Wikipedia

Oromo people

For the language, seeOromo language.
See also:Cushitic peoplesandHorn of Africa

TheOromo people(pron./ˈɒrəmoʊ/ORR-əm-oh[11]Oromo:Oromoo) are aCushiticethnic groupnative to theOromiaregion ofEthiopiaand parts of Northern Kenya.[12]They speak theOromo language(also calledAfaan Oromoo), which is part of theCushiticbranch of theAfroasiatic language family.[12]They are one of the largestethnic groups in Ethiopia.[13]According to the last Ethiopian census of 2007, the Oromo numbered 25,488,344 people or 34.5% of theEthiopianpopulation.[14]Recent estimates have the Oromo comprising 45,000,000 people, or 35.8% of the total Ethiopian population estimated at 116,000,000.[15]

Oromos
Oromoo(Oromo)
Oromo people in folk costume atIrreechaafestival, 2015
Regions with significant populations
Ethiopia25,489,000 (2007)[1]
Kenya739,839 (2019)[2]
Sudan105,000 (2022)[3]
Somalia41,600 (2000)[4]
United States40,000[5]
Australia4,310 (2021)[6]
Canada5,890(2021)[7]
Languages
Oromo
Religion
Islam(55–60%),Christianity(40–45%),Traditional religion (Waaqeffanna)(up to 3%)[8]
Related ethnic groups
Somalis•Sidama•Gabra•Rendille•Iraqw•Beja• otherCushiticpeoples[9][10]

The Oromo were originallynomadic, semi-pastoralistpeople who later wouldconquer large swaths of land during their expansions.[16][17]After the settlement, they would establish kingdoms in theGibe regions[18][19]anddynasties in Abyssinia.[20][21]The Oromo people traditionally used thegadaasystem as the primary form of governance.[22][23]A leader is elected by thegadaasystem and their term lasts eight years, with an election taking place at the end of those eight years.[24][25][26]Although most modern Oromos are Muslims and Christians, about 3% practiceWaaqeffanna,the native ancientCushiticmonotheistic religion of Oromos.[27]

Origins and nomenclature

edit

Historical linguisticsand comparative ethnology studies suggest that the Oromo people probably originated around the lakesLake Chew BahirandLake Chamo.[28][29]They are aCushiticpeople and prior to their expansions, they inhabited only the region of what is now modern-day northKenyaand southern Ethiopia.[30]The aftermath of the sixteenth centuryEthiopian–Adal warled Oromos to move to the north.[31][32]While Oromo people have lived in the region for a long time, the ethnic mixture of peoples who have lived here is unclear.[33]The Oromos increased their numbers through assimilation (Meedhicca,MogasaandGudifacha), as well as the inclusion of mixed peoples (Gabbaro).[33]The native names of the territories were replaced by the name of theOromo clanswho settled on it while the indigenous people were assimilated.[33][34][35][36]

KarrayyuOromo in traditional attire.

According toHerbert S. Lewis,both the Oromo and theSomalipeople originated in southern Ethiopia but the Somali expanded to the east and north much earlier than the Oromo, and the Oromo lived only in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya until theOromo expansionbegan about 1530.[29]Historical evidence suggests that the Oromo people were already established in the southern highlands in or before the 15th century and that at least some Oromo people were interacting with other Ethiopian ethnic groups.[37]According to Alessandro Triulzi, the interactions and encounters between Oromos and Nilo-Saharan groups likely began very early.[33]

Subsequent colonial era documents mention and refer to the Oromo people asGalla,[38]which has now developed derogatory connotations, but these documents were generally written by members of other ethnic groups.[39][40][29]The term Galla was in use for Oromo people by theAbyssinians,Arabs,andNilotic people.[41]The original meaning of the term is heavily disputed. An outdated but popular theory among European historians during the 19th century regarding the origin of the term was the belief that it derives from the Hebrew (חלב) and Greek (Gála),milk,due to the outdated belief that the Oromos were lost white men.[42][43]This name theory was especially popular among German historians who once believed that the Oromo were related to the ancientGallic tribein France.[44]Another outdated theory of its origin comes from the belief that the Oromos rejected the offer to convert toIslambyMuhammadas their official religion, thus the prophet giving them the name Qal la or هو قال لا meaning "he said no".[45][42]Some sources claim it was a term for a river and a forest, as well as for thepastoral peopleestablished in the highlands of southern Ethiopia.[37]This historical information, according toMohammed Hassen,is consistent with the written and oral traditions of theSomalis.[41]Others, such as theInternational African Institute,suggests that it is an Oromo word (adopted by neighbors), for there is a word,gala,meaning 'wandering' or 'to go home' in their language.[46][47]Canadian philosophical professor,Claude Sumner,stated that the French explorer and Ethiopian traveler,Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie,claimed that the term had derived from an Oromowar crywhilst the Oromos were fighting on battlefields.[47]The word Oromo is derived fromIlm Ormameaning '[The] Children of Orma',[48]or 'Sons of Strangers',[49]or 'Man, stranger'.[50]The first known use of the wordOromoto refer to the ethnic group is traceable to 1893.[51][28][52]

Sketched during theBritish Expedition to Abyssiniaof 1867–68, Queen of the "Galla" and Son.

History

edit
Main article:History of Ethiopia

The earliest recorded mention of the Oromos comes from the Italian (Venetian) cartographerFra Mauro,who notes aGallaRiver south of theAwash River,in his famousMappomondo,or map of the world, completed in 1460. This reference indicates that the Oromos inhabited this area of southern Ethiopia for at least a century and a half before their expansion north. As early as the 12th century, all aspects of Oromo life was governed by theGadaasystem, a political and ritual system based on an egalitarian ethos, age grade social organization and highly structured institutions. Under Gadaa, every eight years, the Oromo would choose by consensus nine leaders known asSalgan ya’ii Borana(the nine Borana assemblies).[53][54]A leader elected by the gadaa system remains in power only for 8 years, with an election taking place at the end of those 8 years.[24][25][26]Whenever anAbbaa Gadaadies while exercising his functions,the bokkuu(the symbol of power) passes to his wife and she keeps the bokkuu and proclaims the laws.[55][56]

The first detailed history of the Oromo people comes from the Ethiopian monkBahreywho wroteZenahu la Galla,or "History of the Galla" in 1593.[57][58]They are also mentioned in the records left by Abba Paulos, Joao Bermudes,Jerónimo Lobo,Galawdewos,Sarsa Dengeland others. These records suggest that the Oromo were a pastoralist people who began to move in large numbers into the central highlands of Ethiopia from their cradleland in the plains of southern Ethiopia during the 16th century. This large scale expansion is referred to as the"Great Oromo Migrations".Prior to this movement, the Oromos were divided into two major confederations, theBooranaand theBarento,who lived in the west and east of theRift Valleyrespectively.[57]TheBarentomoved in an eastern direction, eventually settling in today'sArsi,Bale,HarargheandWolloregions. Whereas theBooranatrekked northwest, settling in the regions ofShewa,IllubaborandWelega.[57][59][60]

According toRichard Pankhurst,a British-born Ethiopian historian, this expansion is linked to the attempted conquest of theEthiopian EmpirebyImam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim,which created a political and military vacuum that allowed the Oromo to move relatively unhindered into both theEthiopian Empireand theAdal Sultanate.[61]Further, they acquired horses and theirgadasystem helped coordinate Oromo cavalry warriors which enabled them to fight very effectively.Bahreyargues the success of the Oromos in battle was because all Oromo men were trained as warriors, while in Ethiopia only a small section of the population were warriors, the rest uninvolved in the defense of their country. The military discipline of the Oromos was noted by the Portuguese chronicler Joao Bermudes, who observed that during the invasion ofDawaro,the Oromos "did not come on without order like barbarians, but advanced collected in bodies, like squadrons."[62][63]

