Novel

For other uses, seeNovel (disambiguation).

Anovelis an extended work ofnarrativefictionusually written inproseandpublishedas abook.The word derives from the Italian:novellafor "new", "news", or "short story (of something new)", itself from the Latin:novella,a singular noun use of the neuter plural ofnovellus,diminutive ofnovus,meaning "new".According toMargaret Doody,the novel has "a continuous and comprehensive history of about two thousand years", with its origins in theAncient GreekandRoman novel,MedievalChivalric romance,and the tradition of the Italian Renaissancenovella.The ancient romance form was revived byRomanticism,in thehistorical romancesofWalter Scottand theGothic novel. Some novelists, includingNathaniel Hawthorne,Herman Melville,Ann Radcliffe,andJohn Cowper Powys,preferred the term "romance".Such" romances "should not be confused with thegenre fictionromance novel,which focuses on romantic love.M. H. Abramsand Walter Scott have argued that a novel is a fiction narrative that displays a realistic depiction of the state of a society, while the romance encompasses any fictitious narrative that emphasizes marvellous or uncommon incidents.Works of fiction that include marvellous or uncommon incidents are also commonly called novels, includingMary Shelley'sFrankenstein,J. R. R. Tolkien'sThe Lord of the Rings,andHarper Lee'sTo Kill a Mockingbird.

The spread of printed books in China led to the appearance of the vernacularclassic Chinese novelsduring theMing dynasty(1368–1644), andQing dynasty(1616–1911). An early example from Europe wasHayy ibn Yaqdhanby theSufiwriterIbn TufaylinMuslim Spain.Later developments occurred after theinvention of the printing press.Miguel de Cervantes,author ofDon Quixote(the first part of which was published in 1605), is frequently cited as the first significant Europeannovelistof themodern era.Literary historianIan Watt,inThe Rise of the Novel(1957), argued that the modern novel was born in the early 18th century.

Recent technological developments have led to many novels also being published in non-print media: this includesaudio books,web novels,andebooks.Another non-traditional fiction format can be found ingraphic novels.While thesecomic bookversions of works of fiction have their origins in the 19th century, they have only become popular recently.

Defining the genre

Madame de Pompadourspending her afternoon with a book (François Boucher,1756)

Paper as the essential carrier:Murasaki Shikibuwriting herThe Tale of Genjiin the early 11th century, 17th-century depiction

A novel is a long, fictional narrative. The novel in themodern erausually makes use of aliterary prose style.The development of the prose novel at this time was encouraged by innovations inprinting,and the introduction of cheap paper in the 15th century.

Several characteristics of a novel might include:

• Fictional narrative:Fictionalityis most commonly cited as distinguishing novels fromhistoriography.However this can be a problematic criterion.Throughout theearly modern periodauthors of historical narratives would often include inventions rooted in traditional beliefs in order to embellish a passage of text or add credibility to an opinion. Historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes. Novels can, on the other hand, depict the social, political and personal realities of a place and period with clarity and detail not found in works of history. Several novels, for exampleÔng cố vấnwritten byHữu Mai,were designed to be and defined as a "non-fiction" novel which purposefully recorded historical facts in the form of a novel.
• Literary prose: While prose rather than verse became the standard of the modern novel, the ancestors of the modern European novel include verse epics in theRomance languageof southern France, especially those byChrétien de Troyes(late 12th century), and inMiddle English(Geoffrey Chaucer's (c. 1343– 1400)The Canterbury Tales).Even in the 19th century, fictional narratives in verse, such asLord Byron'sDon Juan(1824),Alexander Pushkin'sYevgeniy Onegin(1833), andElizabeth Barrett Browning'sAurora Leigh(1856), competed with prose novels.Vikram Seth'sThe Golden Gate(1986), composed of 590Onegin stanzas,is a more recent example of the verse novel.
• Experience of intimacy: Both in 11th-century Japan and 15th-century Europe, prose fiction created intimate reading situations.Harold BloomcharacterizesLady Murasaki's use of intimacy and irony inThe Tale of Genjias "having anticipated Cervantes as the first novelist." On the other hand, verse epics, including theOdysseyandAeneid,had been recited to select audiences, though this was a more intimate experience than the performance of plays in theaters.A new world of individualistic fashion, personal views, intimate feelings, secret anxieties, "conduct", and "gallantry" spread with novels and the associatedprose-romance.
• Length: The novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose fiction, followed by thenovella.However, in the 17th century, critics saw the romance as of epic length and the novel as its short rival. A precise definition of the differences in length between these types of fiction, is, however, not possible. The philosopher and literary criticGyörgy Lukácsargued that the requirement of length is connected with the notion that a novel should encompass the totality of life.However, according to the English novelistE. M. Forster,a novel should be composed with at least fifty-thousand words.

East Asian definition

East Asian countries, like China, Korea, Vietnam and Japan, use the wordTiểu thuyết(variantTraditional ChineseandShinjitai:Tiểu thuyết;Simplified Chinese:Tiểu thuyết;Hangeul:소설;Pinyin:xiǎoshuō;Jyutping:siu²syut³;Wugniu:³siau-seq₇;Peh-oe-ji:sió-soat;Hepburn:shōsetsu;Revised:soseol;Vietnamese:tiểu thuyết), which literally means "small talks" or "little talks", to refer to works of fiction of whatever length.In Chinese, Japanese and Korean cultures, the concept of novel as it is understood in the Western world was (and still is) termed as "long length small talk" ( truyện dài ), novella as "medium length small talk" ( tiểu thuyết vừa ), and short stories as "short length small talk" ( truyện ngắn ). However, in Vietnamese culture, the term tiểu thuyết exclusively refers to truyện dài (long-length small talk), i.e. standard novel, while different terms are used to refer to novella and short stories.

Such terms originated from ancient Chinese classification of literature works into "small talks" (tales of daily life and trivial matters) and "great talks" ( "sacred" classic works of great thinkers likeConfucius). In other words, the ancient definition of "small talks" merely refers to trivial affairs, trivial facts, and can be different from the Western concept of novel. According toLu Xun,the word "small talks" first appeared in the works ofZhuang Zhou,which coined such word. Later scholars also provided a similar definition, such as Han dynasty historianBan Gu,who categorized all the trivial stories and gossips collected by local government magistrates as "small talks".

