Wikipedia

North American T-6 Texan

This article is about the World War II-era trainer. For the modern turboprop trainer, seeBeechcraft T-6 Texan II.

TheNorth American Aviation T-6 Texanis an American single-engined advancedtrainer aircraftused to train pilots of theUnited States Army Air Forces(USAAF),United States Air Force(USAF),United States Navy,Royal Air Force,Royal Canadian Air Forceand otherair forcesof theBritish CommonwealthduringWorld War IIand into the 1970s.

T-6 Texan/SNJ/Harvard
USAAF AT-6Cs nearLuke Field,1943
General information
TypeTrainer aircraft
National originUnited States
ManufacturerNorth American Aviation
Primary usersUnited States Army Air Forces
Number built15,495
History
First flight1 April 1935
Retired1995 (South African Air Force)
Developed fromNorth American NA-16
VariantsNorth American A-27
Bacon Super T-6
Developed intoNorth American P-64

Designed byNorth American Aviation,the T-6 is known by a variety of designations depending on the model and operating air force. TheUnited States Army Air Corps(USAAC) and USAAF designated it as theAT-6,theUnited States NavytheSNJ,andBritish Commonwealth air forcestheHarvard,the name by which it is best known outside the US. Starting in 1948, the newUnited States Air Force(USAF) designated it theT-6,with the USN following in 1962.

The T-6 Texan remains a popularwarbirdused forairshowdemonstrations and static displays. It has also been used many times to simulate various historical aircraft, including the JapaneseMitsubishi A6M Zero.A total of 15,495 T-6s of all variants were built.

Development

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WAVESwashing an SNJ atNAS Jacksonville,Florida, USA
South African Air ForceHarvard under restoration exposing internal structure
Left – front cockpit, right – rear cockpit
"Nella", owned by theCommemorative Air Force,preparing for take off
A Noorduyn AT-16 Harvard IIB

The Texan's ancestry goes back to theNorth American NA-16prototype which was first flown on 1 April 1935. In 1935, NAA submitted this design for theU.S. Army Air CorpsBasic Trainer Competition. NAA also targeted the export market.[1]

Modified as the NA-26, it was submitted as an entry for a USAAC "Basic Combat Trainer" aircraft competition in March 1937. Based on the NA-18, but with a foot longer wingspan, it was the first of the NA-16 series with retractable gear. It was similar to theBT-9,but with a larger engine, the 550 hp (410 kW)Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp,and could accommodate two.30 in (7.62 mm) guns.

With minor alterations, 177 unarmed NA-36s would enter service as the BC-1 with a R-1340-47 engine from 9 June 1937. Roughly 30 were modified as BC-1-I instrument trainers. The BC-1A (NA-55-1) followed as an armed version, primarily for Air Corps Reserve and National Guard units, and the 83 built could be equipped with a.30 in (7.62 mm) machine gun on the nose, and a flexible gun in the rear cockpit.

The US Navy received 40 NA-28 aircraft based on the BT-9, which it designated the NJ-1, as well as 16 NA-52s, designated the SNJ-1, 36 NA-65 as SNJ-2s, and 25 NA-79 also as SNJ-2s.[2]

In March 1937, theCommonwealth Aircraft Corporationof Australia purchased an NA-32 (NA-16-1A, with fixed undercarriage) and an NA-33 (NA-16-2K with retractible undercarriage) along with a manufacturing license. The firstCAC Wirraway,based on the NA-33, flew on 27 March 1939, of which 755 were built.[3]