The early 16th and 17th century witnessed the gradual integration of the Oromo into theEthiopian Empire.EmperorSusenyos I,who came to power with Oromo support, did much to integrate them into the political establishment of the Christian state. Having grown up among the Oromo, he was fluent in their language and admired their way of life. He employed Oromo warriors, military tactics and combat formations against his rivals for the throne. Once in power, he filled high level offices with his Oromo supporters and settled various Oromo groups throughout much ofGojjamandBegemder.Under Susenyos's successors, many Oromos would continue to rise to positions of prominence in imperial service, and for a period even change the official language of the empire fromAmharictoOromiffaduring the rule of the half-Oromo emperorIyoas I.They would establish dynasties such as theYejju dynastythat would bede factorulers ofEthiopian Empirefrom 1784 to 1853 during theZemene Mesafint,they would particularly have control over the provinces ofBegemderandGojjam.Another Oromo dynasty that would rise in the northern Ethiopian highlands was the IslamicWarra Himano(1580–1916), which transformed Wollo into a veritable Islamic state in the heartland of Christian Ethiopia. The Warra Himano would convert many Amhara Christians to Islam during its rule, and at the zenith of its power, the Warra Himano had their hegemony accepted in the various parts of Wollo: Ambasel, Qallu, Borena, Wore-Illu and Amhara Sayint. Notable rulers such as RasMikael of Wolloand the uncrowned emperor of Ethiopia,Lij Iyasu(1913–1916), descend from this ruling family.[64][62]

Map showing the location of the five Oromo kingdoms in the Gibe region.

In the late 16th century the Oromos had settled in the territories south of theAbay riverin western Ethiopia. Within 60 years of their arrival, five Oromo states would emerge in theGibe region,such asGera,Gomma,Gumma,JimmaandLimmu-Ennarea.These states arose through the transformation of pastoralism to agriculture due to the fertile and adequately watered land of the region. This increased the importance of agriculture and led to the subsequent rise of a land owning class. The rich natural environment produced commodities that were in high demand and lead to the rise of a strong merchant class. These changes allowed the gadaa officials to acquire more authority and convert their elective offices into permeant monarchical institutions. In the eastern part of the country, especially inArsi,BaleandHararghe,the Oromo had remained predominantly pastoralists until the late 19th century. Only the Oromo who lived within the immediate periphery of the city ofHararadopted agriculture as their primary occupation, mostly to engage in trade with the inhabitants of the walled city. According to oral and literary evidence, certain Somali and Oromo clans fought each other throughout the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, particularly near their eastern borders.[18][65][66][67]

A sketch byCharles-Xavier Rochet d'Héricourtdepicting an Oromo horse riding warrior, 1841.

TheFrenchtraveler,Charles-Xavier Rochet d'Héricourt,visited Ethiopia in 1863,[68]and was greeted bySahle Selassie,the ruler ofShewa.During his time there, he observed the different ethnicities within Ethiopia, one of which were the Oromo people.[69]He described them as such:

"[The] Galla breed is the most beautiful in Africa; it is not originally fromAbyssinia;she came there byinvasion,as we will see below in the history that I will give of the Kingdom of Choa (Shewa). The Gallas are, in general, well built, they have a tall figure, a broad and raised forehead, anaquiline nose,a well-cut mouth, a copper complexion rather than black; their hair is braided into small braids which float around their heads, and mix something graceful with the expressive and noble character of theirphysiognomy:accustomed, from their most tender youth, to ride horses, to carry the butcher and the spear, they are excellent horsemen and insensitive to the harshest fatigue; full of courage and valor in combat, they showed themselves, in their fields, skillful and laborious farmers: this great nation, because we can call it that could led by an enterprising leader, make itself master of the whole ofAfrica."[70]

In the last quarter of the 19th century, the Oromo tribes and kingdoms fell under the rule ofMenelik IIofShewa.Beginning in the 1870s, the Kingdom ofShewaannexed one Oromo territory after the other with unpreceded speed owing to the modern weapons acquired from the international arms trade and the disunity among various Oromo groups. The manner this conquest was carried out determined the form of administrations that was subsequently set up in the newly conquered areas. In areas where the Shewans encountered resistance, such as Arsi, the conquering generals were installed as governors and theAmharasoldiers orneftenyasettled the region in military garrisons known askatamaswhich later become the administrative centers for Shewan rule. These officials and soldier-settlers lived off the land of the locals, who soon became serfs to the Shewan aristocrats. In the areas were the Oromos submitted peacefully, such as theKingdom of Jimma,the indigenous rulers were made tributaries to the crown but were allowed to self-govern themselves with minimal interference from the central government. DuringHaile Selassie's rule, many Oromos lost their autonomous status granted to them by Menelik, Haile Selassie abolished the semi-independent status of many Oromo states and began to undergo a period of centralization. Pastoralists were evicted to make way for mechanized farming and the few members of the educated Oromo class were prevented from holding powerful positions, instead being held by assimilated or Amharized Oromo notables. Despite the great contribution of the Oromo regions to the Ethiopian economy, Oromos areas were left out of the modernization projects during the reign ofHaile Selassie.[67]

This discontent emanating from the political marginalization, economic exploitation and the cultural domination of the Oromo led to the rise of theMecha and Tulama Self-Help Associationin 1963, ostensibly for organizing Oromo self-help, but in fact to promote Oromo identity and fight the marginalization of the Oromo. The Mecha and Tulama Association was soon disbanded by the government, but its impact was significant. The movement raised the consciousness of the Oromo regarding the significance of their own cultural and historical contributions and their status as a people within the Ethiopian state.[67]

Demographics

edit

The Oromos are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia (35.8% of the population),[13]numbering about 40 million.[13]They are predominantly concentrated in theOromia Regionin central Ethiopia, the largest region in the country by both population and area. They speak Afaan Oromoo, the official language of Oromia.[71]Oromos constitute the third most populous ethnic group among Africans as a whole and the most populous amongHornersspecifically.[72]

Oromo also have a notable presence in northern Kenya in theMarsabit County,Isiolo CountyandTana River Countytotaling to about 656,636: 276,236Borana,141,200Gabra,158,000Orma,45,200Sakuye,20,000Waata,and 16,000Munyo Yaya.There are also Oromo in the formerWolloandTigrayprovinces of Ethiopia.[73]

Subgroups

edit
Main article:List of Oromo subgroups and clans

The Oromo consist of two major branches that break down into an assortment of clan families. From west to east: theBorana Oromo,also called theBooranaa,are a semi-pastoralistgroup living in southernOromiaand northernKenya.[74][75]The Borana inhabit theBorena Zoneof the Oromia Region of Ethiopia and the former Northern Frontier District (now northern Kenya) of Northern Kenya.[74][76]They speak a dialect of Afaan Oromo, the Oromo language.[76] Barentu/Barentooor (older)Baraytumais the othermoietyof the Oromo people. The Barentu Oromo inhabit the eastern parts of the Oromia Region in the Zones ofWest Hararghe,Arsi Zone,Bale Zone,Dire Dawacity, theJijiga Zoneof theSomali Region,Administrative Zone 3of theAfar Region,Oromia Zoneof theAmhara Region,and are also found in theRaya AzeboAanaas in theTigray Region.