Hồ Nguyên Trừngclassified his memoir collectionNam Ông mộng lụcas "small talks" clearly with the meaning of "trivial facts" rather than the Western definition of novel. Such classification also left a strong legacy in several East Asian interpretations of the Western definition of “novel” at the time when Western literature was first introduced to East Asian countries. For example, Thanh Lãng andNhất Linhclassified the epic poems such asThe Tale of Kiềuas "novel", whileTrần Chánh Chiếuemphasized the "belongs to the commoners", "trivial daily talks" aspect in one of his work.

Early novels

See also:Ancient Greek novelandByzantine novel

The earliest novels include classical Greek and Latin prose narratives from the first century BC to the second century AD, such asChariton'sCallirhoe(mid 1st century), which is "arguably the earliest surviving Western novel",as well asPetronius'Satyricon,Lucian'sTrue Story,Apuleius'The Golden Ass,and the anonymousAesop RomanceandAlexander Romance.These works were often influenced by oral traditions, such as storytelling and myth-making, and reflected the cultural, social, and political contexts of their time. Afterwards, their style was adapted in laterByzantine novelssuch asHysimine and HysiminesbyEustathios MakrembolitesNarrative forms were also developed in Classical Sanskrit in India during the 5th through 8th centuries.VasavadattabySubandhu,DaśakumāracaritaandAvantisundarīkathābyDaṇḍin,andKadambaribyBanabhattaare among notable works. These narrative forms were influenced by much older classical SanskritplaysandIndian classical dramaliterature, as well as by oral traditions and religious texts.

In China

See also:Classic Chinese Novels

TheYou Xian Kuby Zhang Zhuo

The 7th-century Chinese narrative prose workYou Xian Kuwritten by Zhang Zhuo is considered by some to be one of the earliest "romances" or "novels" of theTang dynasty,and it was influential on later works of fiction in East Asia.

Urbanization and the spread of printed books inSong dynasty(960–1279)led to the evolution of oral storytelling,chuanqiandhuaben,into long-form multi-volume vernacular fictionalnovelsby theMing dynasty(1368–1644).

Medieval period: 1100–1500

The European developments of the novel did not occur until after the invention of the printing press byJohannes Gutenbergaround 1439, and the rise of the publishing industry over a century later.Long European works continued to be in poetry in the 16th century. The modern European novel is often said to have begun withDon Quixotein 1605.Another important early novel was the French pastoral novelL'AstréebyHonore d'Urfe,published in 1610.

Chivalric romances

Main article:Chivalric romance

ChaucerrecitingTroilus and Criseyde:early-15th-century manuscript of the work atCorpus Christi College, Cambridge

Romance or chivalric romance is a type ofnarrativeinproseorversepopular in the aristocratic circles ofHigh MedievalandEarly Modern Europe.They were marvel-filledadventures,often of aknight-errantwithheroicqualities, who undertakes aquest,yet it is "the emphasis on heterosexual love and courtly manners distinguishes it from thechanson de gesteand other kinds ofepic,which involve heroism. "In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes ofcourtly love.

Originally, romance literature was written inOld French,Anglo-NormanandOccitan,later, inEnglish,ItalianandGerman.During the early 13th century, romances were increasingly written as prose.

The shift from verse to prose dates from the early 13th century; for example, theRomance of Flamenca.TheProse LancelotorVulgate Cyclealso includes passages from that period. This collection indirectly led toThomas Malory'sLe Morte d'Arthurof the early 1470s. Prose became increasingly attractive because it enabled writers to associate popular stories with serious histories traditionally composed in prose, and could also be more easily translated.

Popular literature also drew on themes of romance, but withironic,satiricorburlesqueintent. Romances reworkedlegends,fairy tales,and history, but by about 1600 they were out of fashion, andMiguel de Cervantesfamouslyburlesquedthem inDon Quixote(1605). Still,the modern image of the medievalis more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre, and the word "medieval" evokes knights, distressed damsels, dragons, and such tropes.

The novella

Main article:Novella

The term "novel" originates from the production of short stories, ornovellathat remained part of a European oral culture of storytelling into the late 19th century. Fairy tales, jokes, and humorous stories designed to make a point in a conversation, and theexempluma priest would insert in a sermon belong into this tradition. Written collections of such stories circulated in a wide range of products from practical compilations of examples designed for the use of clerics to compilations of various stories such asBoccaccio'sDecameron(1354) andGeoffrey Chaucer'sCanterbury Tales(1386–1400). TheDecameronwas a compilation of one hundrednovelletold by ten people—seven women and three men—fleeing theBlack Deathby escaping fromFlorenceto the Fiesole hills, in 1348.

Renaissance period: 1500–1700

1474: The customer in the copyist's shop with a book he wants to have copied. This illustration of the first printed GermanMelusinelooked back to the market of manuscripts.

The modern distinction between history and fiction did not exist in the early sixteenth century and the grossest improbabilities pervade many historical accounts found in the early modern print market.William Caxton's 1485 edition ofThomas Malory'sLe Morte d'Arthur(1471) was sold as a true history, though the story unfolded in a series of magical incidents and historical improbabilities.Sir John Mandeville'sVoyages,written in the 14th century, but circulated in printed editions throughout the 18th century,was filled with natural wonders, which were accepted as fact, like the one-footed Ethiopians who use their extremity as an umbrella against the desert sun. Both works eventually came to be viewed as works of fiction.

In the 16th and 17th centuries two factors led to the separation of history and fiction. The invention of printing immediately created a new market of comparatively cheap entertainment and knowledge in the form ofchapbooks.The more elegant production of this genre by 17th- and 18th-century authors werebelles lettres—that is, a market that would be neither low nor academic. The second major development was the first best-seller of modern fiction, the SpanishAmadis de Gaula,by García Montalvo. However, it was not accepted as an example ofbelles lettres.TheAmadiseventually became the archetypical romance, in contrast with the modern novel which began to be developed in the 17th century.

