Peru,[e]officially theRepublic of Peru,[f]is a country in westernSouth America.It is bordered in the north byEcuadorandColombia,in the east byBrazil,in the southeast byBolivia,in the south byChile,and in the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is amegadiverse country,with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west, to the peaks of theAndesmountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country, to the tropicalAmazon basinrainforest in the east with theAmazon River.[10]Peru has apopulationof over 32 million, and its capital and largest city isLima.At 1,285,216 km2(496,225 sq mi), Peru is the19th largest country in the world,and thethird largest in South America.
Republic of Peru | |
|---|---|
| Motto:"Firme y feliz por la unión"(Spanish) "Firm and Happy for the Union" | |
| Anthem:"Himno Nacional del Perú"(Spanish) "National Anthem of Peru" | |
National seal Great Seal of the State | |
 Location of Peru (dark green) | |
| Capital and largest city | Lima 12°2.6′S77°1.7′W/ 12.0433°S 77.0283°W |
| Official languages | Spanish |
| Co-official languages[b] | |
| Ethnic groups (2017)[c] |
|
| Religion |
|
| Demonym(s) | Peruvian |
| Government | Unitarysemi-presidential republic[2][3] |
| Dina Boluarte | |
| Vacant | |
| Gustavo Adrianzén | |
| Eduardo Salhuana | |
| Legislature | Congress of the Republic |
| Independence fromSpain | |
| 28 July 1821 | |
| 9 December 1824 | |
• Recognized | 14 August 1879 |
| Area | |
• Total | 1,285,216[4][5]km2(496,225 sq mi) (19th) |
• Water (%) | 0.41 |
| Population | |
• 2023 estimate | 34,352,720[5](43rd) |
• Density | 23/km2(59.6/sq mi) (197th) |
| GDP(PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $566.582 billion[6](45th) |
• Per capita | $16,631[6](97th) |
| GDP(nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $282.458 billion[6](49th) |
• Per capita | $8,291[6](86th) |
| Gini(2021) |  40.2[7]medium inequality |
| HDI(2022) | 0.762[8] high(87th) |
| Currency | Peruvian sol(PEN) |
| Time zone | UTC−5(PET) |
| Date format | dd/mm/yyyy (CE) |
| Drives on | right |
| Calling code | +51 |
| ISO 3166 code | PE |
| Internet TLD | .pe |
Peruvian territorywas home toseveral culturesduring the ancient and medieval periods, and has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 10th millennium BCE. Notable pre-colonial cultures and civilizations include theCaral–Supe civilization(the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of thecradles of civilization), theNazca culture,theWariandTiwanakuempires, theKingdom of Cusco,and theInca Empire,the largest known state in thepre-ColumbianAmericas. TheSpanish Empireconquered the region in the 16th century andCharles Vestablished a viceroyaltywith the official name of the Kingdom of Peru that encompassed most of its South American territories, with its capital inLima.[11]Higher education started in the Americas with the official establishment of theNational University of San Marcosin Lima in 1551.
Peru formally proclaimed independence from Spain in 1821, and following the military campaigns ofBernardo O'Higgins,José de San Martín,andSimón Bolívar,as well as the decisivebattle of Ayacucho,itcompleted its independence in 1824.In the ensuing years, the country first suffered from political instability until a period of relativeeconomic and political stabilitybegan due to the exploitation ofguanothat ended with theWar of the Pacific(1879–1884). Throughout the 20th century, Peru grappled with political and social instability, including theinternal conflictbetween the state and guerrilla groups, interspersed with periods of economic growth. Implementation ofPlan Verde[12][13]shifted Peru towardsneoliberal economicsunder the authoritarian rule ofAlberto FujimoriandVladimiro Montesinosin the 1990s, with the former's political ideology ofFujimorismleaving a lasting imprint on the country's governance that continues to present day.[14][15]The 2000s marked economic expansion and poverty reduction, but the subsequent decade revealed long-existingsociopolitical vulnerabilities,exacerbated by apolitical crisisinstigated byCongressand theCOVID-19 pandemic,precipitating the period ofunrest beginning in 2022.[16]
Thesovereign stateof Peru is arepresentative democraticrepublic divided into25 regions.Its main economic activities includemining,manufacturing,agriculture and fishing, along with other growing sectors such astelecommunicationsandbiotechnology.[17]The country forms part ofThe Pacific Pumas,a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high insocial freedom;[18]it is an active member of theAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation,thePacific Alliance,theComprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnershipand theWorld Trade Organization;and is considered as amiddle power.[19]
Peru's population includesMestizos,Amerindians,Europeans,AfricansandAsians.The main spoken language isSpanish,although a significant number of Peruvians speakQuechuan languages,Aymara,or otherIndigenous languages.This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such asart,cuisine,literature,andmusic.
