lethal personal sidearms such aspepper sprays,and eventuallyelectroshock weaponssuch astasers,which were developed for use by police and also found a market inself-defenseby private citizens. However, these weapons were developed for non-lethal resolution of one-on-one conflicts.[citation needed]

During the 1990s and early 2000s (decade), interest in various other forms of less-than-lethal weapons for military and police use rose. Amongst other factors, the use of less-than-lethal weapons may be legal under international law and treaty in situations where weapons such as aerosol sprays or gases defined as chemical are not.[citation needed]

Between the years of 1987–1990, after a three-year field study by the FBI's Firearms Training Unit; In 1990, the use of oleoresin capsicum was approved and used by the FBI, the first official law enforcement agency to do so.[citation needed]

In the late 1990s and early 2000s (decade), police began to adopt a new pepper spray delivery system based on the equipment used inpaintball.A specialized paintball, called a "pepperball", is filled with liquid or powderedcapsaicin,the active ingredient in pepper spray, and is propelled by compressed gas using a paintball marker similar to those used for the sport but operating at a higher pressure. The impact of the capsule is immediately painful (a pepperball's shell is thicker than a standard paintball and is fired at a higher velocity), and it breaks open on impact, dispersing the capsaicin with similar effect to aerosol-delivered pepper spray. However, to be most effective, pepper spray must contact the eyes, nose, or mouth of the target; pepper spray on clothing or tougher skin has a much reduced effect.[citation needed]

  • Long range acoustic device mounted on police vehicle, 2004 Republican National Convention, New York City
  • Swedish police in riot gear, carrying an extended telescopic baton
  • A Taser X26 making an electrical arc between its two electrodes
  • Pepper spray training
  • Exploded tear gas canister in the air

Effects

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Non-lethal weapons have a design intent to provide an effect to reliably elicit a degree of incapacitation but without the typically lethal or permanent lasting effects of conventional weapons. This design intent has often made them a weapon of choice for use by law enforcement during civil protests, etc. Effect modalities vary by the technology being employed: kinetic projectiles function by blunt impact which actuate pain receptors to elicit a behavioral change, lights affect visual perception, acoustics affect hearing, etc.[citation needed]

Notwithstanding their design intent, non-lethal weapons can still cause harm. This is particularly true with certain technologies that interact with appropriately vulnerable regions; an example is kinetic munitions on the head, neck, eyes, abdominal and urogenital regions of the body.[15]As a result, some analysts describe "non-lethal" as a misnomer and recommend defining them as "less-lethal",[16]whereas other sources identify "non-lethal" as representing a goal of minimization of producing fatalities or permanent injuries[17]while not literally requiring minimization to a zero probability thereof.

Mechanics

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Non-lethal weapons are intended to minimize injury or death. While people are occasionally seriously injured or killed by these weapons, fatalities are relatively infrequent. Causes of death from non-lethal weapons are varied and occasionally uncertain. Misplaced or ricocheting shots, pre-existing medical conditions, inadequate user training, repetitive applications and intentional misuse have been implicated in different cases where death has occurred.[citation needed]

As different parts of the body differ in vulnerability, and because people vary in weight and fitness, any weapon powerful enough to incapacitate may be capable of killing under certain circumstances. Thus, "non-lethal force" does have some risk of causing death: in this context, "non-lethal" means only "notintendedto kill ".[citation needed]

Several groups maintain there is great room for improvement in non-lethal weapons and procedures for their use. Claims for the relative safety of such weapons are usually contingent on their being used "properly". For example, therubber bulletsdeveloped during the 1960s were supposed to be fired at the ground and hit the target only after ricochet,[18]and other non-lethal bullets are designed to be fired at the lower body; they can be lethal if fired directly at the head.[citation needed]