In Japan

Many different genres of literature made their debut during theEdo periodin Japan, helped by a rising literacy rate among the growing population of townspeople, as well as the development of lending libraries.Ihara Saikaku(1642–1693) might be said to have given birth to the modern consciousness of the novel in Japan, mi xing vernacular dialogue into his humorous and cautionary tales of the pleasure quarters, the so-calledUkiyozōshi( "floating world") genre.Ihara'sLife of an Amorous Manis considered the first work in this genre. Although Ihara's works were not regarded as high literature at the time because it had been aimed towards and popularized by thechōnin(merchant classes), they became popular and were key to the development and spread ofukiyozōshi.

Chapbooks

Main article:Chapbook

A chapbook is an early type ofpopular literatureprinted inearly modern Europe.Produced cheaply, chapbooks were commonly small, paper-covered booklets, usually printed on a single sheet folded into books of 8, 12, 16 and 24 pages. They were often illustrated with crudewoodcuts,which sometimes bore no relation to the text. When illustrations were included in chapbooks, they were consideredpopular prints.The tradition arose in the 16th century, as soon asprintedbooks became affordable, and rose to its height during the 17th and 18th centuries. Many different kinds ofephemeraand popular or folk literature were published as chapbooks, such asalmanacs,children's literature,folk tales,nursery rhymes,pamphlets,poetry,and political and religioustracts.

The term "chapbook" for this type of literature was coined in the 19th century. The corresponding French and German terms arebibliothèque bleue(blue book) andVolksbuch,respectively.The principal historical subject matter of chapbooks was abridgements of ancient historians, popular medieval histories of knights, stories of comical heroes, religious legends, and collections of jests and fables.The new printed books reached the households of urban citizens and country merchants who visited the cities as traders. Cheap printed histories were, in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially popular among apprentices and younger urban readers of both sexes.

The early modern market, from the 1530s and 1540s, divided into lowchapbooksand high market expensive, fashionable, elegantbelles lettres.TheAmadisandRabelais'Gargantua and Pantagruelwere important publications with respect to this divide. Both books specifically addressed the new customers of popular histories, rather than readers ofbelles lettres.The Amadis was a multi–volume fictional history of style, that aroused a debate about style and elegance as it became the first best-seller of popular fiction. On the other hand,Gargantua and Pantagruel,while it adopted the form of modern popular history, in fact satirized that genre's stylistic achievements. The division, between low and high literature, became especially visible with books that appeared on both the popular andbelles lettresmarkets in the course of the 17th and 18th centuries: low chapbooks included abridgments of books such asDon Quixote.

The term "chapbook" is also in use for present-day publications, commonly short, inexpensive booklets.

Heroic romances

Main articles:Heroic romancesand17th-century French literature

Heroic Romance is a genre of imaginative literature, which flourished in the 17th century, principally in France.

The beginnings of modern fiction in France took a pseudo-bucolicform, and the celebratedL'Astrée,(1610) ofHonore d'Urfe(1568–1625), which is the earliest French novel, is properly styled apastoral.Although its action was, in the main, languid and sentimental, there was a side of the Astree which encouraged that extravagant love of glory, that spirit of "panache", which was now rising to its height in France. That spirit it was which animatedMarin le Roy de Gomberville(1603–1674), who was the inventor of what have since been known as the Heroical Romances. In these there was experienced a violent recrudescence of the old medieval elements of romance, the impossible valour devoted to a pursuit of the impossible beauty, but the whole clothed in the language and feeling and atmosphere of the age in which the books were written. In order to give point to thechivalrousactions of the heroes, it was always hinted that they were well-known public characters of the day in a romantic disguise.

Satirical romances

Richard Head,The English Rogue(1665)

Stories of witty cheats were an integral part of the European novella with its tradition offabliaux.Significant examples includeTill Eulenspiegel(1510),Lazarillo de Tormes(1554),Grimmelshausen'sSimplicissimus Teutsch(1666–1668) and in EnglandRichard Head'sThe English Rogue(1665). The tradition that developed with these titles focused on a hero and his life. The adventures led to satirical encounters with the real world with the hero either becoming the pitiable victim or the rogue who exploited the vices of those he met.

A second tradition of satirical romances can be traced back toHeinrich Wittenwiler'sRing(c. 1410) and toFrançois Rabelais'Gargantua and Pantagruel(1532–1564), which parodied and satirized heroic romances, and did this mostly by dragging them into the low realm of the burlesque.Don Quixotemodified the satire of romances: its hero lost contact with reality by reading too many romances in the Amadisian tradition.

Other important works of the tradition arePaul Scarron'sRoman Comique(1651–57), the anonymous FrenchRozelliwith its satire on Europe's religions,Alain-René Lesage'sGil Blas(1715–1735),Henry Fielding'sJoseph Andrews(1742) andTom Jones(1749), andDenis Diderot'sJacques the Fatalist(1773, printed posthumously in 1796).

Histories

1719 newspaper reprint ofRobinson Crusoe

A market of literature in the modern sense of the word, that is a separate market for fiction and poetry, did not exist until the late seventeenth century. All books were sold under the rubric of "History and politicks" in the early 18th century, includingpamphlets,memoirs,travel literature,political analysis, serious histories, romances, poetry, and novels.

That fictional histories shared the same space with academic histories and modern journalism had been criticized by historians since the end of the Middle Ages: fictions were "lies" and therefore hardly justifiable at all. The climate, however, changed in the 1670s.

The romance format of the quasi–historical works ofMadame d'Aulnoy,César Vichard de Saint-Réal,Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras,andAnne-Marguerite Petit du Noyer,allowed the publication of histories that dared not risk an unambiguous assertion of their truth. The literary market-place of the late 17th and early 18th century employed a simple pattern of options whereby fictions could reach out into the sphere of true histories. This permitted its authors to claim they had published fiction, not truth, if they ever faced allegations of libel.

Prefaces and title pages of seventeenth and early eighteenth century fiction acknowledged this pattern: histories could claim to be romances, but threaten to relate true events, as in theRoman à clef.Other works could, conversely, claim to be factual histories, yet earn the suspicion that they were wholly invented. A further differentiation was made between private and public history:Daniel Defoe'sRobinson Crusoewas, within this pattern, neither a "romance" nor a "novel". It smelled of romance, yet the preface stated that it should most certainly be read as a true private history.