In August 1937,Mitsubishi JukogyoK.K. purchased a singleNA-16,NA-16-4R (NA-37), powered by the 450 hp (340 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-985-9CG, including manufacturing rights. A second N-16, NA-16-4RW (NA-47), powered by a smaller Wright engine, was ordered in December 1937. After being evaluated by theImperial Japanese Navy,Kyusu and K.K. Watanabe Tekkoshochose to ignore the NAA design almost entirely, and built 176 of the somewhat similarK10W1from 1941 to 1942 which the Allies gave the code nameOak.[4]AfterWWII,theJapanese Air Self Defense Forceoperated 195 Texans (9 T-6Ds, 11 T-6Fs, and 175 T-6Gs) and theJapanese Maritime Self Defence Forceoperated 62 (10 SNJ-4s, 41 SNJ-5s, and 11 SNJ-6s)[5]

According to Dan Hagedorn, "the BC-1A series may be regarded as the true beginning of the modern AT-6 series". In December 1938, the British Commonwealth started receiving the first of 400 Harvard Mark Is (NA-49), for use in theCentral Flying School.They were powered by the 600 hp (450 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1340-S3H1 Wasp. In May 1939, theRoyal Canadian Air Force(RCAF) ordered 30 Harvard Mark Is (NA-61). Then in November 1939, theBritish Purchasing Commissionordered the first of eventually 1275 Harvard Mark IIs (NA-66, NA-75, NA-76, and NA-81) for theRoyal Air Forceand RCAF.[6]

On 23 April 1939, NAA received a contract for 251 BT-14s and 94 AT-6s. The BT-14 (NA-58) was a fixed gear aircraft with a metal skinned fuselage 14 inches longer than the BT-9. In 1941, 27 BT-14s were refitted with the 400 hp (300 kW) R-985-11, and designated as BT-14A-NAs. In June 1939, NAA received an order for 94 AT-6-NAs (NA-59), powered by the wright R-1340-47 and able to mount two.30 in (7.62 mm) machines guns.[7]

The USAAC AT-6A, and the U.S. Navy SNJ-3, were based on the NA-77 and NA-78 designs.Pratt & Whitney R-1340-49Wasp radial engine powered the USAAC aircraft, while R-1340-38s powered the Navy aircraft. The USAAC received 1847 AT-6As, and the Navy received 270 SNJ-3s.[8]

The AT-6B (NA-84) was built for armament training, and could mount a.30 in (7.62 mm)machine gunon the right nose cowl, right wing, and in the rear cockpit, and could carry a light bomb rack. The aircraft was powered by the 600 hp (450 kW) R-1340-AN-1 engine. The USAAC received 400.[9]

The NA-88 design was used to build 2970 AT-6Cs (747 of which went to the British Commonwealth as Harvard IIas), 2401 SNJ-4s, 2604 AT-6Ds (537 of which went to the British Commonwealth as Harvard IIIs), and 1357 SNJ-5s. The first AT-6C aircraft was delivered on 12 February 1942. The 12-volt electrical system was changed to a 24-volt system in the AT-6D, for standardization amongst the service. The AT-6D, which was also armament capable, and early versions included a wing gun camera, and a high-pressureoxygen system.The AT-6D used two toggle starter switches, rather than the foot pedal starter, and the first AT-6D was delivered on 22 July 1943. The Navy received an additional 630 AT-6Ds direct from the USAAF, redesignating them SNJ-5s, for a total of 1987. Similarly, the NA-121 design was used to build the final wartime Texans, and included 800 AT-6Ds (of which 211 went to the Navy as SNJ-5s), and 956 AT-6Fs (of which 411 went to the Navy as SNJ-6s). They were capable of carrying a 20 US gal (76 L; 17 imp gal) centerlinedrop tank.[10]

From 1942, Canada'sNoorduynbuilt 2557 R-1340-AN-1-powered Harvard IIs under license, paid for by USAAFLend-Leasefunds as the AT-16, but designated as the Harvard II.B. After WWII, many remained in service with the RCAF.[11]