Etymology
The name of the country may be derived fromBirú,the name of a local ruler who lived near theBay of San Miguel,Panama City, in the early 16th century.[20]Spanishconquistadors,who arrived in 1522, believed this was the southernmost part of theNew World.[21]WhenFrancisco Pizarroinvaded the regions farther south, they came to be designatedBirúorPerú.[22]
An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writerInca Garcilaso de la Vega,son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the nameBirúwas that of a common Amerindian who was happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governorPedro Arias Dávilaand went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language.[23]
TheSpanish crowngave the name legal status with the 1529Capitulación de Toledo,which designated the newly encounteredInca Empireas the province of Peru.[24]In 1561, the rebelLope de Aguirredeclared himself the "Prince" of an independent Peru, which was cut short by his arrest and execution. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denominationViceroyalty of Peru,which became thePeruvian Republicfrom itsindependenceuntil1979,when it adopted its current name ofRepublic of Peru.[25]
History
Prehistory and Pre-Columbian Peru
The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500BCEin theHuaca Prietasettlement.[26]Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such asirrigationandterracing;camelidhusbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied onreciprocityandredistributionbecause these societies had no notion of market or money. The oldest known complex society in Peru, theCaral/Norte Chico civilization,flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. TheCupisniqueculture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE[27]along what is now Peru'sPacific coastwas an example of early pre-Inca culture.
TheChavín culturethat developed from 1500 to 300 BCE was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious center inChavín de Huantar.[28]After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century CE, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of theParacas,Nazca,Wari,and the more outstandingChimuandMoche.
The Moche, who reached their apogee in the first millennium CE, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork.[29]The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as a loose confederation of walled cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru, the Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450.[30]Their capital was atChan Chanoutside of modern-dayTrujillo.[30]In the highlands, both theTiahuanacoculture, nearLake Titicacain both Peru and Bolivia,[31]and the Wari culture, near the present-day city ofAyacucho,developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 CE.[32]
In the 15th century, theIncasemerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed thelargest empirein thepre-Columbian Americaswith their capital inCusco.The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, theQuechuas.Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of the fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperorPachacuti.[33]Under his rule and that of his son,Topa Inca Yupanqui,the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as the God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco.[34]From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on theAndeanmountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of the empire wasQuechua,[35]although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire asTawantinsuyuwhich can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacredHuacas,but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship ofInti,the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that ofPachamama.[36]The Incas considered their King, theSapa Inca,to be the "child of the sun."[37]
Conquest and colonial period
Atahualpa (or Atahuallpa), the lastSapa Inca,became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brotherHuáscarin a civil war sparked by the death of their father,[38]Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party ofconquistadors(supported by theChankas,Huancas,CañarisandChachapoyasasIndian auxiliaries) led byFrancisco Pizarrodefeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in theBattle of Cajamarca.[39]After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as theViceroyalty of Peruwith its capital atLima,which was then known as "La Ciudad de los Reyes" (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated theNeo-Inca StateinVilcabambain 1572.
The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change.[40]ViceroyFrancisco de Toledoreorganized the country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindianforced laboras its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes atPotosí(present-day Bolivia) andHuancavelica,the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvianbullionprovided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines. The commercial and population exchanges between Latin America and Asia undergone via theManila Galleonstransiting through Acapulco, hadCallaoat Peru as the furthest endpoint of the trade route in the Americas.[41]In relation to this, DonSebastian Hurtado de Corcuera,governor of Panama was also responsible for settlingZamboanga Cityin the Philippines by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists.[42]African slaveswere added to the labor population to expand the workforce. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization.