Cervantes and the modern novel

See also:Picaresque novel

The rise of the modern novel as an alternative to thechivalric romancebegan with the publication ofMiguel de Cervantes' novelDon Quixote:"the first great novel of world literature".It continued withScarron'sRoman Comique(the first part of which appeared in 1651), whose heroes noted the rivalry between French romances and the new Spanish genre. In Germany an early example of the novel isSimplicius SimplicissimusbyHans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen,published in 1668,

Late 17th-century critics looked back on the history of prose fiction, proud of the generic shift that had taken place, leading towards the modern novel/novella.The first perfect works in French were those of Scarron andMadame de La Fayette's "Spanish history"Zayde(1670). The development finally led to herPrincesse de Clèves(1678), the first novel with what would become characteristic French subject matter.

Europe witnessed the generic shift in the titles of works in French published in Holland, which supplied the international market and English publishers exploited the novel/romance controversy in the 1670s and 1680s.Contemporary critics listed the advantages of the new genre: brevity, a lack of ambition to produce epic poetry in prose; the style was fresh and plain; the focus was on modern life, and on heroes who were neither good nor bad.The novel's potential to become the medium of urban gossip and scandal fueled the rise of the novel/novella. Stories were offered as allegedly true recent histories, not for the sake of scandal but strictly for the moral lessons they gave. To prove this, fictionalized names were used with the true names in a separate key. TheMercure Gallantset the fashion in the 1670s.Collections of letters and memoirs appeared, and were filled with the intriguing new subject matter and theepistolary novelgrew from this and led to the first full blown example of scandalous fiction inAphra Behn'sLove-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister(1684/ 1685/ 1687). Before the rise of the literary novel, reading novels had only been a form of entertainment.

However, one of the earliest English novels,Daniel Defoe'sRobinson Crusoe(1719), has elements of the romance, unlike these novels, because of its exotic setting and story of survival in isolation.Crusoelacks almost all of the elements found in these new novels: wit, a fast narration evolving around a group of young fashionable urban heroes, along with their intrigues, a scandalous moral, gallant talk to be imitated, and a brief, concise plot.The new developments did, however, lead toEliza Haywood's epic length novel,Love in Excess(1719/20) and toSamuel Richardson'sPamela, or Virtue Rewarded(1741).Some literary historians date the beginning of the English novel with Richardson'sPamela,rather thanCrusoe.

18th-century novels

Main article:Augustan prose

The idea of the "rise of the novel" in the 18th century is especially associated withIan Watt's influential studyThe Rise of the Novel(1957).In Watt's conception, a rise in fictional realism during the 18th century came to distinguish the novel from earlier prose narratives.

Philosophical novel

Main article:Philosophical fiction

Laurence Sterne,Tristram Shandy,vol.6, pp. 70–71 (1769)

The rising status of the novel in eighteenth century can be seen in the development of philosophicalandexperimental novels.

Philosophical fiction was not exactly new.Plato's dialogues were embedded in fictional narratives and hisRepublicis an early example of aUtopia.Ibn Tufail's 12th centuryPhilosophus Autodidacticuswith its story of a human outcast surviving on an island, and the 13th century response byIbn al-Nafis,Theologus Autodidactusare both didactic narrative works that can be thought of as early examples of a philosophicaland a theological novel,respectively.

The tradition of works of fiction that were also philosophical texts continued withThomas More'sUtopia(1516) andTommaso Campanella'sCity of the Sun(1602). However, the actual tradition of thephilosophical novelcame into being in the 1740s with new editions of More's work under the titleUtopia: or the happy republic; a philosophical romance(1743).Voltairewrote in this genre inMicr Omega s: a comic romance, which is a biting satire on philosophy, ignorance, and the self-conceit of mankind(1752, English 1753). HisZadig(1747) andCandide(1759) became central texts of the FrenchEnlightenmentand of the modern novel.

An example of theexperimental novelisLaurence Sterne'sThe Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman(1759–1767), with its rejection of continuous narration.In it the author not only addresses readers in his preface but speaks directly to them in his fictional narrative. In addition to Sterne's narrative experiments, there are visual experiments, such as a marbled page, a black page to express sorrow, and a page of lines to show the plot lines of the book. The novel as a whole focuses on the problems of language, with constant regard toJohn Locke's theories inAn Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

The romance genre in the 18th century

Samuel Richardson'sPamela(1741)

The rise of the word "novel" at the cost of its rival, the romance, remained a Spanish and English phenomenon, and though readers all over Western Europe had welcomed the novel(la) or short history as an alternative in the second half of the 17th century, only the English and the Spanish had openly discredited the romance.

But the change of taste was brief andFénelon'sTelemachus[Les Aventures de Télémaque] (1699/1700) already exploited a nostalgia for the old romances with their heroism and professed virtue.Jane Barkerexplicitly advertised herExiliusas "A new Romance", "written after the Manner of Telemachus", in 1715.Robinson Crusoespoke of his own story as a "romance", though in the preface to the third volume, published in 1720, Defoe attacks all who said "that [...] the Story is feign'd, that the Names are borrow'd, and that it is all a Romance; that there never were any such Man or Place".

The late 18th century brought an answer with theRomanticMovement's readiness to reclaim the word romance, with thegothic romance,and thehistorical novelsofWalter Scott.Robinson Crusoenow became a "novel" in this period, that is a work of the new realistic fiction created in the 18th century.

The sentimental novel

Main article:Sentimental novel

Sentimental novels relied on emotional responses, and feature scenes of distress and tenderness, and the plot is arranged to advance emotions rather than action. The result is a valorization of "fine feeling", displaying the characters as models of refined, sensitive emotional affect. The ability to display such feelings was thought at this time to show character and experience, and to help shape positive social life and relationships.

An example of this genre isSamuel Richardson'sPamela, or Virtue Rewarded(1740), composed "to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes", which focuses on a potential victim, a heroine that has all the modern virtues and who is vulnerable because her low social status and her occupation as servant of a libertine who falls in love with her. She, however, ends in reforming her antagonist.

Male heroes adopted the newsentimentalcharacter traits in the 1760s.Laurence Sterne'sYorick,the hero of theSentimental Journey(1768) did so with an enormous amount of humour.Oliver Goldsmith'sVicar of Wakefield(1766) andHenry Mackenzie'sMan of Feeling(1771) produced the far more serious role models.