The NA-168 series consisted of remanufactured AT-6s and SNJs for theUSAF,starting in 1949. TheAir Training Commandreceived 641 aircraft, designated T-6G-NT, of which 416 eventually were sent to U.S.Military Assistance Programcountries.U.S. National Guardunits received an additional 50 aircraft, of which 28 eventually were sent to France. An additional 59 aircraft were Liaison/Trainer aircraft, designated LT-6G-NA, for theKorean War.These aircraft could be deployed with 2 detachable.30 in (7.62 mm) machine gun pods, and 4HVARs,or 4 100 lb (45 kg) bombs, plus a 55 US gal (210 L; 46 imp gal) auxiliary drop tank. Alternatively, they could carry the gun pods and 12 2.25 in (57 mm) SCA markings rockets, or 6 100 lb (45 kg) bombs. The T-6G-NAs had a 140 US gal (530 L; 120 imp gal) fuel capacity, while previous models had a 110 US gal (420 L; 92 imp gal) capacity. The rear cockpit also had the same instruments as the front cockpit. Then, in 1951, the USAF placed an order for 824 T-6Gs, designated T-6G-1-NH, for the Air Training Command.[12]

TheCanada Car and Foundrybuilt 285 Harvard 4s, designated NA-186 under theMutual Defense Assistance Program(MDAP) and an additional 270 directly for the RCAF.[13]

In April 1951, the USAF ordered an additional 107 T-6Gs for the MDAP, designated NA-188. They placed an order for 11 training aircraft in March 1952, designated NA-195, and then a final batch of 110 aircraft in June for MDAP, designated NA-197.[14]

Operational history

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A T-6 Harvard at an air show in 2023

The aircraft was mainly used for training, but in many cases it was also repurposed into combat roles. The aircraft served in a great many air forces around the world in the mid to late 20th century. After serving in air forces, it also went on to be displayed at air shows and museums as awarbird.

Combat use

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The British used Harvards during World War II in North Africa, but not in a combat role. They were used extensively for preparing pilots in theatre for flying US aircraft types, whose handling and controls differed from British aircraft.

No. 74 Operational Training Unit (OTU) was formed atRAF Aqirin Palestine from 'C' Flight of 71 OTU who made various moves to Rayak in July 1942, Muqeibila in November 1942, and back to Aqir in February 1943. The RAF later handed over control toNo. 203 Group RAFin May 1943. The unit disbanded in July 1945. Harvard AJ841 "Wacky Wabbit" saw service withNo. 154 Squadron RAF.Originally 154 Squadron were based just atRAF Fowlmerebefore they were deployed to the Middle East in 1942. Record cards for 154 Squadron show the squadron Harvard being flown by Flying Officer DC Dunn from Minnigh (Syria) to Ramat David (Palestine) on 12 February 1944.

T-6 Texan of theSpanish Air Force

Peru used its seven T-6 fighter bombers in theEcuadorian-Peruvian Warequipped with two 7.65 mm (0.30 in) guns, while carrying up to four 116 lb (53 kg) bombs.[15]Twenty AT-6s were employed by the 1st and 2nd fighter squadrons of theSyrian Air Forcein the1948 Arab-Israeli War,providing ground support for Syrian troops, and launching airstrikes against Israeli airfields, ships, and columns, losing one aircraft to antiaircraft fire. They also engaged in air-to-air combat on a number of occasions, with a rear gunner shooting down an IsraeliAvia S-199fighter.[16]

TheIsraeli Air Force(IAF) bought 17 Harvards, and operated nine of them in the final stages of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, against the Egyptian ground forces, with no losses. In theSinai Campaign,IAF Harvards attacked Egyptian ground forces inSinai Peninsulawith two losses.

A USAF T-6forward air controlaircraft inKorea
An LT-6G in flight over Korea in 1952

TheRoyal Hellenic Air Forceemployed three squadrons of British- and American-supplied T-6D and G Texans for close air support, observation, and artillery spotting duties during theGreek Civil War,providing extensive support to the Greek army during the Battle of Gramos. Communist guerillas called these aircraftΟ Γαλατάς,O Galatas,'The Milkman', because they saw them flying very early in the morning. After the "Milkmen", the guerillas waited for the armedSpitfiresandHelldivers.