With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted toCatholicism,with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by the Devil, who was working" through them to frustrate "their foundations.[43]It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as theCoricanchain the city of Cusco. The church employed theInquisition,making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of the Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru.[44]Peruvian Catholicism follows thesyncretismfound in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations.[45]In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in theacculturationof the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers.
By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted theBourbon Reforms,a series ofedictsthat increased taxes and partitioned theViceroyalty.The new laws provokedTúpac Amaru II's rebellionand other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and theircreolesuccessors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist thePortuguese expansion of Brazilacross the meridian. TheTreaty of Tordesillaswas rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 whileSpain controlled Portugal.The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties ofNew GranadaandRio de la Plataat the expense of the territories that formed theViceroyalty of Peru;this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrativeAndeantrade toBuenos AiresandBogotá,while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.[46]The conquest and colony brought a mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture.[45]Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that ofJuan Santos Atahualpain 1742, and Rebellion ofTúpac Amaru IIin 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco.[47]
Independence
In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept bywars of independence,Peru remained aroyaliststronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish monarchy,independencewas achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns ofJosé de San MartínandSimón Bolívar.
The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe, thewar of independence in North America,and Native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipation ideas among theCriollopopulation in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of the Spanish government over its colonies.
After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata,José de San Martíncreated theArmy of the Andesandcrossed the Andesin 21 days. Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army GeneralBernardo O'Higginsand liberated the country in the battles ofChacabucoandMaipúin 1818.[48]On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in the port ofParacasunder the command of General José de San Martín andThomas Cochrane,who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October, they took control of the town ofPisco.San Martín settled inHuachoon 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north and blockaded the port ofCallaoin Lima. At the same time in the north,Guayaquilwas occupied by rebel forces under the command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martín's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging theViceroythat Peru be granted independence, however, all negotiations proved unsuccessful.
The Viceroy of Peru,Joaquín de la PazuelanamedJosé de la Sernacommander-in-chief of the loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion by San Martín. On 29 January, de la Serna organized acoupagainst de la Pazuela, which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. To avoid a military confrontation, San Martín met the newly appointed viceroy, José de la Serna, and proposed to create aconstitutional monarchy,a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city, and on 12 July 1821, San Martín occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag.Upper Peru(present-day Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army ofSimón Bolívarliberated it three years later. José de San Martín was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for aLatin American Confederationfloundered and aunion with Boliviaproved ephemeral.[49]
Simón Bolívar launched his campaign from the north, liberating theViceroyalty of New Granadain the Battles ofCaraboboin 1821 andPichinchaa year later. In July 1822, Bolívar and San Martín gathered in theGuayaquil Conference.Bolívar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martín retired from politics after the first parliament was assembled. The newly foundedPeruvian Congressnamed Bolívar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military.
With the help ofAntonio José de Sucre,they defeated the larger Spanish army in theBattle of Junínon 6 August 1824 and the decisiveBattle of Ayacuchoon 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Upper Peru. Upper Peru was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.[50]
19th century
Once independence was proclaimed, San Martín assumed military-political command of the free departments of Peru, under the title of Protector, according to a decree given on August 3, 1821. 74 The works of the Protectorate contributed to the creation of the National Library ( in favor of knowledge), the approval of the National Anthem, and the abolition of the mita (in favor of the indigenous people). On December 27, 1821, San Martín created three ministries: Ministry of State and Foreign Affairs, committing Juan García del Río;Ministry of War and Navy,to Bernardo de Monteagudo; and Ministry of Finance, to Hipólito Unanue.
