Wikipedia

Open-source hardware

(Redirected fromOpen Source Hardware)

Open-source hardware(OSH,OSHW) consists of physicalartifactsof technology designed and offered by theopen-design movement.Bothfree and open-source software(FOSS) and open-source hardware are created by thisopen-source culturemovement and apply a like concept to a variety of components. It is sometimes, thus, referred to asFOSH(free and open-source hardware). The term usually means that information about the hardware is easily discerned so that others can make it – coupling it closely to themaker movement.[1]Hardware design (i.e. mechanical drawings,schematics,bills of material,PCBlayout data,HDLsource code[2]andintegrated circuitlayout data), in addition to the software thatdrivesthe hardware, are all released under free/libreterms. The original sharer gains feedback and potentially improvements on the design from the FOSH community. There is now significant evidence that such sharing can drive a highreturn on investmentfor the scientific community.[3]

The "open source hardware" logo proposed byOSHWA,one of the main defining organizations
TheRepRapMendel general-purpose3D printerwith the ability to make copies of most of its own structural parts

It is not enough to merely use anopen-source license;an open source product or project will follow open source principles, such as modular design and community collaboration.[4][5][6]

Since the rise of reconfigurableprogrammable logic devices,sharing of logic designs has been a form of open-source hardware. Instead of the schematics,hardware description language(HDL) code is shared. HDL descriptions are commonly used to set upsystem-on-a-chipsystems either infield-programmable gate arrays(FPGA) or directly inapplication-specific integrated circuit(ASIC) designs. HDL modules, when distributed, are calledsemiconductor intellectual property cores,also known as IP cores.

Open-source hardware also helps alleviate the issue ofproprietary device driversfor thefree and open-source softwarecommunity, however, it is not a pre-requisite for it, and should not be confused with the concept of open documentation for proprietary hardware, which is already sufficient for writing FLOSS device drivers and complete operating systems.[7][8] The difference between the two concepts is that OSH includes both the instructions on how to replicate the hardware itself as well as the information on communication protocols that the software (usually in the form ofdevice drivers) must use in order to communicate with the hardware (often called register documentation, or open documentation for hardware[7]), whereas open-source-friendly proprietary hardware would only include the latter without including the former.

History

edit
openhardware.org logo (2013)
OSHWA logo

The first hardware-focused "open source"activities were started around 1997 byBruce Perens,creator of theOpen Source Definition,co-founder of theOpen Source Initiative,and aham radio operator.He launched the Open Hardware Certification Program, which had the goal of allowing hardware manufacturers to self-certify their products as open.[9][10]

Shortly after the launch of the Open Hardware Certification Program, David Freeman announced the Open Hardware Specification Project (OHSpec), another attempt at licensing hardware components whose interfaces are available publicly and of creating an entirely new computing platform as an alternative to proprietary computing systems.[11]In early 1999, Sepehr Kiani, Ryan Vallance and Samir Nayfeh joined efforts to apply the open-source philosophy to machine design applications. Together they established the Open Design Foundation (ODF)[12]as a non-profit corporation and set out to develop anOpen DesignDefinition. However, most of these activities faded out after a few years.

A "Free Hardware" organization, known as FreeIO, was started in the late 1990s by Diehl Martin, who also launched a FreeIO website in early 2000. In the early to mid 2000s, FreeIO was a focus of free/open hardware designs released under theGNU General Public License.The FreeIO project advocated the concept of Free Hardware and proposed four freedoms that such hardware provided to users, based on the similar freedoms provided by free software licenses.[13]The designs gained some notoriety due to Martin's naming scheme in which each free hardware project was given the name of a breakfast food such as Donut, Flapjack, Toast, etc. Martin's projects attracted a variety of hardware and software developers as well as other volunteers. Development of new open hardware designs at FreeIO ended in 2007 when Martin died of pancreatic cancer but the existing designs remain available from the organization's website.[14]

By the mid 2000s open-source hardware again became a hub of activity due to the emergence of several major open-source hardware projects and companies, such asOpenCores,RepRap(3D printing),Arduino,Adafruit,SparkFun,andOpen Source Ecology.In 2007, Perens reactivated the openhardware.org website, but it's currently (August 2023) inactive.