Language

edit
Main article:Oromo language

Oromo is written with Latin characters known asQubee.The Sapalo script was invented by the Oromo scholar SheikhBakri Sapalo(also known by his birth name, Abubaker Usman Odaa) during the 1950s.[77]Oromo serves as one of the official languages of Ethiopia[78]and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia,[79]Harariand Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is a language of primary education in Oromia, Harari, Dire Dawa,Benishangul-Gumuzand of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is used as an internet language for federal websites along withTigrinya.[80][81]

More than 35% of Ethiopia's population are Oromo mother-tongue speakers, which makes it the most widely spoken primary language in Ethiopia.[79][82]It is also the most widely spokenCushitic languageand the fourth-most widely spokenlanguage of Africa,afterArabic,HausaandSwahili.[83]Oromo is spoken as a first language by more than 40 million Oromo people in Ethiopia and by an additional half-million in parts of northern and eastern Kenya.[84]It is also spoken by smaller numbers of emigrants in other African countries, such asSouth Africa,Libya,EgyptandSudan. Besides first language speakers, a number of members of other ethnicities who are in contact with the Oromo speak it as a second language, such as theOmotic-speakingBambassi[85]and theNilo-Saharan-speakingKwama[86]in western Ethiopia.

Religion

edit
See also:Waaqeffanna

The Oromo followed their traditional religion,Waaqeffanna,and were resistant to religious conversion before assimilation in sultanates and Christian kingdoms.[28][27][35][36]The influential 30-year war from 1529 to 1559 between the three parties – the Oromo who followedWaaqeffanna,the Christians and the Muslims – dissipated the political strengths of all three. The religious beliefs of the Oromo people evolved in this socio-political environment.[35]In the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, Protestant or Catholic missionaries' efforts spread Christianity among the Oromo. Organizations included theSudan Interior Mission,theBible Churchmen's Missionary Society,theSeventh-Day Adventists,the United Presbyterian Mission of the US, theChurch Mission to the Jews,Evangeliska Fosterlands-Stiftelsen,Bibeltrogna Vänner,and theHermannsburg Mission.[87]

AnArsi Oromoattending anIrreechaacelebration

In the mid and late 19th century, the Ethiopian emperors were faced with widespread rifts and disputes in theEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Churchand crippling ethnic and religious divisions that plagued the empire and exposed it to the intervention and meddling of neighboring Muslims (especially Egypt and the Ottoman Empire) and European powers. The emperors that ruled in that period,Tewodros II,Yohannes IV,andMenelik II,thus strove to suppress disunion and schism both within and without the Ethiopian Church and were often intolerant towards other religions. TheWollo Oromo,theArsi Oromo,and theTulama Oromowere among those who violently clashed with the Ethiopian expansion in the region in the 19th century and the empire's attempts at enforcing unity through the propagation of Orthodox Christianity, as the majority of these groups were not Christian but Muslims.[88][89]

In the 2007 Ethiopian census for Oromia region, which included Oromo and some non-Oromo residents, there was a total of 13,107,963 followers ofChristianity(8,204,908 Orthodox, 4,780,917 Protestant, 122,138 Catholic), 12,835,410 followers ofIslam,887,773 followers oftraditional religions,and 162,787 followers of other religions. Accordingly, the Oromia region is approximately 40% to 45% Christian (8,204,908 or 30.4% Orthodox, 4,780,917 or 17.7% Protestant, 122,138 Catholic), 55% to 60% Muslim and 3.3% followers of traditional religions.[90]

According to a 2016 estimate by James Minahan, about half of the Oromo people are Sunni Muslim, a third are Ethiopian Orthodox, and the rest are mostly Protestants or follow their traditional religious beliefs.[91]The traditional religion is more common in southern Oromo populations and Christianity more common in and near the urban centers, while Islam is more common near the Somali border and in the north.[73]

Cuisine

edit
Main article:Ethiopian cuisine

Oromo dishes

edit

TheOromos' cuisine consists of various vegetable and meat side dishes and entrées. Pork is typically not in Oromo cuisine, as it is considered taboo for Orthodox Oromos and Muslim Oromos who make up over 90% of the population combined, unlike with Catholics among others. Oromo people are believed to be one of the first to have cultivatedcoffeein Ethiopia and recognise its energizing effect.[92]

Typical Oromo cuisine:Biddena(pancake-like bread) and several kinds of sauce, stew (slow cooked beef, lamb, goat, chicken) and on top of entrees.
AFoon Akaawwii:Foon Akaawwiilooks like this at a restaurant inAddis Ababa
  • Foon Akaawwii– Minced roasted meat; specially seasoned.
  • Waaddii– Outdoor grilled meat on heat bead or wood fire.
  • Anchotte– A common dish in the western part of Oromia (Wallaga), made from a tuber crop rich in starch.
  • Baduu– Liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained (cheese)
  • Maarqaa–Porridgemade from wheat, honey, milk, chili and spices.
  • Chechebsaa– ShreddedInjerastir-fried with chili powder and cheese.
  • Qoocco– Also known askocho,it is not the Gurage type of kocho but a different kind; a common dish in the western part of Oromia.
  • Itto– Comprises all sorts of vegetables (tomato, potato, ginger, garlic), meat (lamb)
  • Chukkoo– Also known asMicira;a sweet flavor of whole grain, seasoned with butter and spices.[93]
  • Chororsaa– A spiced mixture of cheeses, butter, and yogurt, topped on a bread made from black teff known as 'Chumboo'. A common dish in western parts of Oromia such asWelega Province,typically used in weddings or other celebrations.
  • Ukkaamssa (Affaanyii)– Stewed ground beef with spices, minced onion, garlic, green chili pepper, and clarified butter.[94]
  • Dokkee– A common dish throughoutOromia state
  • Laaffisoo– type of food, i.e. 'buddeenaa' soaked in stew.
  • Hojjaa –A tea-like drink made from coffee husks and milk.
  • Quxxii –A tea-like drink made from coffee leaves.
  • Affeellama– Porridge made from wheat, honey, milk, corn, coarsely ground grain barley
  • Qince– Similar to Maarqaa but made from shredded grains as opposed to flour.
  • Qorso (Akaayii)– A snack made by roasting barley seeds[95]
  • Dadhii– A drink made from honey.
  • Farsho– Beer-like Beverage, made from barley.
  • Buna–Ethiopian Coffee[96]

Culture

edit
Main article:Ethiopian culture

Gadaa

edit
Main article:Gadaa
Gadaa flag

Oromo people have governed themselves in accordance with the Gadaa system long before the 16th century. The system regulates the political, economic, social and religious activities of the community.[97]Oromo were traditionally a culturally homogeneous society with genealogical ties.[98]A male born in the Oromo clan went through five stages of eight years, where his life established his role and status for consideration to aGadaaoffice.[98]Every eight years, the Oromo would choose by consensus nine leaders for the office.[53][54]A leader elected by theGadaasystem remains in power only for eight years, with an election taking place at the end of those eight years.[24][25][26]

There are threeGadaaorgans of governance: Gadaa Council, Gadaa General Assembly (gumi gayo), and the Qallu Assembly. The Gadaa Council is considered the collective achievement of the members of the Gadaa class. It is responsible for coordinatingirreecha.The Gadaa General Assembly is the legislative body of the Gadaa government, while the Qallu Assembly is the religious institution.[99]