These works inspired asub- andcountercultureofpornographicnovels, for which Greek and Latin authors in translations had provided elegant models from the last century.Pornography includesJohn Cleland'sFanny Hill(1748), which offered an almost exact reversal of the plot of novels that emphasise virtue. The prostitute Fanny Hill learns to enjoy her work and establishes herself as a free and economically independent individual, in editions one could only expect to buy under the counter.

Less virtuous protagonists can also be found in satirical novels, likeRichard Head'sEnglish Rogue(1665), that feature brothels, while women authors likeAphra Behnhad offered their heroines alternative careers as precursors of the 19th-centuryfemmes fatales.

The genre evolves in the 1770s with, for example, Werther inJohann Wolfgang von Goethe'sThe Sorrows of Young Werther(1774) realising that it is impossible for him to integrate into the new conformist society, andPierre Choderlos de LaclosinLes Liaisons dangereuses(1782) showing a group of aristocrats playing games of intrigue and amorality..

The social context of the 18th century novel

Changing cultural status

By around 1700, fiction was no longer a predominantly aristocratic entertainment, and printed books had soon gained the power to reach readers of almost all classes, though the reading habits differed and to follow fashions remained a privilege. Spain was a trendsetter into the 1630s but French authors supersededCervantes,de Quevedo,andAlemánin the 1640s. AsHuetwas to note in 1670, the change was one of manners.The new French works taught a new, on the surface freer, gallant exchange between the sexes as the essence of life at the French court.

The situation changed again from 1660s into the 1690s when works by French authors were published in Holland out of the reach of French censors.Dutch publishing houses pirated fashionable books from France and created a new market of political and scandalous fiction. This led to a market of European rather than French fashions in the early 18th century.

Intimate short stories:The Court and City Vagaries(1711).

By the 1680s fashionable political European novels had inspired a second wave of private scandalous publications and generated new productions of local importance. Women authors reported on politics and on their private love affairs in The Hague and in London. German students imitated them to boast of their private amours in fiction.The London, the anonymous international market of the Netherlands, publishers in Hamburg and Leipzig generated new public spheres.Once private individuals, such as students in university towns and daughters of London's upper class began to write novels based on questionable reputations, the public began to call for a reformation of manners.

An important development in Britain, at the beginning of the century, was that new journals likeThe SpectatorandThe Tatlerreviewed novels. In GermanyGotthold Ephraim Lessing'sBriefe, die neuste Literatur betreffend(1758) appeared in the middle of the century with reviews of art and fiction. By the 1780s such reviews played had an important role in introducing new works of fiction to the public.

Influenced by the new journals, reform became the main goal of the second generation of eighteenth century novelists.The SpectatorNumber 10 had stated that the aim was now "to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality […] to bring philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffeehouses" ). Constructive criticism of novels had until then been rare.The first treatise on the history of the novel was a preface to Marie de La Fayette's novelZayde(1670).

A much later development was the introduction of novels into school and later university curricula.

The acceptance of novels as literature

The French churchman and scholarPierre Daniel Huet'sTraitté de l'origine des romans(1670) laid the ground for a greater acceptance of the novel as literature, that is comparable to theclassics,in the early 18th century. The theologian had not only dared to praise fictions, but he had also explained techniques of theological interpretation of fiction, which was a novelty. Furthermore, readers of novels and romances could gain insight not only into their own culture, but also that of distant, exotic countries.

When the decades around 1700 saw the appearance of new editions of the classical authorsPetronius,Lucian,andHeliodorus of Emesa.the publishers equipped them with prefaces that referred to Huet's treatise and thecanonit had established. Also exotic works of Middle Eastern fiction entered the market that gave insight into Islamic culture.The Book of One Thousand and One Nightswas first published in Europe from 1704 to 1715 in French, and then translated immediately into English and German, and was seen as a contribution to Huet's history of romances.

The English,Select Collection of Novels in six volumes(1720–22), is a milestone in this development of the novel's prestige. It included Huet'sTreatise,along with the European tradition of the modern novel of the day: that is, novella fromMachiavelli's toMarie de La Fayette's masterpieces.Aphra Behn's novels had appeared in the 1680s but became classics when reprinted in collections.Fénelon'sTelemachus(1699/1700) became a classic three years after its publication. New authors entering the market were now ready to use their personal names rather than pseudonyms, includingEliza Haywood,who in 1719 following in the footsteps of Aphra Behn used her name with unprecedented pride.

19th-century novels

Romanticism

Main article:Romanticism

See also:Newgate novel

Image from a Victorian edition ofWalter Scott'sWaverley(1814)

The very wordromanticismis connected to the idea of romance, and the romance genre experienced a revival, at the end of the 18th century, withgothic fiction,that began in 1764 withHorace Walpole'sThe Castle of Otranto,subtitled (in its second edition) "A Gothic Story".Subsequent important gothic works areAnn Radcliffe'sThe Mysteries of Udolpho(1794) and'Monk' Lewis'sThe Monk(1795).

First edition ofAleksis Kivi'sThe Seven Brothers(1870)

The new romances challenged the idea that the novel involved arealisticdepiction of life, and destabilized the difference the critics had been trying to establish, between serious classical art and popular fiction. Gothic romances exploited thegrotesque,and some critics thought that their subject matter deserved less credit than the worst medieval tales ofArthurian knighthood.

The authors of this new type of fiction were accused of exploiting all available topics to thrill, arouse, or horrify their audience. These newromanticnovelists, however, claimed that they were exploring the entire realm of fictionality. And psychological interpreters, in the early 19th century, read these works as encounters with the deeper hidden truth of the human imagination: this included sexuality,anxieties,and insatiabledesires.Under such readings, novels were described as exploring deeper human motives, and it was suggested that such artistic freedom would reveal what had not previously been openly visible.

The romances ofde Sade,Les 120 Journées de Sodome(1785),Poe'sTales of the Grotesque and Arabesque(1840),Mary Shelley,Frankenstein(1818), andE.T.A. Hoffmann,Die Elixiere des Teufels(1815), would later attract 20th-century psychoanalysts and supply the images for 20th- and 21st-century horror films,love romances,fantasynovels,role-playingcomputer games, and thesurrealists.