Following theOpen Graphics Project,an effort to design, implement, and manufacture a free and open 3D graphics chip set and reference graphics card, Timothy Miller suggested the creation of an organization to safeguard the interests of the Open Graphics Project community. Thus, Patrick McNamara founded theOpen Hardware Foundation(OHF) in 2007.[15]

TheTucson Amateur Packet Radio Corporation(TAPR), founded in 1982 as a non-profit organization of amateur radio operators with the goals of supporting R&D efforts in the area of amateur digital communications, created in 2007 the first open hardware license, theTAPR Open Hardware License.TheOSIpresidentEric S. Raymondexpressed some concerns about certain aspects of the OHL and decided to not review the license.[16]

Around 2010 in context of theFreedom Definedproject, theOpen Hardware Definitionwas created as collaborative work of many[17]and is accepted as of 2016 by dozens of organizations and companies.[18]

In July 2011, CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) released an open-source hardware license,CERN OHL.Javier Serrano, an engineer at CERN's Beams Department and the founder of the Open Hardware Repository, explained: "By sharing designs openly, CERN expects to improve the quality of designs through peer review and to guarantee their users – including commercial companies – the freedom to study, modify and manufacture them, leading to better hardware and less duplication of efforts".[19]While initially drafted to address CERN-specific concerns, such as tracing the impact of the organization's research, in its current form it can be used by anyone developing open-source hardware.[20]

Following the 2011 Open Hardware Summit, and after heated debates on licenses and what constitutes open-source hardware, Bruce Perens abandoned the OSHW Definition and the concerted efforts of those involved with it.[21]Openhardware.org, led by Bruce Perens, promotes and identifies practices that meet all the combined requirements of the Open Source Hardware Definition, the Open Source Definition, and the Four Freedoms of theFree Software Foundation[22]Since 2014 openhardware.org is not online and seems to have ceased activity.[23]

TheOpen Source Hardware Association(OSHWA) at oshwa.org acts as hub of open-source hardware activity of all genres, while cooperating with other entities such as TAPR, CERN, and OSI. The OSHWA was established as an organization in June 2012 in Delaware and filed for tax exemption status in July 2013.[24]After some debates about trademark interferences with the OSI, in 2012 the OSHWA and the OSI signed a co-existence agreement.[25][26]

TheFOSSi Foundationis founded in 2015 as aUK-based non-profit to promote and protect the open source silicon chip movement, roughly a year after the official release ofRISC-Varchitecture.[27]

TheFree Software Foundationhas suggested an alternative "free hardware" definition derived from theFour Freedoms.[28][29]

Forms of open-source hardware

edit
Explainer video for Open Science Hardware

The termhardwarein open-source hardware has been historically used in opposition to the termsoftwareof open-source software. That is, to refer to the electronic hardware on which the software runs (see previous section). However, as more and more non-electronic hardware products are made open source (for exampleWikiHouse,OpenBeam or Hovalin), this term tends to be used back in its broader sense of "physical product". The field of open-source hardware has been shown to go beyond electronic hardware and to cover a larger range of product categories such as machine tools, vehicles and medical equipment.[30]In that sense,hardwarerefers to any form of tangible product, be it electronic hardware, mechanical hardware, textile or even construction hardware. The Open Source Hardware (OSHW) Definition 1.0 defines hardware as "tangible artifacts — machines, devices, or other physical things".[31]

Electronics

edit

Electronics is one of the most popular types of open-source hardware.PCBbased designs can be published similarly to software as CAD files, which users can send directly to PCB fabrication companies and receive a build from them in the mail. Or users can obtain components and solder them together themselves.