Ammunition

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Non-lethal rounds arefirearm roundswhich are designed toincapacitate, but not kill,a target. The rounds rely on the transfer of kinetic energy andblunt force traumato accomplish this incapacitation.Rubber bullets,rubber buckshot,soft polymer rounds,wax bullets,plastic bullets,beanbag rounds,sponge grenades,ring airfoil projectiles(both kinetic and tear gas projectiles) andrubber bullets with electroshock effect(e.g.TaserXREProunds) are less lethal than conventional metal bullets, and are also propelled at lower speed by using less propellant. "Bean bag" type bullets are sometimes referred to asflexible baton rounds.More recently, high-velocitypaintball gunsare also used to launch less-lethal rounds, including theFN 303launcher and PepperBall commercial products.[19]There is also the Variable Velocity Weapon Concept, for which a propulsion energy source may not yet have been clearly established and/or finalized.[20]In any case, all of these technologies apply the same basic mechanism, which is to launch a mass at the target that interacts kinetically.[citation needed]

  • Fiocchi 12-gauge rubber buckshot: containing 15, 8.3 mm,.58 gram rubber pellets, with a muzzle velocity of 790 fps.
  • 12-gauge beanbag rounds and exposed bean bag round projectile
  • U.S.M234 launcherring airfoil projectile rounds
  • Launcher, projectile, 64 mm, riot control, M234

Explosives

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Hand grenadescome in several less-lethal varieties, such as"flashbang" (stun) grenades,"sting" grenadeswith rubbershrapnel,and grenades designed to release chemical irritants (described below).[citation needed]

In 1972, stun grenades were used to capture the hijackedSabena Flight 571,allowing the Israeli forces headed byEhud Barakand includingBenjamin Netanyahuto storm the plane and take it over within 10 minutes while capturing two terrorists and killing Ali Taha, the leader of the terrorist group and his aide, while rescuing all passengers (three were wounded, and one died of her injuries several days later).[21]

A stun grenade was apparently used by members of theIHHagainst theIDFsoldiers during theGaza flotilla raidat the beginning of the IDF storming of theMavi Marmara.[22]

In June 2010, in Kenya, a stun grenade was used to draw attention, and then a real grenade along with an explosive package were used, killing many people. In April, during the2010 Kyrgyzstani uprising,police attempted to use stun grenades to stop a demonstration but the crowd overwhelmed the police.[citation needed]In March stun grenades were used by Belarusian police inMinskagainst demonstrators, and in September they were used by Greek police inAthens.[citation needed]In these latter two cases, the demonstrations were dispersed with no injuries.[citation needed]

In February 2011, stun grenades were seen used by Egyptian police against rioters.[citation needed]

Gases and sprays

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Further information:Incapacitating agent

Water

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Water cannon during a German demonstration, 2001

Water cannonsare commonly used in crowd and riot control, for dispersal or to prevent movement on a particular position. These water cannons are intended to disperse crowds with little risk of harm, but the pressure can still cause eye injuries or even death. Water-filled rounds for small arms are in experimental stages.[23] Electrified water cannonswere in development but was abandoned.[citation needed]

Scent-based weapons

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Malodorantsproduce strong odours that cause people to leave the affected area. In 2008, theIsraeli Defence Forcesbegan usingSkunkfor crowd control. It is a form of mist sprayed from a water cannon, which leaves a terrible odor of rot or sewage on whatever it touches, and does not wash off easily.[24]

Pepper spray

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The active ingredient inpepper sprayis oleoresin capsicum (OC), an acrid irritant chemical derived fromcayenne pepperplants.[25]

A 1998 estimate by theInternational Association of Chiefs of Policesuggested at least 113 pepper spray-related fatalities had occurred in the United States, all with aggravating factors such as intoxication, pre-existing health problems, or from the police use of airway-restrictive immobilizing holds that can causepositional asphyxia.[26]The Southern California chapter of theAmerican Civil Liberties Unionrecommends against maximal prone restraint techniques following pepper spray application, and they caution that anyone sprayed should be monitored to ensure effective breathing.[27]

Tear gas

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Vancouver Police Department officers in anti-riot gear and armed with tear gas grenade launchers confrontStanley Cuprioters.