Calendar

edit
Further information:Borana calendar

The Oromo people developed alunisolar calendar;different geographically and religiously distinct Oromo communities use the same calendar. This calendar is sophisticated and similar to ones found among the Chinese, the Hindus and the Mayans. It was tied to the traditional religion of the Oromos, and used to schedule theGadaasystem of elections and power transfer.[100]

Previous 5000 m world record holderTirunesh DibabaofEthiopiarunning the London marathon

The Borana Oromocalendar systemwas once thought to be based upon an earlier Cushitic calendar developed around 300 BC found atNamoratunga.Reconsideration of the Namoratunga site led astronomer and archaeologistClive Rugglesto conclude that there is no relationship.[101]The new year of the Oromo people, according to this calendar, falls in the month of October.[102]The calendar has no weeks but a name for each day of the month. It is a lunar-stellar calendar system.[103][104]

Oromumma

edit

Some modern authors such as Gemetchu Megerssa have proposed the concept ofOromumma,or 'Oromoness' as a cultural common between Oromo people.[105]The word is derived by combiningOromowith the Arabic termummah(community). However, according to Terje Østebø and other scholars, this term is a neologism from the late 1990s and its link Oromo ethno-nationalism and Salafi Islamic discourse has been questioned, in their disagreement with Christian Amhara and other ethnic groups.[106]

The Oromo people, depending on their geographical location and historical events, have variously converted to Islam, to Christianity, or remained with theirtraditional religion (Waaqeffanna).According to Gemetchu Megerssa, the subjective reality is that "neither traditional Oromo rituals nor traditional Oromo beliefs function any longer as a cohesive and integral symbol system" for the Oromo people, not just regionally but even locally.[105]The cultural and ideological divergence within the Oromo people, in part from their religious differences, is apparent from the constant impetus for negotiations between broader Oromo spokespersons and those Oromo who are Ahl al-Sunna followers, states Terje Østebø.[107]The internally evolving cultural differences within the Oromos have led some scholars such as Mario Aguilar and Abdullahi Shongolo to conclude that "a common identity acknowledged by all Oromo in general does not exist".[108]

Social stratification

edit
This photo represents the varieties of dress and hairstyle of the Oromo culture.The child sitting in front of the group is dressed in Guji Oromo clothing. The four girls at the back, from left to right, are dressed in Harar, Kamise, Borena and Shewa styles and all are Oromo style

Like other ethnic groups in the Horn of Africa and East Africa, Oromo people regionally developed social stratification consisting of four hierarchical strata. The highest strata were the nobles called theBorana;below them were theGabbaro(some 17th- to 19th-century Ethiopian texts refer them as thedhalatta). Below these two upper castes were the despised castes of artisans, and at the lowest level were the slaves.[109]

In the IslamicKingdom of Jimma,the Oromo society's caste strata predominantly consisted of endogamous, inherited artisanal occupations.[110][111][112][113]Each caste group has specialized in a particular occupation such as iron working, carpentry, weapon making, pottery, weaving, leather-working and hunting.[114][111]

Each caste in the Oromo society had a designated name. For example,Tumtuwere smiths,Fugawere potters,Faqiwere tanners and leatherworkers,Semmanowere weavers,Gagurtuwere beekeepers and honey-makers, andWattawere hunters and foragers.[110][115][116]While slaves were a stratum within the society, many Oromos, regardless of caste, were sold into slavery elsewhere. By the 19th century, Oromo slaves were sought after and a major part of slaves sold in Gondar and Gallabat slave markets at Ethiopia-Sudan border, as well as the Massawa and Tajura markets onthe Red Sea.[117][118]There was alsoa large slave marketatal Hudaydahon the coast of Yemen.[119]

Livelihood

edit
Oromo villagers in theOromia Region

The Oromo people are engaged in many occupations. The southern Oromo (specifically theBorana Oromo) are largely pastoralists who raise goats and cattle. Other Oromo groups have a more diverse economy which includes agriculture and work in urban centers. Some Oromo also sell many products and food items like coffee beans (coffee being a favorite beverage among the Oromo) at local markets.[120]

Contemporary era

edit

Human rights issues

edit

In December 2009, a 96-page report titled "Human Rights in Ethiopia: Through the Eyes of the Oromo Diaspora", compiled by the Advocates for Human Rights, documentedhuman rights violationsagainst the Oromo in Ethiopia under three successive regimes: theEthiopian EmpireunderHaile Selassie,MarxistDergand theEthiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front(EPRDF), dominated by members of theTigrayan People's Liberation Front(TPLF) and which was accused to have arrested approximately 20,000 suspected OLF members, to have driven most OLF leadership into exile, and to have effectively neutralized the OLF as a political force in Ethiopia.[121]

According to theOffice of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights,the Oromia Support Group (OSG) recorded 594extrajudicial killingsof Oromos by Ethiopian government security forces and 43 disappearances in custody between 2005 and August 2008.[122]

Starting in November 2015, during a wave of mass protests, mainly by Oromos, over the expansion of the municipal boundary of the city ofAddis Ababainto Oromia, over 500 people have been killed and many more have been injured, according to human-rights advocates and independent monitors.[123][124]The protests have since spread to other ethnic groups and encompass wider social grievances.[124]Ethiopia declared astate of emergencyin response to Oromo and Amhara protests in October 2016.

With the rising political unrest, there wasethnic violenceinvolving the Oromo such as theOromo–Somali clashesbetween the Oromo and the ethnicSomalis,leading to up to 400,000 displaced in 2017.[125]Gedeo–Oromo clashesbetween the Oromo and theGedeo peoplein the south of the country and continued violence in the Oromia-Somali border region led to Ethiopia having the largest number of people in the world fleeing their homes in 2018, with 1.4 million newlydisplaced people.[126]In September 2018, in the minority protest that took place in Oromia near Addis Ababa, 23 people were killed following the deaths of 43 Oromos in the Addis Ababa neighborhood of Saris Abo.[127]Some have blamed the rise in ethnic violence in theOromia Special Zone Surrounding Finfinneon the Prime MinisterAbiy Ahmedfor giving space to groups formerly banned by previousTigrayan-led governments, such as theOromo Liberation FrontandGinbot 7.[128]

Protests broke outacross Ethiopia, chiefly in the Oromia region, following the assassination of musicianHachalu Hundessaon 29 June 2020, leading to the deaths of at least 200 people.[129]On 30 June 2020, a statue of former Ethiopian emperorHaile SelassieinLondonwas destroyed by Oromo protestors[130]in response to the killing of popular singerHachalu Hundessaand grievances of the Oromo language being banned from education, and the use in administration under the Haile Selassie regime.[131][132][133]

Political organizations

edit

The Oromo have played a major role in the internal dynamics of Ethiopia.[134]Accordingly, Oromos played major roles in all three main political movements in Ethiopia (centralist, federalist and secessionist) during the 19th and 20th century. In addition to holding high powers during the centralist government and the monarchy, the Raya Oromos in the Tigray regional state played a major role in the Weyane revolt, challenging EmperorHaile Selassie I's rule in the 1940s.[135]Simultaneously, both federalist and secessionist political forces developed inside the Oromo community.[citation needed]

At present a number of ethnic-based political organizations have been formed to promote the interests of the Oromo. The first was theMecha and Tulama Self-Help Associationwas founded in January 1963, but was disbanded by the government after several increasingly tense confrontations in November 1966.[136]Later groups include theOromo Liberation Front(OLF), Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement (OFDM), the United Liberation Forces of Oromia (ULFO), theIslamic Front for the Liberation of Oromia(IFLO), the Oromia Liberation Council (OLC), theOromo National Congress(ONC, recently changed toOPC) and others. Another group, theOromo People's Democratic Organization(OPDO), is one of the four parties that form the rulingEthiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front(EPRDF) coalition. The ONC, for example, was part of theUnited Ethiopian Democratic Forcescoalition that challenged the EPRDF in theEthiopian general elections of 2005.[citation needed]

Several of these groups seek to create an independent Oromo nation, some using armed force.[137][138]Meanwhile, the ruling OPDO and several opposition political parties in the Ethiopian parliament believe inethnic federalism.However, most Oromo opposition parties in Ethiopia condemn the economic and political inequalities in the country.[139][140]Progress toward independence started in the 1960s[141]and 70s,[138][142]but progress has been slow aside from the creation of Oromo-focused banks, notably the Oromo-ownedAwash International Bankin 1994[143][144]and theOromia Bank(formerly Oromia National Bank) established in 2008.[145]

Flag of theOromo Liberation Frontand theOromo Liberation Army,respectively theOLFandOLA.