From the 1840s to the 1860s Peru enjoyeda period of stabilityunder the presidency ofRamón Castilla,through increased state revenues fromguanoexports.[51]In 1864, a Spanish expedition occupied the Chincha Islands (guano producers) and unleashed an international incident with great consequences in Peruvian internal politics, which led to a coup d'état against PresidentJuan Antonio Pezet,Mariano's government. Peru, with the help ofBolivia,ChileandEcuador,sent a declaration of war on Spain. After the battle of Callao on May 2, 1866, the Spanish Navy withdrew from Peru. The government of José Balta was lavish in infrastructure works (construction of the Central Railway ) although the first signs of excess government spending were already perceived. By the 1870s the guano resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.[52]
By 1859, some 41,000 Peruvians had died in the constant civil wars that shook the country since 1829. Thanks to the money from the sale of guano, Peru began to modernize with different public works such as railways; the civil and military bureaucracy grew; The indigenous people stopped paying tribute and the slaves achieved their freedom; The migration policy of Germans, Austrians, Irish and Italians began.
On April 5, 1879, Chile declared war on Peru, unleashing the Pacific War. The casus belli was the confrontation between Bolivia and Chile over a tax problem in which Peru was compromised by the Treaty of Defensive Alliance signed with Bolivia in 1873. However, Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of This war was Chile's ambition to take over the nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru.92 In the first stage of the war, the naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until October 8, 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitor Huáscar, the main ship of the Peruvian navy commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in the fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero.
In 1879 Peru entered theWar of the Pacific,which lasted until 1884.Boliviainvoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. ThePeruvian Governmenttried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of this war was Chile's ambition to take over the nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru and Bolivia.
In the first stage of the war, the naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until October 8, 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitorHuáscar,the main ship of the Peruvian navy, commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in the fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of thedepartment of Tarapacáand the provinces ofTacnaandArica,in the Atacama region.Francisco BolognesiandMiguel Grauare both renowned heros of the war. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply the Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. The War of the Pacific was the bloodiest war Peru has fought in. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.
20th century
Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under theCivilista Party,which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime ofAugusto B. Leguía.TheGreat Depressioncaused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of theAmerican Popular Revolutionary Alliance(APRA).[53]The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called theTreaty of Lima,returnedTacnato Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in ayear-long war with Colombiaover a territorial dispute involving theAmazonas Departmentand its capitalLeticia.
In 1941 Peru and Ecuador fought theEcuadorian–Peruvian War,after which theRio Protocolsought to formalize the boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, GeneralManuel A. Odríabecame president. Odría's presidency was known as theOchenio.He came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed apopulistcourse that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same time, however,civil rightswere severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. Odría was succeeded byManuel Prado Ugarteche.However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, via acoup d'étatled byRicardo Pérez Godoy.Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won byFernando Belaúnde Terrywho assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process.
On 3 October 1968 anothercoup d'étatled by a group of officers led by GeneralJuan Velasco Alvaradobrought the army to power with the aim of applying a doctrine of "social progress and integral development", nationalist and reformist, influenced by theCEPALtheses on dependence and underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco proceeded to nationalize theInternational Petroleum Corporation(IPC), the North American company that exploited Peruvian oil, and then launched a reform of the state apparatus, an agrarian reform. It was the biggest agrarian reform ever undertaken in Latin America: it abolished thelatifundasystem and modernized agriculture through a more equitable redistribution of land (90% of the peasants formed cooperatives or agricultural societies of social interest). Land was to be owned by those who cultivated it, and large landowners were expropriated. The only large properties allowed were cooperatives. Between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 families received land from the state with an average size of 73.6 acres (29.8 hectares). The "revolutionary government" also planned massive investments in education, elevated theQuechualanguage – spoken by nearly half the population but hitherto despised by the authorities – to a status equivalent to that of Spanish and established equal rights for natural children. Peru wished to free itself from any dependence and carried out a third-world foreign policy. TheUnited Statesresponded with commercial, economic and diplomatic pressure. In 1973 Peru seemed to triumph over the financial blockade imposed by Washington by negotiating a loan from the International Development Bank to finance its agricultural and mining development policy. The relations with Chile became very tense after the coup d'état of thegeneral Pinochet.GeneralEdgardo Mercado Jarrin(Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Army) and Admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig (Minister of the Navy) both escaped assassination attempts within weeks of each other. In 1975 GeneralFrancisco Morales Bermúdez Cerrutiseized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated inOperation Condorin collaboration with other American military dictatorships.[54][55]