The use of chemical weapons such astear gas(CS) and pepper spray (OC) has come under increasing scrutiny and criticism due to studies showing serious long term side effects. Many police forces are no longer exposing their members to the chemicals during training.[citation needed][28]

JournalistRubén Salazarwas killed in Los Angeles in 1970 by an errant CS gas canister during theChicano riots.Other serious injuries and fatalities have occurred from either tear gas itself or the projectiles it is delivered in, including the critical injury of veteran Scott Olsen from a tear gas canister during the 2011 Occupy Oakland protests.[29]

Psychochemical

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Main article:Psychochemical weapons

Psychochemical weaponsare psychoactive drugs, such asBZ,LSD,Kolokol-1,EA-3167,and3-Methylamphetaminedesigned to have a disorienting effect when used during combat or interrogation.[30]

Sleep gas

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During the 2002Moscow theater hostage crisis,Russian special forces used an unidentified gas (thought to be3-methylfentanylor anotherfentanylvariant dissolved in halothane gas) in an attempt to induce sleep in both hostages and terrorists. Many of the hostages and terrorists (including all of the suicide bombers) were anesthetized, but some terrorists donned gas masks and thus were able to avoid the effects of the gas. Because the agent used was a potent Fentanyl derivative (a synthetic opioid), it causes respiratory depression and ultimately respiratory failure if administered in high enough dosages. The central nervous system effects, such as anesthesia and respiratory depression could have been reversed by an opioid antagonist such asnaloxone,which is stocked by hospitals and most ambulances. However, because the Russian authorities did not release any information regarding what type of agent was used, medical professionals were unaware that an opioid had been used during the rescue attempt and thus were unable to administer the antidote which could have saved most hostages. Approximately 700 hostages were rescued, while 130 died from exposure to the gas. All the terrorists were ultimately killed by Russian forces through some combination of gas exposure and gunfire.[citation needed]

Other chemical agents

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Further information:Incapacitating agent

Blister agents,includingCR gas,are less often used riot control agents. Other irritants includeCS gasandnonivamide(PAVA).[citation needed]

Sticky foam

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Main article:Sticky foam

Sticky foamwas tried by theU.S. Marine Corpsin the peacekeepingOperation United Shieldin 1995 with some success, but as a result various complications in its field use were also discovered.[31]

Area denial

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Main article:Area denial weapons

Area denial weapons work by either incapacitating or deterring the enemy.[citation needed]

Anti-vehicle

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Iron caltrops

Vehicle stoppers include a wide range of methods and devices meant to disable a vessel or vehicle to prevent attack by an oncoming vessel or vehicle or to stop that vessel or vehicle for evaluation. Vessel and vehicle stoppers may include kinetic, chemical, or electromagnetic means.[32][33][34]

Anti-personnel

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Caltrops

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Simple rows or clusters of sharpened sticks (also known aspunji sticks), and the use of smallcaltropshave been a feature of anti-infantrywarfare for centuries.[35]They are known to have been in use since Roman times and may have been used earlier: the concept was familiar to the 4th century BC Greeks, who used rocks, brush, nets and trees placed in the path of enemy conveyances on land or ensnarement devices hidden under water to achieve the same result: stop the enemy or suspected hostile in his tracks for examination or to prevent or limit incursions. Contemporary caltrops look something like large jacks from the childhood game. Placed in the path of oncoming wheeled or tracked vehicles, they are meant to foul wheels, destroy tires and tracks, and incapacitate vehicles.[32]

However, due to the difficulty of mass-producing them in the pre-modern age, they were rarely used except in the defense of limited areas or chokepoints, especially during sieges, where they were used to help seal breaches. Increasing ease of production still did not prevent these methods from slowly falling out of favor from the late Middle Ages onward.[35]

Caltrops are still sometimes used in modern conflicts, such as during theKorean War,where Chinese troops, often wearing only light shoes, were particularly vulnerable.[35]In modern times, special caltrops are also sometimes used against wheeled vehicles with pneumatic tires. Some South American urban guerrillas as theTupamarosandMontoneroscalled them "miguelitos" and used these as a tactic to avoid pursuit after ambushes.[36]

Riot gun

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In current usage ariot gunor less-lethal launcher is a type of firearm that is used to fire "non-lethal" or "less-lethal" ammunition for the purpose of suppressing riots. Less-lethal launchers may be special purpose firearms designed for riot control use, or standard firearms, usually shotguns and grenade launchers, adapted to riot control use with appropriate ammunition. The ammunition is most commonly found in 12 gauge (18.5 mm/.729 inch) shotguns and 37mm (1.46 inch) or 40mm (1.57 inch) grenade launchers.[citation needed]