Radio broadcasts began in the Oromo language in Somalia in 1960 onRadio Mogadishu.[146]Within Kenya there has been radio broadcasting in Oromo (in the Borana dialect) on theVoice of Kenyasince at least the 1980s.[147]Broadcasting in Oromo began in Ethiopia during the 1974 revolution, in which Radio Harar began broadcasting.[148][149]The first private Afaan Oromoo newspaper in Ethiopia,Jimma Times,also known asOromo:Yeroo,was recently[when?]established, but it has faced a lot of harassment and persecution from the Ethiopian government since its beginning.[150][151][152]Abuse of Oromo media is widespread in Ethiopia and reflective of the general oppression Oromos face in the country.[153]

Various human rights organizations have publicized the government persecution of Oromos in Ethiopia for decades. In 2008, the OFDM opposition party condemned the government's indirect role in the death of hundreds of Oromos in western Ethiopia.[154]According toAmnesty International,"between 2011 and 2014, at least 5000 Oromos have been arrested based on their actual or suspected peaceful opposition to the government. These include thousands of peaceful protestors and hundreds of opposition political party members. The government anticipates a high level of opposition in Oromia, and signs of dissent are sought out and regularly, sometimes pre-emptively, suppressed. In numerous cases, actual or suspected dissenters have been detained without charge or trial, killed by security services during protests, arrests and in detention."[155]

According to Amnesty International, there is a sweeping repression in the Oromo region of Ethiopia.[155]On 12 December 2015, the German broadcasterDeutsche Wellereported violent protests in the Oromo region of Ethiopia in which more than 20 students were killed. According to the report, the students were protesting against the government's re-zoning plan named 'Addis Ababa Master Plan'.

On 2 October 2016, between 55 and 300 festival-goers were massacred at the most sacred and largest event among the Oromo, theIrreechaacultural thanksgiving festival.[156]In one day, dozens were killed and many injured. Every year, millions of Oromos gather in Bishoftu for this annual celebration. That year Ethiopian security forces responded to peaceful protests by firing tear gas and live bullets at over two million people surrounded by a lake and cliffs. In the week that followed, angry youth attacked government buildings and private businesses. On 8 October, the government responded with an abusive and far-reaching state of emergency, which was lifted in August 2017.[157]During the state of emergency, security forces arbitrarily detained over 21,000 people.[158]