PresidentAlan García's economic policies distanced Peru from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in the country.[56]After the country experiencedchronic inflation,the Peruviansolwas replaced by theintiin mid-1985, which itself was replaced by thenuevo solin July 1991 (the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles). At the end of the 1980s, the per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20%, with national reserves running a $900 million deficit. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, likeSendero Luminoso(Shining Path) andMRTA,which causedgreat havocthroughout the country.[57][58][59]
The Peruvian armed forces, frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises, drafted thePlan Verde,which involved the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of themedia in Peru,and the establishment of aneoliberaleconomy controlled by amilitary junta.[60][61][62]Alberto Fujimoriassumed the presidency in 1990 and, according to the head of theNational Intelligence Service (SIN)Rospigliosi, an understanding was established between Fujimori,Vladimiro Montesinos,and some of the military officers involved in Plan Verde to abide by the military's demands prior to Fujimori's inauguration.[63][64][65]Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined in Plan Verde, which led to a precitious drop in infliation from 7,650% at the start of 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992.[57][58][63]When Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts, he dissolved Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in theauto-golpe( "self-coup" ) of 5 April 1992.[66][63][67]He then revised the constitution, called new congressional elections, and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Nonetheless, these policies did not benefit the poorest much, and inequality persisted despite Fujimori's economic achievements.[65][68]
Fujimori's administration was dogged byinsurgentgroups, most notably Shining Path, which carried out attacks across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: theBarrios Altos massacreandLa Cantuta massacreby Government paramilitary groups, and the bombings ofTarataandFrecuencia Latinaby Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would also broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions possible to persecute left-wing political opponents.[14]Using theterruqueo,afearmongeringtactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established acult of personalityby portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru.[14]Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize thehuman rightsviolations committed in the last years of violence.[69]HisPrograma Nacional de Poblaciónalso resulted with theforced sterilizationof at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women.[64][70][71]
In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in theCenepa War,but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into a self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.[72]
21st century
Peru tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth at the start of the 21st century,[72]thoughFujimorismheld power over much of Peruvian society through maintaining control of institutions and legislation created in the 1993 constitution, which was written by Fujimori and his supporters without opposition participation.[14]In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict.[73]A caretaker government presided over byValentín Paniaguatook on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. AfterwardsAlejandro Toledobecame president in 2001 to 2006. On 28 July 2006, former presidentAlan Garcíabecame President of Peru after winning the2006 elections.In 2006, Alberto Fujimori's daughter,Keiko Fujimori,entered Peru's political arena to continue her father's legacy and espouse Fujimorism.[74][75][76]In May 2008, Peru became a member of theUnion of South American Nations.In April 2009, former presidentAlberto Fujimoriwas convicted of human rights violations andsentencedto 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by theGrupo Colinadeath squadduring his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s.[77]
During the presidencies ofOllanta Humala,Pedro Pablo KuczynskiandMartín Vizcarra,the right-wing Congress led by Keiko Fujimori obstructed much of the actions performed by the presidents.[78][79]On 5 June 2011,Ollanta Humalawas elected president, with his cabinet beingsuccessfully censuredby the Fujimorist Congress.[80]Beginning withPedro Pablo Kuczynski,Congress usedbroadly interpretedimpeachmentwording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru that allowed impeachment of the president without cause[81][82][83][84]to place pressure on the president, forcing him toresignin 2018 amid various controversies surrounding his administration. Vice presidentMartín Vizcarrathen assumed office in March 2018 with generally favorable approval ratings as he led the anti-corruptionconstitutional referendummovement.[85][86]TheCOVID-19 pandemicresulted with Peru experiencing the highest death rate from COVID-19 in the world, exposing much of the inequality that persisted since the Fujimori administration[68]and triggering an economic crisis that led toVizcara's removal from the presidency by Congress.[87]Widely seen as a coup by Congress, its head, the newly seated PresidentManuel Merino,facedprotestsacross the country, and after five days, Merino resigned from the presidency.[88]Merino was replaced by PresidentFrancisco Sagasti,who led a provisional, centrist government, and enforced many of Vizcarra's former policies.[89]Electionswere held on 11 April 2021, andPedro Castilloof theFree Peruparty won the first round, followed closely by Keiko Fujimori, with right-wing parties allied with Fujimori maintaining positions in Congress.[90]