In the United States, the term riot gun more commonly refers to ariot shotgun.[citation needed]

Electroshock weapons

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Electroshock weaponsare incapacitant weapons used for subduing a person by administering electric shock aimed at disrupting superficial muscle functions. One type is a conductive energy device (CED), an electroshock gun popularly known by the brand name "Taser",which fires projectiles that administer the shock through a thin, flexible wire. Other electroshock weapons such as stun guns, stun batons, and electroshock belts administer an electric shock by direct contact.[citation needed]

Directed energy weapons

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AnNYPDofficer stands ready with a sonic weapon, theLRAD500X, at anOccupy Wall Streetprotest on November 17, 2011 near theNew York City Hall
Main article:Directed-energy weapon

Directed energy weapons are weapons that emit energy in an aimed direction without the means of a projectile. They are non-lethal and can immobilize people as well as machines (e.g. vehicles).[37]Directed energy weapons include electromagnetic weapons, (includinglaser weapons) andmicrowaveweapons,particle beam weapons,sonic weaponsandplasma weapons.

Ultraviolet laser

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HSV Technologies, Inc. (named for its founders, Herr, Schlesinger and Vernon; not to be confused with Holden Special Vehicles), formerly ofSan Diego, California,USA, then Port Orchard, WA, designed a non-lethal device which was profiled in the 2002TIMEmagazine article "Beyond the Rubber Bullet". It is anelectrolaserusingultravioletlaserbeams of 193 nm, and promises to immobilize living targets at a distance without contact. There is plan for an engine-disabling variation for use against the electronic ignitions of cars using a 248 nm laser. The lead inventor, Eric Herr, died in 2008 and the company appears to have been dissolved, with their website defunct as of September 2017.[38]

Pulsed energy projectile

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Pulsed energy projectilesor (PEP) is a technology of non-lethaldirected energy weaponrycurrently under development by theUS military.It involves the emission of an invisiblelaserpulse which, upon contact with the target, ablates the surface and creates a small amount of explodingplasma.This produces a pressure wave designed to stun the target and knock them off their feet, andelectromagnetic radiationthat affectsnerve cellscausing a painful sensation.[citation needed]

The pulsed energy projectile is intended forriot controland is said to work over distances of up to 2 km. It weighs about 230 kg and will probably be mounted on vehicles. The weight could become lighter as laser production technology improves.[citation needed]

The system was developed byMission Research Corporation(now owned byOrbital ATK). It uses a chemicaldeuterium fluoride laserdevice producinginfraredlaser pulses. The plasma (produced by the early part of the pulse) explodes because itselectronsabsorb the energy of the later part of the pulse.[citation needed]

In 2003, a US military review reported[citation needed]that the electromagnetic radiation produced by PEPs had been shown to cause pain and temporary paralysis in animal experiments.[citation needed]

United States Special Operations Command FY 2010 plans included starting developmental work on a counter UAV pulsed energy projectile.[39]

Active denial system

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Anactive denial system(ADS) is a dish that projects electromagnetic radiation just powerful enough to penetrate human skin and make the victim feel as though they are on fire, although no physical damage is done.[citation needed]

The ADS is a non-lethal,directed-energy weapondeveloped by theUS military,[40]designed for area denial, perimeter security and crowd control.[41]Informally, the weapon has also been referred to as a "heat ray",[42]since it works by heating the surface of targets, such as the skin of targeted human subjects.[43]

In 2011, the ADS was redesigned to make it smaller, more reliable, and able to be used on the move. The ADS II is being designed to operate from moving aircraft, as well as moving ground vehicles. The redesign does not address problems in different environmental conditions.[44]

Air Force Special Operations Commandis experimenting with mounting an ADS on theAC-130J Ghostridergunship to target threatening crowds or individuals on the ground. This is to give the gunship a non-lethal option so the crew has more engagement options. Due to the increasing number of engagements in populated areas, the Air Force is aiming to field a system within 10 years to have enough aircraft available with non-lethal systems.[45]The aircraft will apparently use the ADS II version.[46]