Notable people

edit
Main article:List of Oromo people

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^"Census 2007"ArchivedFebruary 14, 2012, at theWayback Machine.
  2. ^"2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume IV: Distribution of Population by Socio-Economic Characteristics".Kenya National Bureau of Statistics.Archivedfrom the original on 5 June 2020.Retrieved21 July2024.276,236 Borana, 141,200 Gabra, 92,086 Orma, 27,006 Sakuyye and 20,103 Waata
  3. ^"Oromo, West Central".Ethnologue.Retrieved27 September2023.
  4. ^"Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Somalia".
  5. ^"Oromo Community of Minnesota | CareerForce".careerforcemn.
  6. ^Australian Bureau of Statistics 2021, Census of Population and Housing: Cultural diversity data summary, 2021, 28 June 2022,Archived10 November 2022 at theWayback Machine
  7. ^"Census Profile, 2021 Census – Ethnic or Cultural Background – Canada – provinces & territories".25 July 2024.
  8. ^"Ethiopia and the Oromo People: Is it possible to determine whether an Ethiopian is an ethnic Oromo by the individual's last name? What religion or religions are practiced by ethnic Oromos in Ethiopia".UNHCR Refworld.United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. 28 April 1998.
  9. ^Joireman, Sandra F.(1997).Institutional Change in the Horn of Africa: The Allocation of Property Rights and Implications for Development.Universal-Publishers. p. 1.ISBN1-58112-000-1.
  10. ^Sarah Tishkoff; et al. (2009)."The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans"(PDF).Science.324(5930): 1035–44.Bibcode:2009Sci...324.1035T.doi:10.1126/science.1172257.PMC2947357.PMID19407144.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 8 August 2017.Retrieved7 December2017.
  11. ^Laurie Bauer, 2007,The Linguistics Student's Handbook,Edinburgh
  12. ^abConcise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World.Elsevier. 6 April 2010.ISBN978-0-08-087775-4.Retrieved25 October2023.
  13. ^abc"Ethiopia",The World Factbook,Central Intelligence Agency, 14 December 2022,retrieved24 December2022
  14. ^Central Statistical Agency, Ethiopia."Table 2.2 Percentage Distribution of Major Ethnic Groups: 2007"(PDF).Summary and Statistical Report of the 2007 Population and Housing Census Results.United Nations Population Fund. p. 16. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 25 March 2009.Retrieved15 July2023.
  15. ^"Ethiopia".16 October 2023.
  16. ^Mohammed, Hassen (19 May 2017).The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia, 1300-1700.Boydell & Brewer, Limited.ISBN978-1-84701-161-9.OCLC962017017.
  17. ^Pankhurst, Richard (1997).The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century.The Red Sea Press.ISBN9780932415196.
  18. ^abPaul Trevor William Baxter, Jan Hultin, Alessandro Triulzi."Being and Becoming Oromo: Historical and Anthropological Enquiries'.Nordic Africa Institute (1996) pp. 123–124
  19. ^Described in detail in G.W.B. Huntingford,The Galla of Ethiopia; the Kingdoms of Kafa and Janjero(London: International African Institute, 1955), pp. 55ff
  20. ^Shiferaw Bekele,The State in the Zamana Masafent (1786-1853),p. 25
  21. ^Molla Tikuye,The Rise and Fall of The Yajju Dynasty (1784–1980),p. 199
  22. ^"Gada system, an indigenous democratic socio-political system of the Oromo – intangible heritage – Culture Sector – UNESCO".ich.unesco.org.Retrieved30 May2018.
  23. ^Harold G. MarcusA History of Ethiopia.University of California Press (1994) pp. 55 Google Books
  24. ^abcJohn Ralph Willis (2005).Slaves and Slavery in Africa: Volume Two: The Servile Estate.Routledge. pp. 122–127, 129–134, 137.ISBN978-1-135-78017-3.
  25. ^abcJohn Ralph Willis (2005).Slaves and Slavery in Africa: Volume Two: The Servile Estate.Routledge. pp. 128–134.ISBN978-1-135-78016-6.
  26. ^abcIra M. Lapidus (2014).A History of Islamic Societies.Cambridge University Press. p. 483.ISBN978-1-139-99150-6.
  27. ^abDonald N. Levine (2014).Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society.University of Chicago Press. pp. 35–41.ISBN978-0-226-22967-6.
  28. ^abcTesema Ta'a (2006).The Political Economy of an African Society in Transformation: the Case of Macca Oromo (Ethiopia).Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 17–19 with footnotes.ISBN978-3-447-05419-5.
  29. ^abcLewis, Herbert S.(1966). "The Origins of the Galla and Somali".The Journal of African History.7(1). Cambridge University Press: 27–46.doi:10.1017/s0021853700006058.ISSN0021-8537.S2CID163027084.
  30. ^Library (U.S.), Army (1967).Africa: Its Problems and Prospects; a Bibliographic Survey.Headquarters, Department of the Army.
  31. ^Gikes, Patrick (2002)."Wars in the Horn of Africa and the dismantling of the Somali State".African Studies.2.University of Lisbon: 89–102.Archivedfrom the original on 7 November 2016.Retrieved7 November2016.
  32. ^"Frankfurter afrikanistische Blätter".Frankfurt University Library(1). 1989.Retrieved24 July2017.
  33. ^abcdAlessandro Triulzi[in Italian](1996). Paul Trevor William Baxter, Jan Hultin and Alessandro Triulzi. (ed.).Being and Becoming Oromo: Historical and Anthropological Enquiries.Nordic Africa Institute. pp. 251–256.ISBN978-91-7106-379-3.
  34. ^Mekuria Bulcha, Jan Hultin (1996). Paul Trevor William Baxter, Jan Hultin and Alessandro Triulzi. (ed.).Being and Becoming Oromo: Historical and Anthropological Enquiries.Nordic Africa Institute. pp. 55–56, 55–56, 85–90.ISBN978-91-7106-379-3.
  35. ^abcErwin Fahlbusch (1999).The Encyclopedia of Christianity.Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 157–158.ISBN978-90-04-11695-5.
  36. ^abTesema Ta'a (2006).The Political Economy of an African Society in Transformation: the Case of Macca Oromo (Ethiopia).Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 22–24.ISBN978-3-447-05419-5.
  37. ^abMohammed Hassen (2015).The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia: 1300–1700.Boydell & Brewer (Originally: Cambridge University Press). pp. 66–68, 85, 104–106.ISBN978-1-84701-117-6.
  38. ^"ETHIOPIA LESSONS IN REPRESSION: VIOLATIONS OF ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN ETHIOPIA"(PDF).p. 26.
  39. ^Ta'a, Tesema (2006).The Political Economy of an African Society in Transformation.Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.p. 17.ISBN978-3-447-05419-5.Retrieved21 May2015.
  40. ^Ernesta Cerulli (1956),Peoples of South-west Ethiopia and its Borderland,International African Institute,Routledge,ISBN978-1-138-23410-9,Chapter: History & Traditions of Origin
  41. ^abJuxon Barton (September 1924),The Origins of the Galla and Somali Tribes,The Journal of the East Africa Natural History Society, No. 19, pages 6–7
  42. ^abTilstone Beke, Charles (1848).On the Origin of the Gallas.London, England: John E. Taylor. p. 3.
  43. ^Markham, Clements (1869).A History of the Abyssinian Expedition.London, England: Macmillan. p. 40.
  44. ^Kanno, Ayalew (2005).An Ancient People in the State of Menelik The Oromo (said to be of Gallic Origin) Great African Nation.Michigan, United States: Ayalew Kanno. p. 373.ISBN9781599751894.
  45. ^Mekonnen, Y. K. (2013a). Ethiopia: The land, its people, history and culture. New Africa Press.
  46. ^Ethnographic Survey of Africa.International African Institute. 1969.
  47. ^abClaude SumnerEthiopian Philosophy: The treatise of Zärʼa Yaʻe̳quo and Wäldä Ḥe̳ywåtAddis Ababa University, (1976) pp. 149 footnotes 312, Quote: "D'Abbadie claimed that the name Galla was explained to him as derived from a war cry, and used by the Gallas of themselves at war."
  48. ^Mohammed Hassen (2015).The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia: 1300-1700.Boydell & Brewer. pp. 109–110.ISBN978-1-84701-117-6.
  49. ^"Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Gallas".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 413.
  50. ^"OromoArchived30 December 2013 at theWayback Machine"in theMerriam-Webster Online Dictionary.
  51. ^OromoArchived30 December 2013 at theWayback Machine,Merriam-Webster (2014). Quote: "Origin and Etymology of Oromo, (western dialect) oromoo, a self-designation, First known use: 1893."