Thehistorical romancewas also important at this time. But, while earlier writers of these romances paid little attention to historical reality,Walter Scott'shistorical novelWaverley(1814) broke with this tradition, and he invented "the true historical novel".At the same time he was influenced bygothic romance,and had collaborated in 1801 with'Monk' LewisonTales of Wonder.With hisWaverley novelsScott "hoped to do for the Scottish border" whatGoetheand other German poets "had done for theMiddle Ages,"and make its past live again in modern romance".Scott's novels "are in the mode he himself defined as romance, 'the interest of which turns upon marvelous and uncommon incidents'".He used his imagination to re-evaluate history by rendering things, incidents and protagonists in the way only the novelist could do. His work remained historical fiction, yet it questioned existing historical perceptions. The use of historical research was an important tool: Scott, the novelist, resorted to documentary sources as any historian would have done, but as a romantic he gave his subject a deeper imaginative and emotional significance.By combining research with "marvelous and uncommon incidents", Scott attracted a far wider market than any historian could, and was the most famous novelist of his generation, throughout Europe.

The Victorian period: 1837–1901

Main articles:French literature of the 19th centuryandVictorian literature

See also:Sensation novel

In the 19th century the relationship between authors, publishers, and readers, changed. Authors originally had only received payment for their manuscript, however, changes incopyright laws,which began in 18th and continued into the 19th centurypromised royalties on all future editions. Another change in the 19th century was that novelists began to read their works in theaters, halls, and bookshops.Also during the nineteenth century the market forpopular fictiongrew, and competed with works of literature. New institutions like thecirculating librarycreated a new market with a mass reading public.

Another difference was that novels began to deal with more difficult subjects, including current political and social issues, that were being discussed in newspapers and magazines. Under the influence of social critics likeThomas Carlyle,the idea of social responsibility became a key subject, whether of the citizen, or of the artist, with the theoretical debate concentrating on questions around the moral soundness of the modern novel.Questions about artistic integrity, as well asaesthetics,including the idea of "art for art's sake",proposed by writers likeOscar WildeandAlgernon Charles Swinburne,were also important.

Major British writers such asCharles DickensandThomas Hardywere influenced by the romance genre tradition of the novel, which had been revitalized during the Romantic period. TheBrontë sisterswere notable mid-19th-century authors in this tradition, withAnne Brontë'sThe Tenant of Wildfell Hall,Charlotte Brontë'sJane EyreandEmily Brontë'sWuthering Heights.Publishing at the very end of the 19th century,Joseph Conradhas been called "a supreme 'romancer.'"In America "the romance... proved to be a serious, flexible, and successful medium for the exploration of philosophical ideas and attitudes." Notable examples includeNathaniel Hawthorne'sThe Scarlet Letter,andHerman Melville'sMoby-Dick.

A number of European novelists were similarly influenced during this period by the earlier romance tradition, along with theRomanticism,includingVictor Hugo,with novels likeThe Hunchback of Notre-Dame(1831) andLes Misérables(1862), andMikhail Yuryevich LermontovwithA Hero of Our Time(1840).

Harriet Beecher Stowe'sUncle Tom's Cabin(1852)

Many 19th-century authors dealt with significant social matters.Émile Zola's novels depicted the world of theworking classes,whichMarxandEngels's non-fiction explores. In the United States slavery and racism became topics of far broader public debate thanks toHarriet Beecher Stowe'sUncle Tom's Cabin(1852), which dramatizes topics that had previously been discussed mainly in the abstract.Charles Dickens' novels led his readers into contemporaryworkhouses,and provided first-hand accounts ofchild labor.The treatment of the subject of war changed withLeo Tolstoy'sWar and Peace(1868/69), where he questions the facts provided by historians. Similarly the treatment of crime is very different inFyodor Dostoyevsky'sCrime and Punishment(1866), where the point of view is that of a criminal. Women authors had dominated fiction from the 1640s into the early 18th century, but few beforeGeorge Eliotso openly questioned the role, education, and status of women in society, as she did.

As the novel became a platform of modern debate,national literatureswere developed that link the present with the past in the form of thehistorical novel.Alessandro Manzoni'sI Promessi Sposi(1827) did this for Italy, while novelists in Russia and the surrounding Slavonic countries, as well asScandinavia,did likewise.

Along with this new appreciation of history, the future also became a topic for fiction. This had been done earlier in works likeSamuel Madden'sMemoirs of the Twentieth Century(1733) andMary Shelley'sThe Last Man(1826), a work whose plot culminated in the catastrophic last days of a mankind extinguished by the plague.Edward Bellamy'sLooking Backward(1887) andH. G. Wells'sThe Time Machine(1895) were concerned with technological and biological developments.Industrialization,Darwin'stheory of evolutionand Marx's theory ofclassdivisions shaped these works and turned historical processes into a subject of wide debate. Bellamy'sLooking Backwardbecame the second best-selling book of the 19th century after Harriet Beecher Stowe'sUncle Tom's Cabin.Such works led to the development of a whole genre of popularscience fictionas the 20th century approached.

20th century

See also:Modernism,Postmodernism,Antinovel,andNouveau roman

Modernism and post-modernism

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn,Vladivostok, 1995

James Joyce'sUlysses(1922) had a major influence on modern novelists, in the way that it replaced the 18th- and 19th-century narrator with a text that attempted to record inner thoughts, or a "stream of consciousness".This term was first used byWilliam Jamesin 1890 and, along with the related terminterior monologue,is used bymodernistslikeDorothy Richardson,Marcel Proust,Virginia Woolf,andWilliam Faulkner.Also in the 1920sexpressionistAlfred Döblinwent in a different direction withBerlin Alexanderplatz(1929), where interspersed non-fictional text fragments exist alongside the fictional material to create another new form of realism, which differs from that of stream-of-consciousness.

Later works likeSamuel Beckett's trilogyMolloy(1951),Malone Dies(1951) andThe Unnamable(1953), as well asJulio Cortázar'sRayuela(1963) andThomas Pynchon'sGravity's Rainbow(1973) all make use of the stream-of-consciousness technique. On the other hand,Robert Cooveris an example of those authors who, in the 1960s, fragmented their stories and challenged time and sequentiality as fundamental structural concepts.