There are many companies that provide large varieties of open-source electronics such asSparkfun,Adafruit,and Seeed. In addition, there areNPOsand companies that provide a specific open-source electronic component such as theArduinoelectronics prototyping platform. There are many examples of specialty open-source electronics such as low-cost voltage and currentGMAWopen-source 3-D printer monitor[32][33]and a robotics-assistedmass spectrometryassay platform.[34][35]Open-source electronics finds various uses, including automation of chemical procedures.[36][37]

Chip design

edit
RISC-V processor prototype, January 2013

Open Standard chip designs are now common.OpenRISC(2000 - LGPL / GPL),OpenSparc(2005 - GPLv2), andRISC-V(2010 - Open Standard, free to implement for non-commercial purposes), are examples of free to useinstruction set architecture.

OpenCoresis a large library of standard chip design subcomponents which can be combined into larger designs.

Complete open source software stacks and shuttle fabrication services are now available which can take OSH chip designs fromhardware description languagesto masks andASICfabrication on maker-scale budgets.[38]

Mechanics

edit

Purely mechanical OSH designs include mechanical components, machine tools, and vehicles.Open Source Ecologyis a large project which seeks to develop a complete ecosystem of mechanical tools and components which aim to be able to replicate themselves.

Open-source vehicles have also been developed including bicycles like XYZ Space Frame Vehicles and cars such as the Tabby OSVehicle.

Mechatronics

edit

Most OSH systems combine elements of electronics and mechanics to formmechatronicssystems. A large range of open-sourcemechatronicproducts have been developed, including machine tools, musical instruments, and medical equipment.[30]

Examples of open-source machine tools include 3D printers such asRepRap,Prusa,andUltimaker,3D printer filament extruders such as polystruder[39]XR PRO as well as the laser cutterLasersaur.

Examples of open source medical equipment includeopen-source ventilators,the echostethoscope echOpen, and a wide range of prosthetic hands listed in the review study by Ten Kateet.al.[40](e.g. OpenBionics' Prosthetic Hands).

Robotics

edit

Open source roboticscombines open source hardware mechatronics with open source AI and control software. Due to the mixture of hardware and software it serves as a particularly active area for open source ideas to move between them.

Other

edit

Examples of open-source hardware products can also be found to a lesser extent in construction (Wikihouse), textile (Kit Zéro Kilomètres), and firearms (3D printed firearm,Defense Distributed).

Licenses

edit

Rather than creating a new license, some open-source hardware projects use existing,free and open-source softwarelicenses.[41]These licenses may not accord well withpatent law.[42]

Later, several new licenses were proposed, designed to address issues specific to hardware design.[43]In these licenses, many of the fundamental principles expressed in open-source software (OSS) licenses have been "ported" to their counterpart hardware projects. Newhardware licensesare often explained as the "hardware equivalent" of a well-known OSS license, such as theGPL,LGPL,orBSD license.

Despite superficial similarities tosoftware licenses,most hardware licenses are fundamentally different: by nature, they typically rely more heavily onpatentlaw than oncopyrightlaw, as many hardware designs are not copyrightable.[44]Whereas a copyright license may control the distribution of the source code or design documents, a patent license may control the use and manufacturing of the physical device built from the design documents. This distinction is explicitly mentioned in the preamble of theTAPR Open Hardware License:

"... those who benefit from an OHL design may not bring lawsuits claiming that design infringes their patents or other intellectual property."

— TAPR Open Hardware License[45]

Noteworthy licenses include:

TheOpen Source Hardware Associationrecommends seven licenses which follow theiropen-source hardware definition.[50]From the general copyleft licenses theGNU General Public License(GPL) andCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlikelicense, from the hardware-specific copyleft licenses theCERN Open Hardware License(OHL) andTAPR Open Hardware License(OHL) and from thepermissive licensestheFreeBSD license,theMIT license,and theCreative Commons Attributionlicense.[51]Openhardware.org recommended in 2012 the TAPR Open Hardware License, Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 and GPL 3.0 license.[52]

Organizations tend to rally around a shared license. For example,OpenCoresprefers theLGPLor aModified BSD License,[53]FreeCoresinsists on theGPL,[54]Open Hardware Foundationpromotes "copyleftor other permissive licenses ",[55]theOpen Graphics Projectuses[56]a variety of licenses, including theMIT license,GPL,and a proprietary license,[57]and theBalloon Projectwrote their own license.[58]