During theKorean Warand, to a lesser extent, theVietnam War,T-6s were pressed into service asforward air controlaircraft. These aircraft were designated T-6"Mosquitos".[17][18][19]

No. 1340 Flight RAFused the Harvard in Kenya against theMau Mauin the 1950s, where they operated with 20 lb (9.1 kg) bombs and machine guns against the rebels. Some operations took place at altitudes around 20,000 ft (6,100 m)above mean sea level.A Harvard was the longest-serving RAF aircraft, with an example, taken on strength in 1945, still serving in the 1990s (as a chase plane for helicopter test flights—a role for which theShorts Tucano's higher stall speed was ill-suited).

The T-6G was also used in a light attack orcounterinsurgencyrole by France during theAlgerian Warin specialEscadrilles d'Aviation Légère d'Appui(EALA), armed with machine guns, bombs and rockets. At its peak, 38 EALAs were active. The largest unit was theGroupe d'Aviation Légère d'Appui72, which consisted of up to 21 EALAs.

From 1961 to 1975,Portugalused more than a hundred T-6Gs, also in the counterinsurgency role, during thePortuguese Colonial War.During this war, almost all thePortuguese Air Forcebases and air fields inAngola,Mozambique,andPortuguese Guineahad a detachment of T-6Gs.

On 16 June 1955, rebel Argentine Navy SNJ-4sbombed Plaza de Mayoin Buenos Aires, Argentina; one was shot down by a loyalistGloster Meteor.Navy SNJ-4s were later used by thecoloradorebels in the1963 Argentine Navy Revolt,launching attacks on the 8th Tank Regiment columns on 2 and 3 April, knocking out severalM4 Shermantanks, and losing one SNJ to anti-aircraft fire.[20]

In 1957–58, theSpanish Air Forceused T-6s ascounterinsurgencyaircraft in theIfni War,armed with machine guns, iron bombs, and rockets, achieving an excellent reputation due to its reliability, safety record, and resistance to damage.

ThePakistan Air Forceused T-6Gs in theIndo-Pakistani War of 1971as a night ground-support aircraft, hitting soft transport vehicles of the Indian army. In the early hours of 5 December, during a convoy interdiction mission in the same area, Squadron Leader Israr Quresh's T-6G Harvard was hit by Indian antiaircraft ground fire and a shell fractured the pilot's right arm. Profusely bleeding, the pilot flew the aircraft back with his left hand and landed safely. The World War II-vintage propellered trainers were pressed into service and performed satisfactorily in the assigned role of convoy escorts at night.

TheSouth African Air Forcereceived their first T-6s in October 1942 to be used by the Joint Air Training Scheme. By July 1944, 633 Harvard Mk IIA T-6s and IIIs had been shipped toSouth Africawith another 555 (379 MkIIAs and 176 Mk IIIs) to arrive by October 1945. Another 65 (AT-6Ds and 30 T-6Gs) were ordered between 1952 and 1956.[21]The aircraft also saw some action during the South African Border war. The T-6 remained in service until 1995 as a basic trainer, mainly as a result of theUnited Nationsarms embargo againstSouth Africa'sapartheidpolicies. They were replaced byPilatus PC-7MkII turboprop trainers.[22]

Research testbed

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The Harvard 4 has been used in Canada as a testbed aircraft for evaluatingcockpit attitude displays.Its aerobatic capability permits the instructor pilot to maneuver the aircraft into unusual attitudes, then turn the craft over to an evaluator pilot in the "blind" rear cockpit to recover, based on one of several digitally generated attitude displays.[23]

Variants

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Main article:North American T-6 Texan variants

Operators

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ex-Argentine Navy SNJ-4, Naval Aviation Museum, 2010
Brazilian Air Force T-6.Smoke Squadron,1976.National Archives of Brazil