Chinua Achebe,Buffalo, 2008

The 20th century novel deals with a wide range of subject matter.Erich Maria Remarque'sAll Quiet on the Western Front(1928) focuses on a young German's experiences ofWorld War I.TheJazz Ageis explored by AmericanF. Scott Fitzgerald,and theGreat Depressionby fellow AmericanJohn Steinbeck.Totalitarianismis the subject of British writerGeorge Orwell's most famous novels. Existentialism is the focus of two writers from France:Jean-Paul SartrewithNausea(1938) andAlbert CamuswithThe Stranger(1942). Thecounterculture of the 1960s,with its exploration of altered states of consciousness, led to revived interest in the mystical works ofHermann Hesse,such asSteppenwolf(1927), and produced iconic works of its own, for exampleKen Kesey'sOne Flew Over the Cuckoo's NestandThomas Pynchon'sGravity's Rainbow.Novelists have also been interested in the subject of racial andgender identityin recent decades.Jesse Kavadlo ofMaryville Universityof St. Louis has describedChuck Palahniuk'sFight Club(1996) as "a closetedfeministcritique ".Virginia Woolf,Simone de Beauvoir,Doris Lessing,Elfriede Jelinekwere feminist voices during this period. Furthermore, the major political and military confrontations of the 20th and 21st centuries have also influenced novelists. The events ofWorld War II,from a German perspective, are dealt with byGünter Grass'The Tin Drum(1959) and an American byJoseph Heller'sCatch-22(1961). The subsequentCold Warinfluenced popularspy novels.Latin American self-awareness in the wake of the leftist revolutions of the 1960s and 1970s resulted in a "Latin American Boom",linked to the names of novelistsJulio Cortázar,Mario Vargas Llosa,Carlos FuentesandGabriel García Márquez,along with the invention of a special brand of postmodernmagic realism.

Another major 20th-century social event, the so-calledsexual revolutionis reflected in the modern novel.D.H. Lawrence'sLady Chatterley's Loverhad to be published in Italy in 1928 with British censorship only lifting its ban as late as 1960.Henry Miller'sTropic of Cancer(1934) created a comparable US scandal. Transgressive fiction fromVladimir Nabokov'sLolita(1955) toMichel Houellebecq'sLes Particules élémentaires(1998) pushed the boundaries, leading to the mainstream publication of explicitly erotic works such asAnne Desclos'Story of O(1954) andAnaïs Nin'sDelta of Venus(1978).

In the second half of the 20th century,Postmodernauthors subverted serious debate with playfulness, claiming that art could never be original, that it always plays with existing materials.The idea that language is self-referential was already an accepted truth in the world ofpulp fiction.A postmodernist re-reads popular literature as an essential cultural production. Novels fromThomas Pynchon'sThe Crying of Lot 49(1966), toUmberto Eco'sThe Name of the Rose(1980) andFoucault's Pendulum(1989) made use ofintertextualreferences.

Genre fiction

Main article:Genre fiction

See also:Thriller,Western,andSpeculative fiction

While the reader of so-calledserious literaturewill follow public discussions of novels, popular fiction production employs more direct and short-term marketing strategies by openly declaring a work's genre. Popular novels are based entirely on the expectations for the particular genre, and this includes the creation of a series of novels with an identifiable brand name. e.g. theSherlock Holmesseries byArthur Conan Doyle.

Popular literature holds a larger market share.Romance fictionhad an estimated $1.375 billion share in the US book market in 2007.Inspirational literature/religious literature followed with $819 million,science fiction/fantasywith $700 million,mysterywith $650 million and then classic literary fiction with $466 million.

Dan Brown

Genre literature might be seen as the successor of the early modernchapbook.Both fields share a focus on readers who are in search of accessible reading satisfaction.The twentieth century love romance is a successor of the novelsMadeleine de Scudéry,Marie de La Fayette,Aphra Behn,andEliza Haywoodwrote from the 1640s into the 1740s. The modernadventure novelgoes back toDaniel Defoe'sRobinson Crusoe(1719) and its immediate successors. Modernpornographyhas no precedent in the chapbook market but originates in libertine andhedonisticbelles lettres, of works likeJohn Cleland'sFanny Hill(1749) and similar eighteenth century novels.Ian Fleming'sJames Bondis a descendant of the anonymous yet extremely sophisticated and stylish narrator who mixed his love affairs with his political missions inLa Guerre d'Espagne(1707).Marion Zimmer Bradley'sThe Mists of Avalonis influenced byTolkien,as well asArthurian literature,including its nineteenth century successors. Modernhorror fictionalso has no precedent on the market of chapbooks but goes back to the elitist market of early nineteenth centuryRomantic literature.Modern popular science fiction has an even shorter history, from the 1860s.

The authors of popular fiction tend to advertise that they have exploited a controversial topic and this is a major difference between them and so-called elitist literature.Dan Brown,for example, discusses, on his website, the question whether hisDa Vinci Codeis an anti-Christian novel.And because authors of popular fiction have a fan community to serve, they can risk offendingliterary critics.However, the boundaries between popular and serious literature have blurred in recent years, withpostmodernismandpoststructuralism,as well as by adaptation of popular literary classics by the film and television industries.

J. K. Rowling,2010

Crime became a major subject of 20th and 21st century genre novelists andcrime fictionreflects the realities of modern industrialized societies. Crime is both a personal and public subject: criminals each have their personal motivations; detectives, see their moral codes challenged.Patricia Highsmith'sthrillersbecame a medium of new psychological explorations.Paul Auster'sNew York Trilogy(1985–1986) is an example of experimentalpostmodernistliterature based on this genre.

Fantasyis another major area of commercial fiction, and a major example isJ. R. R. Tolkien'sThe Lord of the Rings(1954/55), a work originally written for young readers that became a major cultural artefact. Tolkien in fact revived the tradition of Europeanepicliterature in the tradition ofBeowulf,the North GermanicEddaand theArthurian Cycles.