  52. ^CF Beckingham and George Huntingford (1967).Some records of Ethiopia, 1593–1646, being extracts from the history of High Ethiopia or Abassia (Series: Oromo Peuple d'Afrique).Kraus Nendeln, Liechtenstein. pp. 1–7.OCLC195934.
  53. ^abGalla, Candace (2012)."Sustaining generations of Indigenous voices: Reclaiming language and integrating multimedia technology".{World Indigenous Nations Higher Education Consortium Journal:46–48.
  54. ^abTesema Ta'a (2006).The Political Economy of an African Society in Transformation: the Case of Macca Oromo (Ethiopia).Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 26–27.ISBN978-3-447-05419-5.
  55. ^"The Gadaa System and Some of Its Institutions among the Booranaa: A Historical Perspective".ajol.info.pp. 91–92.
  56. ^Pankhurst, Richard.The Ethiopian Borderlands.p. 137.
  57. ^abcRichard Pankhurst (1997).The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century.The Red Sea Press. pp. 279–280.ISBN978-0-932415-19-6.
  58. ^Mohammed Hassen (2015).The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia: 1300–1700.Boydell & Brewer. pp. 222–225.ISBN978-1-84701-117-6.
  59. ^Donald N. Levine (2000).Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society.University of Chicago Press. pp. 78–89.ISBN978-0-226-47561-5.
  60. ^W.A. Degu,"Chapter 7 Political Development in the Pre-colonial Horn of Africa"Archived24 July 2011 at theWayback Machine,"The State, the Crisis of State Institutions in the Horn of Africa: The Cases of Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia", Thela Thesis (Amsterdam, 2002), page 142
  61. ^Richard Pankhurst (1997).The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century.The Red Sea Press. pp. 281–283.ISBN978-0-932415-19-6.
  62. ^ab"Oromo (s. also Galla)", in Siegbert von Uhlig, ed.,Encyclopaedia Aethiopica Volume 4(Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2011), p. 303.
  63. ^Richard Stephen Whiteway (1902).The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia in 1541-1543 as Narrated by Castanhoso.Hakluyt Society. p. 82.
  64. ^https://etd.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11394/7290/melaku_phd_arts_2019.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y#page107[bare URL PDF]
  65. ^Aṣma Giyorgis, Bairu Tafla"Aṣma Giyorgis and His Work: History of the Gāllā and the Kingdom of Šawā".Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GmbH (1987) pp. 439 Google Books
  66. ^Günther SchleeIdentities on the Move: Clanship and Pastoralism in Northern Kenya.Manchester University Press (1989) pp. 38–40 Google Books
  67. ^abc"Oromo (s. also Galla)", in Siegbert von Uhlig, ed.,Encyclopaedia Aethiopica Volume 4(Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2011), p. 304.
  68. ^Joseph Marie Quérard, « Notice biographique sur Charles Xavier Rochet d'Héricourt », Revue littéraire de la Franche-Comté, 1er novembre 1863
  69. ^Ethiopia, E. (2021, August 16). Rochet d’Héricourt, Charles-Xavier. Sewasew.https://en.sewasew /p/rochet-d-he-ricourt-charles-xavier#:~:text=10%20May%201801%2C%20H%C3%A9ricourt%2C%20d,1829%20to%201839%20in%20Egypt
  70. ^d’Héricourt, R. C.-X. (1841b). Voyage sur la côte orientale de la mer rouge, dans le pays d’adel et le royaume de choa: Par c.-e.-x. Rochet d’Héricourt.. A. Bertrand. p. 174-175
  71. ^"Oromia Regional State".Ethiopia Government Portal.Archived fromthe originalon 28 July 2017.Retrieved5 June2019.
  72. ^Gebrewold, Belachew (2017). "Civil Militias and Militarisation of Society in the Horn of Africa".Civil Militia.Routledge. pp. 187–212.ISBN978-1-138-25332-2.
  73. ^abOromo peopleArchived18 November 2016 at theWayback MachineEncyclopædia Britannica
  74. ^ab"Oromo, Borana-Arsi-Guji".ethnologue ).Archivedfrom the original on 16 January 2009.
  75. ^Aguilar, Mario (1996). "The Eagle as Messenger, Pilgrim and Voice: Divinatory Processes among the Waso Boorana of Kenya".Journal of Religion in Africa.26(1). Journal of Religion in Africa, Vol. 26, Fasc. 1 (Feb. 1996), pp. 56–72: 56–72.doi:10.1163/157006696X00352.JSTOR1581894.
  76. ^abSteven L. Danver (2015).Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues.Routledge. pp. 24–25.ISBN978-1-317-46400-6.
  77. ^Hayward, R. J.; Hassan, Mohammed (1981). "The Oromo Orthography of Shaykh Bakri Saṗalō".Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies.44(3): 550–566.doi:10.1017/S0041977X00144209.S2CID162289324.
  78. ^Shaban, Abdurahman."One to five: Ethiopia gets four new federal working languages".Africa News. Archived fromthe originalon 15 December 2020.Retrieved25 January2021.
  79. ^ab"The world factbook".cia.gov.19 October 2021.
  80. ^"Home".Ministry of Innovation and Technology. Archived fromthe originalon 19 November 2019.Retrieved25 January2021.
  81. ^"ቤት | FMOH".moh.gov.et.Archived fromthe originalon 5 February 2021.Retrieved25 January2021.
  82. ^Language data for Ethiopia,n.d.
  83. ^"Children's books breathe new life into Oromo language".bbc.co.uk.
  84. ^Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D."Ethnologue Ethiopia".Ethnologue: Languages of the World.SIL International.Retrieved14 July2021.
  85. ^Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D."Ethnologue myf".Ethnologue: Languages of the World.SIL International.Retrieved14 July2021.
  86. ^Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D."Ethnologe kmq".Ethnologue: Languages of the World.SIL International.Retrieved14 July2021.
  87. ^Erwin Fahlbusch (1999).The Encyclopedia of Christianity.Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 158–159.ISBN978-90-04-11695-5.
  88. ^Hussein Ahmed (25 October 2000).Islam in Nineteenth-Century Wallo, Ethiopia.Brill.ISBN978-90-04-49228-8.
  89. ^Abbas Gnamo.Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 – 1974: The Case of the Arsi Oromo.p. 176.
  90. ^Census(PDF),Ethiopia, 2007, archived fromthe original(PDF)on 10 February 2016
  91. ^James B. Minahan (2016).Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups around the World, 2nd Edition.ABC-CLIO. pp. 319–320.ISBN978-1-61069-954-9.
  92. ^The world of caffeine: the science and culture of the world's most popular drug,2001
  93. ^Ethiopia: Special Cuisines As a Symbol of Oromo Lifestyle,15 September 2020,retrieved15 September2020
  94. ^TYPES OF OROMO FOODS / RECIPES,2024,retrieved9 June2024
  95. ^"UNPO: Oromo: Farmer from Ethiopia Mmay be the Oldest Living Person in the World".2 November 2009.
  96. ^"Let Us Talk About Food: Oromo vs. Ethiopian".7 June 2009.Retrieved7 June2009.
  97. ^"Gada system, an indigenous democratic socio-political system of the Oromo".unesco.org.
  98. ^abTesema Ta'a (2006).The Political Economy of an African Society in Transformation: the Case of Macca Oromo (Ethiopia).Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 24–25.ISBN978-3-447-05419-5.
  99. ^"Chapter 7: The Gadaa Council (Adula)".addis herald.Archived fromthe originalon 14 October 2019.Retrieved14 October2019.
  100. ^Said S. Samatar (1992).In the Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa.The Red Sea Press. pp. 79–80.ISBN978-0-932415-70-7.
  101. ^Ruggles, Clive (2006).Ancient Astronomy: An Encyclopedia of Cosmologies and Myth.ABC-Clio. pp. 285–286.ISBN978-1-85109-477-6.Retrieved1 December2016.
  102. ^Afe Adogame (2016).The Public Face of African New Religious Movements in Diaspora.Routledge. p. 50.ISBN978-1-317-01863-6.
  103. ^Clive L. N. Ruggles (2005).Ancient Astronomy: An Encyclopedia of Cosmologies and Myth.ABC-CLIO. pp. 45–46.ISBN978-1-85109-477-6.
  104. ^Doyle, Laurance R. (1986). "The Borana Calendar Reinterpreted".Current Anthropology.27(3): 286–287.doi:10.1086/203439.S2CID144426218.
  105. ^abGemetchu Megerssa (1996). Paul Trevor William Baxter; et al. (eds.).Being and Becoming Oromo: Historical and Anthropological Enquiries.Nordic Africa Institute. pp. 92–96.ISBN978-91-7106-379-3.