Development

edit
The OSHW (Open Source Hardware) logosilkscreenedon an unpopulatedPCB

The adjective "open-source" not only refers to a specific set of freedoms applying to a product, but also generally presupposes that the product is the object or the result of a "process that relies on the contributions of geographically dispersed developers via theInternet."[59]In practice however, in both fields of open-source hardware and open-source software, products may either be the result of a development process performed by a closed team in a private setting or by a community in a public environment, the first case being more frequent than the second which is more challenging.[30]Establishing a community-based product development process faces several challenges such as: to find appropriate product data management tools, document not only the product but also the development process itself, accepting losing ubiquitous control over the project, ensure continuity in a context of fickle participation of voluntary project members, among others.[60]

TheArduinoDiecimila, another popular and early open source hardware design

One of the major differences between developing open-source software and developing open-source hardware is that hardware results in tangible outputs, which cost money to prototype and manufacture. As a result, the phrase "free as in speech, not as in beer",[61]more-formally known asgratis versus libre,distinguishes between the idea of zero cost and the freedom to use and modify information. While open-source hardware faces challenges in minimizing cost and reducing financial risks for individual project developers, some community members have proposed models to address these needs[62]Given this, there are initiatives to develop sustainable community funding mechanisms, such as the Open Source Hardware Central Bank.

Extensive discussion has taken place on ways to make open-source hardware as accessible asopen-source software.Providing clear and detailed product documentation is an essential factor facilitating product replication and collaboration in hardware development projects. Practical guides have been developed to help practitioners to do so.[63]Another option is to design products so they are easy to replicate, as exemplified in the concept ofopen-source appropriate technology.[64]

The process of developing open-source hardware in a community-based setting is alternatively calledopen design,open source development[65]oropen source product development.[66]All these terms are examples of theopen-source modelapplicable for the development of any product, including software, hardware, cultural and educational. Does open design and open-source hardware design process involves new design practices, or raises requirements for new tools? is the question of openness really key in OSH?.[67]Seeherefor a delineation of these terms.

A major contributor to the production of open-source hardware product designs is the scientific community. There has been considerable work to produce open-source hardware for scientific hardware using a combination of open-source electronics and3-D printing.[68][69][70]Other sources of open-source hardware production are vendors of chips and other electronic components sponsoring contests with the provision that the participants and winners must share their designs.Circuit Cellarmagazine organizes some of these contests.

Open-source labs

edit

A guide has been published (Open-Source Lab (book)byJoshua Pearce) on usingopen-source electronicsand3D printingto makeopen-source labs.Today, scientists are creating many such labs. Examples include:

Business models

edit

Open hardware companies are experimenting withbusiness models.[74]For example,littleBitsimplementsopen-source business modelsby making available the circuit designs in each electronics module, in accordance with theCERN Open Hardware License Version1.2.[75]Another example isArduino,which registered its name as atrademark;others may manufacture products from Arduino designs but cannot call the products Arduino products.[76]There are many applicable business models for implementing some open-source hardware even in traditional firms. For example, to accelerate development and technical innovation, thephotovoltaicindustry has experimented with partnerships, franchises, secondary supplier and completely open-source models.[77]

Recently, many open-source hardware projects have been funded viacrowdfundingon platforms such asIndiegogo,Kickstarter,orCrowd Supply.[78]

Reception and impact

edit

Richard Stallman,the founder of thefree softwaremovement, was in 1999 skeptical on the idea and relevance offree hardware(his terminology for what is now known as open-source hardware).[79]In a 2015 article inWiredMagazine, he modified this attitude; he acknowledged the importance of free hardware, but still saw no ethical parallel with free software.[28]Also, Stallman prefers the termfree hardware designoveropen source hardware,a request which is consistent with his earlier rejection of the termopen source software(see alsoAlternative terms for free software).[28]

Other authors, such as ProfessorJoshua Pearcehave argued there is an ethical imperative for open-source hardware – specifically with respect toopen-source appropriate technologyforsustainable development.[80]In 2014, he also wrote the bookOpen-Source Lab: How to Build Your Own Hardware and Reduce Research Costs,which details the development offree and open-source hardwareprimarily forscientistsand universityfaculty.[81]Pearce in partnership with Elsevier introduced a scientific journalHardwareX.It has featured many examples of applications of open-source hardware for scientific purposes.