Science fictionis another important type of genre fiction and has developed in a variety of ways, ranging from the early, technological adventureJules Vernehad made fashionable in the 1860s, toAldous Huxley'sBrave New World(1932) about Westernconsumerismand technology.George Orwell'sNineteen Eighty-Four(1949) deals withtotalitarianismandsurveillance,among other matters, whileStanisław Lem,Isaac AsimovandArthur C. Clarkeproduced modern classics which focus on the interaction between humans and machines. The surreal novels ofPhilip K Dicksuch asThe Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritchexplore the nature of reality, reflecting the widespread recreational experimentation with drugs and cold-war paranoia of the 60's and 70's. Writers such asUrsula le GuinandMargaret Atwoodexplore feminist and broader social issues in their works.William Gibson,author of the cult classicNeuromancer(1984), is one of a new wave of authors who explore post-apocalyptic fantasies andvirtual reality.

21st century

Non-traditional formats

See also:Cell phone novel,Visual novel,Hypertext fiction,andInteractive fiction

A major development in this century has been novels published asebooks,and the growth ofweb fiction,which is available primarily or solely on the Internet. A common type is the webserial:unlike most modern novels, web fiction novels are frequently published in parts over time. Ebooks are often published with a paper version.Audio books(a recording of a book reading) have also become common this century.

Another non-traditional format, popular in the 21st century, is thegraphic novel.However, though a graphic novel may be "a fictional story that is presented in comic-strip format and published as a book",the term can also refer to non-fiction and collections of short works.While the term graphic novel was coined in the 1960sthere were precursors in the 19th century.The authorJohn Updike,when he spoke to the Bristol Literary Society in 1969, on "the death of the novel",declared that he saw" no intrinsic reason why a doubly talented artist might not arise and create a comic strip novel masterpiece ".A popular Japanese version of the graphic novel can be found inmanga,and such works of fiction can be publishedin online versions.

Audiobooks have been available since the 1930s inschoolsand public libraries, and to a lesser extent in music shops. Since the 1980s this medium has become more widely available, including more recently online.

Web fiction is especially popular in China, with revenues topping US$2.5 billion,as well as inSouth Korea.Online literature such as web fiction inside China has over 500 million readers,therefore, online literature in China plays a much more important role than in the United States and the rest of the world.Most books are available online, where the most popular novels find millions of readers. Joara is S. Korea's largest web novel platform with 140,000 writers, with an average of 2,400 serials per day and 420,000 works. The company posted 12.5 billion won in sales in 2015 as profits were generated from 2009. Its membership is 1.1 million, and it uses 8.6 million cases a day on average (2016).Since Joara's users have almost the same gender ratio, both fantasy and romance forms ofgenre fictionare in high demand.

The development of ebooks and web novels has led to a rapid expansion of self-published works in recent years.Some authors who self-publish can make more money than through a traditional publisher. However, despite the challenges from digital media print remains "the most popular book format among U.S. consumers, with more than 60 percent of adults having read a print book in the last twelve months" (in September 2021).

See also

• Bengali novels
• Chain novel
• Children's literature
• Collage novel
• Gay literature
• Graphic novel
• Light novel
• Nautical fiction
• Novel in Scotland
• Proletarian novel
• Psychological novel
• Sociology of literature
• Social novel
• The True Story of the Novel
• War novel
• Young adult fiction

Further reading

Theories of the novel

• Bakhtin,Mikhail.About novel.The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays.Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1981. [written during the 1930s]
• Burgess, Anthony."novel: Definition, Elements, Examples, Types, & Facts".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved19 December2021.
• Lukács, Georg(1971) [1916].The Theory of the Novel.Translated by Anna Bostock. Cambridge:MIT Press.
• Madden, David; Charles Bane; Sean M. Flory (2006) [1979].A Primer of the Novel: For Readers and Writers(revised ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-5708-7.Updated edition of pioneering typology and history of over 50 genres; index of types and technique, and detailed chronology.
• McKeon, Michael,Theory of the Novel: A Historical Approach(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000).

Histories of the novel

• Armstrong, Nancy (1987).Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-504179-8.
• Burgess, Anthony (1967).The Novel Now: A Student's Guide to Contemporary Fiction.London: Faber.
• Davis, Lennard J. (1983).Factual Fictions: The Origins of the English Novel.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-05420-1.
• Doody, Margaret Anne (1996).The True Story of the Novel.New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.ISBN978-0-8135-2168-8.
• Gosse, Edmund William(1911)."Novel".InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.833–838.
• Irr, Caren (December 2013).Toward the Geopolitical Novel: U.S. Fiction in the Twenty-First Century.Literature Now. Columbia University Press.ISBN9780231164405.
• Heiserman, Arthur Ray.The Novel Before the Novel(Chicago, 1977)ISBN0-226-32572-5
• McKeon, Michael (1987).The Origins of the English Novel, 1600–1740.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN978-0-8018-3291-8.
• Mentz, Steve (2006).Romance for sale in early modern England: the rise of prose fiction.Aldershot: Ashgate.ISBN0-7546-5469-9
• Moore, Steven.The Novel: An Alternative History.Vol. 1, Beginnings to 1600: Continuum, 2010. Vol. 2, 1600–1800: Bloomsbury, 2013.
• Müller, Timo (2017).Handbook of the American Novel of the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries.Boston: de Gruyter.
• Price, Leah (2003).The Anthology and the Rise of the Novel: From Richardson to George Eliot.London: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-53939-5.fromLeah Price
• Relihan, Constance C. (ed.),Framing Elizabethan fictions: contemporary approaches to early modern narrative prose(Kent, Ohio/ London:Kent State University Press,1996).ISBN0-87338-551-9
• Roilos, Panagiotis,Amphoteroglossia: A Poetics of the Twelfth-Century Medieval Greek Novel(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005).
• Rubens, Robert, "A hundred years of fiction: 1896 to 1996. (The English Novel in the Twentieth Century, part 12)." Contemporary Review, December 1996.
• Schmidt, Michael,The Novel: A Biography(Cambridge, MA:Belknap Press,2014).
• Watt, Ian(1957).The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding.Berkeley: University of Los Angeles Press.

External links

• The novel 1780–1832Archived2021-11-11 at theWayback Machineat the British Library
• The novel 1832–1880Archived2021-06-25 at theWayback Machineat the British Library
• The House of the Seven Gableswith "Preface"
• "The 100 greatest novels of all time".The Telegraph.2 March 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-11.Retrieved4 March2021.