Dazzler

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Adazzleris adirected-energy weaponintended to temporarily blind or disorient its target with intense directed radiation. Targets can include sensors or human vision. Dazzlers emitinfraredor invisible light against various electronic sensors, andvisible lightagainst humans, when they are intended to cause no long-term damage toeyes.The emitters are usuallylasers,making what is termed alaser dazzler.Most of the contemporary systems are man-portable, and operate in either the red (alaser diode) or green (adiode-pumped solid-state laser,DPSS) areas of theelectromagnetic spectrum.[citation needed]

Initially developed for military use, non-military products are becoming available for use in law enforcement and security.[47][48]

Weapons designed to cause permanent blindness are banned by the 1995United NationsProtocol on Blinding Laser Weapons.The dazzler is anon-lethalweaponintended to causetemporary blindnessor disorientation and therefore falls outside this protocol.[citation needed]

PHASR Rifle

Thepersonnel halting and stimulation response rifle(PHASR) is a prototypenon-lethallaserdazzlerdeveloped by the Air Force Research Laboratory's Directed Energy Directorate, U.S.Department of Defense.[49]Its purpose is to temporarily disorient and blind a target. Blinding laser weapons have been tested in the past, but were banned under the 1995 UNProtocol on Blinding Laser Weapons,which the United Statesaccededto on 21 January 2009.[50]The PHASR rifle, a low-intensity laser, is not prohibited under this regulation, as the blinding effect is intended to be temporary. It also uses a two-wavelength laser.[51]The PHASR was tested atKirtland Air Force Base,part of theAir Force Research LaboratoryDirected Energy DirectorateinNew Mexico.[citation needed]

Blinding laser weapons

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Several nations developed blinding laser weapons and they were allegedly used duringWar in Donbassby Russia.[52]

Long Range Acoustic Device

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TheLong Range Acoustic Device(LRAD) is anacoustic hailing devicedeveloped byLRAD Corporationto send messages and warning tones over longer distances or at higher volume than normalloudspeakers.LRAD systems are used for long-range communications in a variety of applications[53]including as a means of non-lethal, non-kinetic crowd control. Though they have been called "sonic weapons",[54]LRADs are not inherently for military use. The round black devices on top of New York City police Hummers are LRADs.[citation needed]

According to the manufacturer's specifications, the systems weigh from 15 to 320 pounds (6.8 to 145.1 kg) and can emit sound in a 30°- 60° beam at 2.5 kHz.[55]The manufacturer also produces systems for public address and mass notification use that broadcast 360°.[56]

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In the United States, the University of Texas-Austin Institute for Advanced Technology (IAT) conducts basic research to advance electrodynamics and hypervelocity physics related to electromagnetic weapons.[57]

Although generally considered "non-lethal weapons", electromagnetic weapons do pose health threats to humans. In fact, "non-lethal weapons can sometimes be deadly."[58]

United States Department of Defensepolicy explicitly states that non-lethal weapons "shall not be required to have a zero probability of producing fatalities or permanent injuries."[59]Although a Human Effects Advisory Panel was established in 1998 to provide independent assessment on human effects, data, and models for the use of 'non-lethal weapons' on the general population,[60]the TECOM Technology Symposium in 1997 concluded on non-lethal weapons: "Determining the target effects on personnel is the greatest challenge to the testing community," primarily because "the potential of injury and death severely limits human tests." However, "directed energy weaponsthat target the central nervous system and cause neurophysiological disorders "may violate theConvention on Certain Conventional Weaponsof 1980. And weapons that go beyond non-lethal intentions and cause "superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering" could violate theProtocol Ito theGeneva Conventionsof 1977. "[61]Safety and evaluation of the physical and psychological effects of the long-term or repetitive uses of thepain-inducing non-lethal weapons on humans have not been well understood or studied in any great details. Any such studies require explicit consent of all participants so as not to violate the UN Convention against torture and other cruelties.[citation needed]

Misuse

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Pepper spray is one non-lethal weapon alleged to have been misused by American police. In two incidents in California in 1997, police swabbed pepper spray directly into the eyes of protesters.[62]Amnesty Internationalcondemned these actions, and claimed that they were likely a violation of the 1984United Nations Convention Against Torture.[62]