Further,Vasilis Kostakis[et]et al[82]have argued that open-source hardware may promote values of equity, diversity and sustainability. Open-source hardware initiative transcend traditional dichotomies of global-local, urban-rural, and developed-developing contexts. They may leverage cultural differences, environmental conditions, and local needs/resources, while embracing hyper-connectivity, to foster sustainability and collaboration rather than conflict.[82]However, open-source hardware does face some challenges and contradictions. It must navigate tensions between inclusiveness, standardization, and functionality.[82]Additionally, while open-source hardware may reduce pressure on natural resources and local populations, it still relies on energy- and material-intensive infrastructures, such as the Internet. Despite these complexities, Kostakis et al argue, the open-source hardware framework can serve as a catalyst for connecting and unifying diverse local initiatives under radical narratives, thus inspiring genuine change.[82]

OSH has grown as an academic field through the two journalsJournal of Open Hardware(JOH) andHardwareX.These journals compete to publish the best OSH designs, and each define their own requirements for what constitutes acceptable quality of design documents, including specific requirements for build instructions, bill of materials, CAD files, and licences. These requirements are often used by other OSH projects to define how to do an OSH release. These journals also publish papers contributing to the debate about how OSH should be defined and used.

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^Alicia Gibb (Ed.)Building Open Source Hardware: DIY Manufacturing for Hackers and Makers,Addison-Wesley: New York, pp. 253–277 (2015).
  2. ^"Free Hardware and Free Hardware Designs".Free Software Foundation Inc.
  3. ^Joshua M. Pearce. (2015-06-20)."Return on Investment for Open Source Hardware Development".Science and Public Policy.43(2): 192–195.doi:10.1093/scipol/scv034.
  4. ^Gavras, Kosmas (April 2019)."OPEN SOURCE BEYOND SOFTWARE: RE-INVENT OPEN DESIGN ON THE COMMON'S GROUND".Journal of Peer Production.13.
  5. ^MacCormack, Alan; Rusnak, John; Baldwin, Carliss Y. (2011). "Exploring the Duality between Product and Organizational Architectures: A Test of the Mirroring Hypothesis".SSRN1104745.
  6. ^Gavras, Kosmas; Kostakis, Vasilis (2021)."Mapping the types of modularity in open-source hardware".Design Science.7.doi:10.1017/dsj.2021.11.ISSN2053-4701.
  7. ^abTheo de Raadt(2016-12-03).Open Documentation for Hardware.OpenCON 2006, 2–3 December 2006.Courtyard Venice Airport, Venice/Tessera, Italy.
  8. ^Murenin, Constantine A. (2006-12-10)."Почему так важно иметь документацию по программированию железа".Linux.org.ru(in Russian).
  9. ^Perens, B. 1997. Announcing: The Open Hardware Certification Program. Debian Announce List.[1].
  10. ^The Open Hardware Certification Programon openhardware.org (November 1998).
  11. ^Freeman, D. 1998. OHSpec: The Open Hardware Specification Project.
  12. ^"Open Design Foundation".Archived fromthe originalon 2016-05-22.RetrievedMay 25,2020.
  13. ^"About FreeIO | FreeIO".
  14. ^"Diehl Martin | FreeIO".
  15. ^McNamara, P. 2007a. "Open Hardware". The Open Source Business Resource (September 2007: Defining Open Source)."McNamara".Archived fromthe originalon 2012-01-06.Retrieved2016-03-05..
  16. ^abArs Technica: TAPR introduces open-source hardware license, OSI skeptical.