  106. ^Terje Østebø (2011).Localising Salafism: Religious Change Among Oromo Muslims in Bale, Ethiopia.BRILL Academic. pp. 292–293 with footnotes.ISBN978-90-04-18478-7.Orumumma can best be translated as Oromoness, signifying belonging to the Oromo people. (...) neologism introduced by Mekuria Bulcha (1996) and Gemetchu Megersa (1996). (...) Whether this was a result of the larger ethno-nationalist discourse is yet another question.
  107. ^Terje Østebø (2011).Localising Salafism: Religious Change Among Oromo Muslims in Bale, Ethiopia.BRILL Academic. pp. 301–302 with footnotes.ISBN978-90-04-18478-7.
  108. ^Günther Schlee (2002).Imagined Differences: Hatred and the Construction of Identity.LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 142–146.ISBN978-3-8258-3956-7.
  109. ^Abbink, J. (1985). "Review:Oromo Religion. Myths and Rites of the Western Oromo of Ethiopiaby Lambert Bartels ".Anthropos.80(1–3): 285–287.JSTOR40460901.
  110. ^abHerbert S. Lewis (1965).Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830–1932.The Red Sea Press. pp. 53–54.ISBN978-1-56902-089-0.
  111. ^abHaberland, Eike (1993).Hierarchie und Kaste: zur Geschichte und politischen Struktur der Dizi in Südwest-Äthiopien(in German). Stuttgart: Steiner. pp. 105–106, 117–119.ISBN3-515-05592-4.
  112. ^Quirin, James (1979). "The Process of Caste Formation in Ethiopia: A Study of the Beta Israel (Felasha), 1270–1868".The International Journal of African Historical Studies.12(2). Boston University African Studies Center: 235–258.doi:10.2307/218834.JSTOR218834.
  113. ^Haji, Abbas (10 April 1997)."Pouvoir de bénir et de maudire: cosmologie et organisation sociale des Oromo-Arsi".Cahiers d'Études africaines.37(146): 289–318.doi:10.3406/cea.1997.3515– via persee.fr.
  114. ^Asafa Jalata (2010),Oromo Peoplehood: Historical and Cultural OverviewArchived19 November 2016 at theWayback Machine,Sociology Publications and Other Works, University of Tennessee Press, page 12, see "Modes of Livelihood" section
  115. ^Donald N. Levine(2014).Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society.University of Chicago Press. pp. 195–196.ISBN978-0-226-22967-6.
  116. ^Cerulli, Ernesta (1922).The Folk-Literature of the Oromo of Southern Abyssinia.Harvard African studies. Vol. 3. Istituto Orientale di Napoli, Harvard University Press. pp. 341–355.OCLC42447447.
  117. ^William Gervase Clarence-Smith (2013).The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century.Routledge. pp. 93–97.ISBN978-1-135-18214-4.
  118. ^Ronald Segal(2002).Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora.MacMillan. p. 154.ISBN978-0-374-52797-6.
  119. ^Ten Years in Abyssinia and Sixteen Years in Syria being the Autobiography of Theophilus Waldmeierp.34
  120. ^Winston, Robert, ed. (2004).Human: The Definitive Visual Guide.New York:Dorling Kindersley.p. 413.ISBN0-7566-0520-2.
  121. ^"Human Rights in Ethiopia: Through the Eyes of the Oromo Diaspora"(PDF).Theadvocatesforhumanrights.org.Archived(PDF)from the original on 5 February 2017.Retrieved26 August2017.
  122. ^"Human rights abuses under EPRDF"(PDF).Lib.ohchr.org.Archived(PDF)from the original on 19 September 2017.Retrieved26 August2017.
  123. ^"Ethiopian forces 'kill 140 Oromo protesters'".8 January 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 8 January 2016.
  124. ^ab"Unrest in Ethiopia: Grumbling and rumbling: Months of protests are rattling a fragile federation".The Economist.26 March 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 25 March 2016.Retrieved26 March2016.
  125. ^"Ethnic violence displaces hundreds of thousands of Ethiopians".irinnews. 8 November 2017.
  126. ^"Ethiopia tops global list of highest internal displacement in 2018".Relief Web.Retrieved7 April2019.
  127. ^"At least 23 die in weekend of Ethiopia ethnic violence".The Daily Star.17 September 2018. Archived fromthe originalon 2 October 2018.Retrieved28 April2019.
  128. ^Ahmed, Hadra; Goldstein, Joseph (24 September 2018)."Thousands Are Arrested in Ethiopia After Ethnic Violence".The New York Times.Retrieved27 April2019.
  129. ^"Ethiopia arrests suspects over Haacaaluu Hundeessaa killing",Al Jazeera.10 July 2020.
  130. ^"Haile Selassie statue destroyed in London park".BBC News.2 July 2020.
  131. ^Davey, Melissa (13 February 2016),"Oromo children's books keep once-banned Ethiopian language alive",The Guardian,retrieved14 February2016
  132. ^Language & Culture(PDF)
  133. ^Ethiopians: Amhara and Oromo,January 2017
  134. ^"Migrations profoundly affected the Oromo unity".Lcweb2.loc.gov.Archivedfrom the original on 18 March 2013.Retrieved10 August2013.
  135. ^"Raya Oromos inside the Weyane revolt of Tigray"(PDF).Retrieved10 August2013.
  136. ^Bahru Zewde, "A History of Modern Ethiopia: 1855–1991", 2nd edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), pp. 261f.
  137. ^"Ethiopia talks with Oromo rebel group end without deal for a third time".Al Jazeera.22 November 2023.Retrieved29 February2024.
  138. ^ab"Latest peace talks between Ethiopia's government and Oromo militants break up without an agreement".AP News.21 November 2023.Retrieved29 February2024.
  139. ^Mamdani, Mahmood (3 January 2019)."The Trouble With Ethiopia's Ethnic Federalism".The New York Times.Retrieved29 February2024.
  140. ^Gebeye, Berihun Adugna (17 March 2023)."The Four Faces of Ethiopian Federalism".Gebeye, Berihun Adugna, the Four Faces of Ethiopian Federalism (March 17, 2023). Faculty of Laws University College London Law Research Paper No. 04/2023.doi:10.2139/ssrn.4392205.S2CID258121001.Retrieved29 February2024.
  141. ^Moges, Zola (24 August 2022)."Oromo nationalism should cross the river of resentment".Ethiopia Insight.Retrieved29 February2024.
  142. ^Harter, Fred (12 January 2023)."Ethiopia's Oromia conflict: 'People are dying on a daily basis'".The New Humanitarian.Retrieved29 February2024.
  143. ^Observer, Ethiopia (2 March 2018)."Awash bank in lawsuit over unpaid bills".Ethiopia Observer.Retrieved29 February2024.
  144. ^The Africa Report; Sisay, Andualem (14 October 2013)."Ethiopia's Awash International Bank: Growth amid challenges – Shiferaw".The Africa Report.Retrieved29 February2024.
  145. ^Teshome, Metasebia (6 December 2021)."Oromia Bank rebrands with excellence in mind".Capital Newspaper.Retrieved29 February2024.
  146. ^Thomas Lucien Vincent Blair,Africa: a market profile,(Praeger: 1965), p. 126.
  147. ^Stroomer, p. 4.
  148. ^World Radio and Television Handbook.Amsterdam: Radio Data Centre GmbH. 1975. pp. 133, 316, 432.
  149. ^"All that glitters is not gold: Can Ethiopia's new PM deliver?".opride.
  150. ^"Govt. continues rejecting license for Jimma Times Afaan Oromoo newspaper".Ethioguardian. 9 May 2008. Archived fromthe originalon 17 February 2012.Retrieved10 August2013.
  151. ^"Ethiopia's" government "attacks Macha-Tulama, Jimma Times media & Oromo opposition party".Nazret. Archived fromthe originalon 20 May 2008.Retrieved10 August2013.
  152. ^"CJFE award nominee".Archived fromthe originalon 25 September 2010.
  153. ^"Ethiopia's Largest Ethnicity Group Deprived of Linguistic and Cultural Sensitive Media Outlets".Rap21.org. Archived fromthe originalon 4 May 2013.Retrieved10 August2013.
  154. ^"OFDM Press Release: The Massacre of May, 2008".Jimmatimes. Archived fromthe originalon 10 February 2012.Retrieved10 August2013.
  155. ^ab"Ethiopia: 'Because I am Oromo': Sweeping repression in the Oromia region of Ethiopia".Amnesty.org.28 October 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 2 January 2015.Retrieved26 August2017.
  156. ^"Ethiopia mourns 55 killed during protest at Oromia festival".BBC News.3 October 2016.Retrieved15 July2019.
  157. ^"Investors shy away from Ethiopia in the wake of violent protests – The Washington Post".washingtonpost.Retrieved16 October2019.
  158. ^"Security Force Response to the 2016 Irreecha Cultural Festival".hrw.org.19 September 2017.Retrieved16 October2019.

Further reading

edit
edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related toOromo people.
Scholiahas atopicprofile forOromo people.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oromo_people&oldid=1259571835"