Argentina

Austria

Belgian Air Force T-6G

Belgium

Biafra

Bolivia

Brazil

Cambodia

Canada

Colombian Air ForceAT-6 Texan duringWorld War II

Republic of China (Taiwan)

Chile

Colombia

Republic of the Congo

Cuba

Denmark

Danish Harvard II

Dominican Republic

El Salvador

France

Gabon

Restored T-6D in Luftwaffe markings

Germany

Greece

Haiti

Hong Kong

Honduras

India

Indonesia

Iran

Iraq

  • Iraqi Air Force– bought 15 aircraft in the early 1950s; 6 of them were donated to Lebanon in 1956[26]

Israel

Italy

Japan

RNZAF Harvards atRNZAF Station Onerahi,Whangarei, New Zealand, 1961

Katanga

  • Force Aérienne Katangaise[28]

Lebanon

Republic of Korea

Kingdom of Laos

Mexico

Morocco

Netherlands

Mozambique

New Zealand

Norway

Nicaragua

Pakistan

Paraguay

South African Air ForceHarvard IIA (equivalent to the AT-6C) in World War II era markings

Philippines

T-6G inPortuguese Air Forcemuseum

Portugal

South Africa

Southern Rhodesia

South Vietnam

Saudi Arabia

Spain

Soviet Union

Sweden

  • Swedish Air Force145 Harvard IIb as Sk 16A, 106 T-6A, T-6B, SNJ-3, SNJ-4 as Sk 16B and 6 SNJ-2 as Sk 16C.
Syrian Harvard
Restored Harvard II inRAFdesert camouflage colours
T-6G Texan in Uruguayan Air Force Aeronautic Museum in Montevideo, Uruguay.

Switzerland

Syria

Thailand

Tunisia

Turkey

United Kingdom

United States

Uruguay

Venezuela

Kingdom of Yemen

Yugoslavia

Zaire

Specifications (T-6G)

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T-6G line drawing

Data fromJane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II.[34]

General characteristics

  • Crew:two (student and instructor)
  • Length:29 ft (8.8 m)
  • Wingspan:42 ft (13 m)
  • Height:11 ft 8 in (3.56 m)
  • Wing area:253.7 sq ft (23.57 m2)
  • Empty weight:4,158 lb (1,886 kg)
  • Gross weight:5,617 lb (2,548 kg)
  • Powerplant:1 ×Pratt & Whitney R-1340-AN-1 Waspradial engine,600 hp (450 kW)

Performance

  • Maximum speed:208 mph (335 km/h, 181 kn) at 5,000 ft (1,500 m)
  • Cruise speed:145 mph (233 km/h, 126 kn)
  • Range:730 mi (1,170 km, 630 nmi)
  • Service ceiling:24,200 ft (7,400 m)
  • Rate of climb:1,200 ft/min (6.1 m/s)
  • Wing loading:22.2 lb/sq ft (108 kg/m2)
  • Power/mass:0.11 hp/lb (kW/kg)

Armament

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SNJ with the newT-6 Texan II,left
Harvard converted to resemble aMitsubishi A6M Zero.

In the September 1944 issue ofThe Sportsman Pilot,USAAFCapt. Paul K. Jones' article stated, "TheSixis a plane that can do anything a fighter can do—and even more. Naturally not as fast, she makes up for speed in her ease of handling and her maneuverability. She's a war machine, yes, but more than that she's a flyer's airplane.Rolls,Immelmans,loops,spins,snaps,vertical rolls—she can do anything—and do it beautifully. For actual combat, more guns, more speed and more power is needed. But for the sheer joy of flying—give me an AT-6. "[35]

After World War II, theNational Air Racesestablished a unique racing class for the AT-6/Texan/Harvard aircraft; this class continues today at the Reno National Air Races each year.