  17. ^[2],Open Source Hardware Definition. Freedom Defined. 2011.
  18. ^OSHW.
  19. ^CERN launches Open Hardware initiativeArchived2012-07-01 at theWayback Machine.CERN. 2011.
  20. ^Ayass, M. 2011.CERN's Open Hardware LicenseArchived2011-12-06 at theWayback Machine.
  21. ^Bruce Perens, 2011a.Promoting Open Hardware.
  22. ^Bruce Perens. 2011b.Open Hardware – Constitution.Open Hardware.
  23. ^You've reached a web site owned by Perens LLCon openhardware.org.
  24. ^brief-history-of-open-source-hardware-organizations-and-definitionson OSHWA.org.
  25. ^An Important Question on the Open Source Hardware Markon oshwa.org (August 2012).
  26. ^co-existenceon oshwa.org (October 2012).
  27. ^"Welcome to FOSSi".fossi-foundation.org.Retrieved2024-08-23.
  28. ^abcStallman, Richard (2015-03-11)."Why We Need Free Digital Hardware Designs".Wired.Retrieved2016-01-14.
  29. ^Stallman, Richard (2015)."Free Hardware and Free Hardware Designs".Free Software Foundation.Retrieved2023-07-16.
  30. ^abcBonvoisin, Jérémy; Mies, Robert; Boujut, Jean-François; Stark, Rainer (2017-09-05)."What is the 'Source' of Open Source Hardware?".Journal of Open Hardware.1(1).doi:10.5334/joh.7.ISSN2514-1708.
  31. ^"Open Source Hardware (OSHW) Definition 1.0".Open Source Hardware Association.2012-05-26.
  32. ^Pinar, A.; Wijnen, B.; Anzalone, G. C.; Havens, T. C.; Sanders, P. G.; Pearce, J. M. (2015)."Low-Cost Open-Source Voltage and Current Monitor for Gas Metal Arc Weld 3D Printing".Journal of Sensors.2015:1–8.doi:10.1155/2015/876714.
  33. ^Nilsiam, Yuenyong; Haselhuhn, Amberlee; Wijnen, Bas; Sanders, Paul; Pearce, Joshua (2015)."Integrated Voltage—Current Monitoring and Control of Gas Metal Arc Weld Magnetic Ball-Jointed Open Source 3-D Printer".Machines.3(4): 339–351.doi:10.3390/machines3040339.
  34. ^Chiu, Shih-Hao; Urban, Pawel L. (2015). "Robotics-assisted mass spectrometry assay platform enabled by open-source electronics".Biosensors and Bioelectronics.64:260–268.doi:10.1016/j.bios.2014.08.087.PMID25232666.
  35. ^Chen, Chih-Lin; Chen, Ting-Ru; Chiu, Shih-Hao; Urban, Pawel L. (2017). "Dual robotic arm" production line "mass spectrometry assay guided by multiple Arduino-type microcontrollers".Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical.239:608–616.doi:10.1016/j.snb.2016.08.031.
  36. ^Urban, Pawel L. (2015). "Universal electronics for miniature and automated chemical assays".The Analyst.140(4): 963–975.Bibcode:2015Ana...140..963U.doi:10.1039/C4AN02013H.PMID25535820.
  37. ^Prabhu, Gurpur Rakesh D.; Urban, Pawel L. (2017). "The dawn of unmanned analytical laboratories".Trends in Analytical Chemistry.88:41–52.doi:10.1016/j.trac.2016.12.011.
  38. ^Jurkans, K and Fox, C. (2021). "Low-Cost Open Source ASIC Design and Fabrication: Creating your own chips with open source software and multiproject wafers".IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine.16(2): 67–74.doi:10.1109/MSSC.2024.3367652.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^"Filament Maker Machines for 3D Printing | Polystruder".polystruder.Retrieved2023-09-07.
  40. ^Kate, Jelle ten; Smit, Gerwin; Breedveld, Paul (3 April 2017)."3D-printed upper limb prostheses: a review".Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology.12(3): 300–314.doi:10.1080/17483107.2016.1253117.ISSN1748-3107.PMID28152642.
  41. ^FromOpenCollector's "License Zone"Archived2008-12-05 at theWayback Machine:GPLused byFree Model FoundryandOpenSPARC;other licenses are used byFree-IP Project,LART(the software is released under the terms of theGNU General Public License(GPL), and theHardware designis released under theMIT License), GNUBook (defunct).