Terrorism concerns

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Loren Thompson, chief operating officer of theLe xing ton Institutein Virginia states that: "The relevant (electromagnetic weapon) technology is well within the grasp of some countries and transnationalterroristgroups ", and further states that U.S. hardware is susceptible to microwave and other directed-energy weapons.[63]

Suitable materials and tools to create electromagnetic weapons are commonly available. "The threat ofelectromagnetic bombproliferation is very real. "[64]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Michigan State Police Training Manual 2012 (pp. 68-70): same effective definition for "Less-lethal weapons" as what DoDD 3000.03 (2013) has for "Non-lethal weapons"
  2. ^abLess Than Lethal Weapons, UN Peacekeeping PDT Standards for Formed Police Units 1st edition 2015(PDF).2015. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2021-08-16.Retrieved2020-06-05.
  3. ^United Nations Human Rights Guidance on Less-Lethal Weapons in Law Enforcement(PDF).2020.
  4. ^"Use of force, firearms and less lethal weapons".College of Policing. 2020.Retrieved26 June2020.
  5. ^"There's No Such Thing as a 'Non-Lethal' Weapon".Vice. 21 October 2014.Retrieved2022-05-05.
  6. ^"No such thing as a non-lethal weapon".New Scientist.185(2489): 3. 2005.PMID15839010.
  7. ^"Taser and the Myth of Non-Lethal Weaponry – The Intercept".Theintercept. 2015-12-01.Retrieved2022-05-05.
  8. ^Nonlethality: A Global StrategyArchived2012-03-05 at theWayback Machine
  9. ^War and Anti-War,Alvin Tofflerand Heidi Toffler, Little, Brown (1993), Chapter 15, p.125–136.
  10. ^Shachtman, Noah (2007-04-06)."Pain Ray Injures Airman".Wired.
  11. ^Ronson, Jon (2005).The Men Who Stare at Goats.Simon & Schuster.p.259.ISBN0-7432-4192-4.Retrieved2007-08-28.
  12. ^"USAF Institute for National Security Studies: Non-Lethal Weapons: Terms and References".Archived fromthe originalon 2010-03-04.Retrieved2010-02-15.
  13. ^"National Defense Magazine".Archived fromthe originalon July 19, 2010.
  14. ^"(U//FOUO) DoD Non-Lethal Weapons Reference Book 2011 - Public Intelligence".27 December 2011.
  15. ^Haar, Rohini J; Iacopino, Vincent; Ranadive, Nikhil; Dandu, Madhavi; Weiser, Sheri D (2017)."Death, injury and disability from kinetic impact projectiles in crowd-control settings: a systematic review".BMJ Open.7(12). British Medical Association: e018154.doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-018154.PMC5736036.PMID29255079.
  16. ^Lewer, Nick; Davison, Neil (2005)."Non-lethal technologies—an overview"(PDF).Disarmament Forum.1:37–51.
  17. ^United States Department of Defense(July 9, 1996),DOD Directive 3000.3: Policy for Non-Lethal Weapons(PDF)
  18. ^"Study Says Rubber Bullets Too Dangerous For Civil Crowd Control, from AP, 2002".Archived fromthe originalon 2010-06-30.Retrieved2010-02-15.
  19. ^"PepperBall® | Non Lethal Weapons | Less Lethal | Police Non Lethal".pepperball.
  20. ^Hambling, David (2008-07-23)."Army Looks to Turn Toy Into Next-Gen Rifle".Wired.
  21. ^Jeffries, Stuart (2015-11-11)."Four hijackers and three Israeli PMs: the incredible story of Sabena flight 571".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved2023-12-30.
  22. ^"Global News Blog".Christian Science Monitor.June 2, 2010.RetrievedMay 19,2012.
  23. ^"Health Impacts of Crowd-Control Weapons: Water Cannons".PHR.Retrieved2022-07-18.
  24. ^"New Israeli weapon kicks up stink".2008-10-02.Retrieved2019-06-10.
  25. ^Edwards, Steven M.; Granfield, John; Onnen, Jamie (February 1997)."Evaluation of Pepper Spray"(PDF).Research in Brief.National Institute of Justice.RetrievedAugust 6,2013.
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