Since the Second World War, the T-6 has been a regular participant atair shows,and was used in manymoviesand television programs. For example, converted single-seat T-6s painted inJapanesemarkings to representMitsubishi Zerosmade appearances inA Yank in the R.A.F.(1941),Tora! Tora! Tora!(1970),Baa Baa Black Sheep(1976-1978), andThe Final Countdown(1980). InA Bridge too Far(1977) it represented the razorbackRepublic P-47 Thunderbolt.Some were modified for the Dutch filmSoldaat van Oranje(1977) to represent the Dutch pre–World War II fighterFokker D.XXI.

TheNew ZealandWarbirds "Roaring 40s" aerobatic team use ex–Royal New Zealand Air ForceHarvards. TheFlying Lions Aerobatic Teamuses Harvards acquired from theSouth African Air Force.[36]

See also

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Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

Related lists

References

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  1. ^Hagedorn 2009,p.[page needed].
  2. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 33–44, 214.
  3. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 52–53.
  4. ^Hagedorn 1997,pp. 34–35.
  5. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 56–57, 214.
  6. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 46, 63–66, 69, 77–79, 92, 214.
  7. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 46–47, 73–74, 214.
  8. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 80–91, 214.
  9. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 93–97, 214.
  10. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 98–128, 214.
  11. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 122–124.
  12. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 139–153, 214.
  13. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 153–154.
  14. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 155–159, 214.
  15. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 176–178.
  16. ^Nicolle, David."Syria's Fighting Texans".ACIG.org.Retrieved30 January2013.
  17. ^"North American T-6D 'Mosquito'".National Museum of the US Air Force.Retrieved4 October2015.
  18. ^"North American AT-6/SNJ-6".Lyon Air Museum.Archived fromthe originalon 22 September 2019.Retrieved18 September2019.
  19. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 148–151.
  20. ^Cooper, Tom."Argentina, 1955–1965".ACIG.org.Retrieved23 January2013.
  21. ^"Harvard 1, IIA, III (NA-88)".South African Air Force.Retrieved25 June2020.Unofficial site, not affiliated with the South African Air Force.
  22. ^"The History of the SAAF".South African Air Force. Archived fromthe originalon 5 May 2012.Retrieved12 November2009.
  23. ^"Harvard Research Aircraft"(PDF).Institute for Aerospace Research, National Research Council Canada. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 11 June 2011.
  24. ^Jowett, Philip (2016).Modern African Wars (5): The Nigerian-Biafran War 1967–70.Oxford:Osprey.p. 19.ISBN978-1472816092.
  25. ^Cooper & Grandolini 2018,p. 23.
  26. ^Sipos, Milos; Cooper, Tom (2020).Wings of Iraq.Vol. 1: The Iraqi Air Force,1931–1970. Warwick, UK: Helion & Company. p. III.ISBN978-1-913118-74-7.
  27. ^"Italian Air Force Aircraft Types".Aeroflight.
  28. ^"Congo, Part 1; 1960–1963".ACIG. 2003. Archived from the original on 29 October 2005.Retrieved9 August2013.
  29. ^Cooper & Grandolini 2018,pp. 30–31.
  30. ^Cooper & Grandolini 2018,pp. 25, V.
  31. ^"KF183".Retrieved 8 March 2017
  32. ^"Qinetiq's Last Harvard Departs".Air Forces Monthly.January 2017. p. 8.
  33. ^Cooper, Tom (2017).Hot Skies Over Yemen.Vol. 1: Aerial Warfare Over the South Arabian Peninsula,1962–1994. Solihull, UK: Helion & Company. p. I.ISBN978-1-912174-23-2.
  34. ^Bridgeman, Leonard. "The North American Texan."Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II.London: Studio, 1946. p. 251.ISBN1 85170 493 0.
  35. ^Hagedorn 2009,pp. 8–9.
  36. ^"Team fact sheet"(PDF).Eqstra.co.za.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 March 2014.Retrieved23 March2014.

Bibliography

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