  42. ^Thompson, C. (2011).Build it. Share it. Profit. Can open source hardware work?.Work, 10, 08.
  43. ^For a nearly comprehensive list of licenses, seeOpenCollector's "license zone"Archived2008-12-05 at theWayback Machine
  44. ^Hardware_Isn't_Generally_Copyrightableon openhardware.org
  45. ^"The TAPR Open Hardware License".Retrieved16 April2015.
  46. ^transcript of all commentsArchived2008-05-18 at theWayback Machine,hosted on technocrat.net
  47. ^"CERN Open Hardware Licence".Open Hardware Repository.CERN. 2012-07-05. Archived fromthe originalon 2015-09-24.Retrieved2012-08-15.
  48. ^"Open Hardware Repository".Retrieved16 April2015.
  49. ^"Solderpad licenses".Solderpad.org.Retrieved2012-08-15.
  50. ^Definitionon oshwa.org
  51. ^FAQon oshwa.org"What license should I use? In general, there are two broad classes of open-source licenses: copyleft and permissive. Copyleft licenses (also referred to as" share-alike "or" viral ") are those which require derivative works to be released under the same license as the original; common copyleft licenses include the GNU General Public License (GPL) and the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license. Other copyleft licenses have been specifically designed for hardware; they include the CERN Open Hardware License (OHL) and the TAPR Open Hardware License (OHL). Permissive licenses are those which allow for proprietary (closed) derivatives; they include the FreeBSD license, the MIT license, and the Creative Commons Attribution license. Licenses that prevent commercial use are not compatible with open-source; see this question for more."
  52. ^"Recommended Licenses - Open Hardware Wiki".Archived fromthe originalon 2012-03-28.
  53. ^Item "What license is used for OpenCores?",from Opencores.org FAQ, retrieved 14 January 2013
  54. ^FreeCores Main PageArchived2008-12-05 at theWayback Machine,retrieved 25 November 2008
  55. ^Open Hardware Foundation, main page,retrieved 25 November 2008
  56. ^"The Open Source Hardware Bank | Make".Make: DIY Projects and Ideas for Makers.2009-03-05.Retrieved2017-09-09.
  57. ^See "Are we going to get the 'source' for what is on the FPGA also?" in theOpen Graphics Project FAQArchived2008-08-18 at theWayback Machine,retrieved 25 November 2008
  58. ^Balloon LicenseArchived2008-10-19 at theWayback Machine,from balloonboard.org
  59. ^Gacek, C.; Arief, B. (January 2004). "The many meanings of open source".IEEE Software.21(1): 34–40.CiteSeerX10.1.1.584.5392.doi:10.1109/MS.2004.1259206.ISSN0740-7459.S2CID11727447.
  60. ^Bonvoisin, Jérémy; Thomas, Laetitia; Mies, Robert; Gros, Céline; Stark, Rainer; Samuel, Karine; Jochem, Roland; Boujut, Jean-François (2017)."Current state of practices in open source product development".DS 87-2 Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Engineering Design (ICED 17) Vol 2: Design Processes, Design Organisation and Management, Vancouver, Canada, 21-25.08.2017:111–120.ISSN2220-4342.
  61. ^Lessig, Lawrence (September 2006)."Free, as in Beer".Wired.Vol. 14, no. 9.Retrieved2017-09-09.
  62. ^Benjamin Tincq (2014-11-15)."Business Models for Open Source Hardware".
  63. ^"Best Practices for Open-Source Hardware 1.0".Open Source Hardware Association.2012-11-21.Retrieved2017-09-09.
  64. ^"Halfbakery: Open Source Hardware Initiative".Archived fromthe originalon 2008-02-24.Retrieved2008-02-18.