On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo was sworn in as the newpresident of Peruafter a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election.[91]That same year, Peru celebrated thebicentenary of independence.[92]Castillofaced multiple impeachment votesduring his presidency from the right-wing controlled Congress and on 7 December 2022, just hours before Congress was set to begin athird impeachment effort,Castillo tried to prevent this by attempting todissolvethe opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice PresidentDina Boluarte.She became the country's first female president.[93][94]Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to theMexicanembassy and was charged with the crime of rebellion.[95]
The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents.[16][96]This resentment led to the2022–2023 Peruvian political protests,which sought the removal of Boluarte and Congress, immediate general elections and the writing of a new constitution. Authorities responded to the protests violently, with theAyacucho massacreandJuliaca massacreoccurring at this time, resulting with the most violence experienced in the nation in over two decades.[16]The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns that they sought to establish anauthoritarianorcivilian-military government.[16][96][97]
Geography
Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in theSouthern Hemisphere,its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) south of theequator,covers 1,285,216 km2(496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. TheAndesmountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically.[98]
Thecosta(coast), to the west, is a narrow, largely arid plain except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. Thesierra(highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes theAltiplanoplateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft)Huascarán.[99]The third region is theselva(jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by theAmazon rainforestthat extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region.[100]The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The final two are theendorheicbasin ofLake Titicaca,and the Amazon basin, which empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Both are delimited by the Andes mountain range. The Amazon basin is particularly noteworthy as it is the source of the Amazon River, which at 6872 km, is the longest river in the world, and covers 75% of Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's freshwater.
Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of threebasins.Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of theAmazon Riverhave a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit thesierra.Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.[101]Peru's longest rivers are theUcayali,theMarañón,thePutumayo,theYavarí,theHuallaga,theUrubamba,theMantaro,and the Amazon.[102]
The largestlake in Peru,Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America.[103]The largestreservoirs,all in the coastal region of Peru, are thePoechos,Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs.[104]
Climate
Although Peru is located entirely in thetropics,the combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents (HumboldtandEl Niño) gives Peru a large diversity of climates. Elevations above sea level in the country range from −37 to 6,778 m (−121 to 22,238 ft) and precipitation ranges from less than 20 mm (0.79 in) annually in desert areas to more than 8,000 mm (310 in) in tropical rainforest areas.
Due to its geography, Peru can be divide into three main climates. The unbroken and relatively slim coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitation, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.[105]In the mountain region, which covers almost a third of the country, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.[106]ThePeruvian Amazon,covering more than half of the total area of Peru, is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.[107]
Wildlife
Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of themendemic,[108]and is one of themegadiversecountries.
Peru has over 1,800speciesof birds (120endemic), over 500 species ofmammals,over 300 species of reptiles, and over 1,000 species of freshwaterfishes.[109][110]The hundreds of mammals include rare species like thepuma,jaguarandspectacled bear.The Birds of Peru produce large amounts ofguano,an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities ofsea bass,flounder,anchovies,tuna,crustaceans,andshellfish,and is home to many sharks,sperm whales,and whales.[111]The invertebrate fauna is far less inventoried; at least beetles (Coleoptera) have been surveyed in the "Beetles of Peru" project, led by Caroline S. Chaboo, University of Nebraska, USA and this revealved more 12,000 documented and many new species for Peru.[112]
Peru also has an equally diverseflora.The coastal deserts produce little more thancacti,apart from hillyfog oasesand river valleys that contain unique plant life.[113] The Highlands above the tree-line known aspunais home to bushes,cactus,drought-resistant plants such asichu,and the largest species ofbromeliad– the spectacularPuya raimondii.