  65. ^McAloone, Asta Fjeldsted, Gudrun Adalsteinsdottir, Thomas J. Howard and Tim (2012)."Open Source Development of Tangible Products".DS 71: Proceedings of NordDesign 2012, the 9th NordDesign Conference, Aarlborg University, Denmark. 22-24.08.2012.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  66. ^Open Source Product Development - The Meaning and Relevance of | Kerstin Balka | Springer.Forschungs-/Entwicklungs-/Innovations-Management. Gabler Verlag. 2011.ISBN9783834931535.
  67. ^Bonvoisin, Jérémy; Mies, Robert; Boujut, Jean-François (2021)."Seven observations and research questions about Open Design and Open Source Hardware".Design Science.7(E22).doi:10.1017/dsj.2021.14.S2CID239108970.
  68. ^Pearce, Joshua M. (2012)."Building Research Equipment with Free, Open-Source Hardware".Science.337(6100): 1303–1304.Bibcode:2012Sci...337.1303P.doi:10.1126/science.1228183.PMID22984059.S2CID44722829.
  69. ^Joshua M. Pearce,Open-Source Lab:How to Build Your Own Hardware and Reduce Research Costs,Elsevier, 2014.ISBN9780124104624
  70. ^Pearce, Joshua M. (2017-03-21)."Emerging Business Models for Open Source Hardware".Journal of Open Hardware.1(1).doi:10.5334/joh.4.ISSN2514-1708.
  71. ^"BYU Open Source Lab".Retrieved19 November2021.
  72. ^Pearce, Joshua."Pearce Research Group - Current Projects".Retrieved16 April2015.
  73. ^Urban, Pawel."Urban Lab at NTHU".Retrieved16 November2017.
  74. ^Pearce, Joshua M. (2017)."Emerging Business Models for Open Source Hardware".Journal of Open Hardware.1(2): 2.doi:10.5334/joh.4.
  75. ^Saddlemire, Katie (14 April 2015)."What does" Open Source "mean?".littleBits.Retrieved26 May2015.
  76. ^"Build It. Share It. Profit. Can Open Source Hardware Work?".Wired.2008-10-20.Retrieved16 April2015.
  77. ^Buitenhuis, A.J.; Pearce, J.M. (2012)."Open-source development of solar photovoltaic technology".Energy for Sustainable Development.16(3): 379–388.doi:10.1016/j.esd.2012.06.006.S2CID109156001.
  78. ^Byfield, Bruce."Crowd Supply Boosts Open Hardware".Linux Magazine.Retrieved2017-04-13.
  79. ^Mickel, Jack (2024-05-24)."Frelan Hardware".Frelan.Archivedfrom the original on 18 May 2024.Retrieved2024-05-20.Hardware is the backbone of innovation, transforming ideas into tangible reality, one circuit at a time. "
  80. ^Pearce, Joshua M. (2012)."The case for open source appropriate technology".Environment, Development and Sustainability.14(3): 425–431.doi:10.1007/s10668-012-9337-9.S2CID153800807.
  81. ^3D printing could offer developing world savings on replica lab kit-The Guardian,Friday 21 February 2014 01.59 EST
  82. ^abcdKostakis, Vasilis; Pazaitis, Alex; Liarokapis, Minas (2023-06-20)."Beyond high-tech versus low-tech: A tentative framework for sustainable urban data governance".BigData&Society.10(1).doi:10.1177/20539517231180583.ISSN2053-9517.

Further reading

edit
  • Building Open Source Hardware: DIY Manufacturing for Hackers and Makersby Alicia Gibb, Addison Wesley, 7 Dec. 2014,ISBN0321906047
  • Open Source Hardware Technology Paperbackby Fouad Soliman, Sanaa A. Kamh, Karima A. Mahmoud, Publisher: Lap Lambert Academic Publishing, 24 Mar. 2020,ISBN6202516399
  • Open-Source Lab: How to Build Your Own Hardware and Reduce Research Costsby Joshua M. Pearce, Elsevier, 17 Dec. 2013,ISBN0124104622
Wikimedia Commons has media related toOpen hardware.
Scholiahas atopicprofile forOpen-source hardware.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Open-source_hardware&oldid=1259474499"