The cloud-forest slopes of the Andes sustainmoss,orchids,and bromeliads, and theAmazon rainforestis known for its variety of trees and canopy plants.[111]Peru had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 8.86/10, ranking it 14th globally out of 172 countries.[114]
Government and politics
Peru is aunitarysemi-presidentialrepublicwith a multi-party system.[2][3]The country has maintained aliberal democraticsystem under its1993 Constitution,which replaced aconstitutionthat leaned the government to a federation to authorize more power to the president.[115][116]It is also aunitary republic,in which the central government holds the most power and can createadministrative divisions.The Peruvian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United States (awritten constitution,an autonomousSupreme court,and apresidential system) and thePeople's Republic of China(aunicameralcongress, apremierandministry system).[117]
The Peruvian government isseparatedinto three branches:
- Legislature: the unicameralCongress of Peru,consisting of 130 members of Congress (on a basis of population), thepresident of Congress,and the Permanent Commission;[118]
- Executive: the president, theCouncil of Ministers,which in practice controlsdomestic legislationand serve as a Cabinet to the president, consisting of theprime ministerand 18 ministers of the state;
- Judiciary: theSupreme Court of Peru,also known as theRoyal Audencia of Lima,composed of 18justicesincluding a supreme justice, along with 28superior courts,195trial courts,and 1,838district courts.
Under its constitution, the president of Peru is bothhead of stateandgovernmentand is elected to a five-year term without immediate reelection.[119]The president appointsministerswho oversee the 18ministries of the state,including theprime minister,into theCabinet.[120]The constitution designates minimal authority to the prime minister, who presides overcabinet meetingsin which ministers advise the president and acts as a spokesperson on behalf of theexecutive branch.[121]The president is also able to posequestions of confidenceto the Congress of Peru, and consequently order thedissolution of congress,done in1992byAlberto Fujimoriand in2019byMartín Vizcarra.[122]
In the Congress of Peru there are 130 members, from 25administrative divisions,determined by respective population and elected to five-year terms.[123]Bills are proposed by the executive andlegislativepowers and become law through apluralityvote in Congress.[124]The judiciary is nominally independent,[125]though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history.[126]The Congress of Peru can also pass amotion of no confidence,censureministers, as well as initiateimpeachmentsandconvictexecutives.[127][128]Due to broadly interpretedimpeachmentwording in the1993 Constitution of Peru,the legislative branch can impeach the president without cause, effectively making the executive branch subject to Congress.[81][82][83][84]In recent times, the legislative body has passed semi-successful impeachment and two successful impeachments;Alberto Fujimoriresigned prior to removal in 2000,Pedro Pablo Kuczynskiresignedin 2018,Martín Vizcarrawasremoved from officein 2020 andPedro Castillowas removed in 2022.[129]Following a ruling in February 2023 by theConstitutional Court of Peru,whose members are elected by Congress, judicial oversight of the legislative body was also removed by the court, essentially giving Congress absolute control of Peru's government.[130][131]
Peru'selectoral systemusescompulsory votingfor citizens from the age of 18 to 70, includingdual-citizensandPeruviansabroad.[132]Members of Congress aredirectly electedby constituents in respective districts throughproportional voting.The president is elected in a general election, along with thevice president,through a majority in atwo-round system.[133]Elections are observed and organized by theNational Jury of Elections,National Office of Electoral Processes,and theNational Registry of Identification and Civil Status.[134]
Peru uses amulti-party systemforcongressionaland general elections. Major groups that have formed governments, both on a federal and legislative level, are parties that have historically adoptedeconomic liberalism,progressivism,right-wing populism(specificallyFujimorism),nationalism,andreformism.[135]
Themost recent general electionwas held on 11 April 2021 and resulted inFree Peruwinning the most seats in Congress, although it fell well short of a majority.[136]A presidential runoff betweenPedro CastilloandKeiko Fujimoritook place on 5 June 2021 and resulted in the victory of Castillo.[137]
Allegations of corruption in politics
Many Peruvian presidents have been ousted from office or imprisoned on allegations of corruption from the 1990s into the 2020s. Alberto Fujimori was serving a 25-year prison sentence for commandingdeath squadsthat killed civilians in a counterinsurgency campaign during his tenure (1990–2000). He was later also found guilty of corruption. Former president Alan García (1985–1990 and 2006–2011) killed himself in April 2019 when Peruvian police arrived to arrest him over allegations he participated in theOdebrecht briberyscheme. Former president Alejandro Toledo is accused of allegedly receiving bribes from Brazilian construction firmOdebrechtduring his government (2001–2006). Former president Ollanta Humala (2011–2016) is also under investigation for allegedly receiving bribes from Odebrecht during his presidential election campaign. Humala's successor Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–2018) remains under house arrest while prosecutors investigate him for favoring contracts with Odebrecht. Former president Martín Vizcarra (2018–2020) was controversially ousted by Congress after media reports alleged he had received bribes while he was a regional governor years earlier.[138][139]
Corruption is also widespread throughout Congress as legislators use their office forparliamentary immunityand other benefits, despite a large majority of Peruvians disapproving of Congress and its behavior.[140][141]
Administrative divisions
Peru is divided into 26 units:24 departments,theConstitutional Province of Callaoand theProvince of Lima(LIM) – which is independent of any region and serves as thecountry's capital.[142]Under the constitution, the 24 departments plus Callao Province have an elected "regional"[g]government composed of the regional governor and theregional council.[143][144]
The governor constitutes theexecutive body,proposesbudgets,and creates decrees, resolutions, and regional programs.[145]The Regional Council, the region'slegislative body,debates and votes on budgets, supervises regional officials, and can vote to remove the governor, deputy governor, or any member of the council from office. The regional governor and the Regional Council serve a term of four years, without immediate reelection. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[146][147]
Provinces such asLimaare administered by amunicipal council,headed by a mayor.[148]The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in thedecentralizationprocess and still influence local politics.[149][150]
Some areas of Peru are defined asmetropolitan areaswhich overlap district areas. The largest of them, theLima metropolitan area,is the seventh-largest metropolis in the Americas.
Foreign relations
Over recent decades,Peru's foreign relationshas historically been dominated by close ties with the United States and Asia,[151]particularly through theAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation(APEC), theWorld Trade Organization,thePacific Alliance,Mercosur,and theOrganization of American States(OAS).[152][153] Peru is an active member of severalregional trade blocsand is one of the founding members of theAndean Community of Nations.It is also a member of international organizations such as theOASand theUnited Nations.[154]Javier Pérez de Cuéllar,a celebrated Peruvian diplomat, served asUnited Nations Secretary Generalfrom 1981 to 1991.
Peru planned to be fully integrated into theOrganization for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) by 2021, attributing its economic success and efforts to strengthen institutions as meeting factors to be a part of the OECD.[155][156]Peru is a member of theWorld Trade Organization,and has pursued multiple major free trade agreements, most recently thePeru–United States Free Trade Agreement,theChina–Peru Free Trade Agreement,theEuropean Union Free Trade Agreement,free trade agreements with Japan, and many others.[157][158]
Peru maintains an integrated relationship with other South American nations, and is a member of various South American intergovernmental agreements, more recently theOrganization of American States,Mercosur,theAndean Communityof Nations, thePacific Alliance,and theAPEC.Peru has historically experiencedstressed relations with Chile,including thePeru v Chileinternational court resolution and theChilean-Peruvian maritime dispute,but the two countries have agreed to work in improving relations.[159]
Peru has participated in taking a leading role in addressing thecrisis in Venezuelathrough the establishment of theLima Group.[160]
Peru is the 99th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[161]
Military and law enforcement
Peru has the fourth largest military in Latin America. Peru's armed forces – theArmed Forces of Peru– comprise thePeruvian Navy(MGP), thePeruvian Army(EP), and thePeruvian Air Force(FAP), in total numbering 392,660 personnel (including 120,660 regulars and 272,000 reservists) as of 2020.[162]Their primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.[163]
Their functions are separated by branch:
- ThePeruvian Armyis made up of the Chief of Staff, two Control Bodies, two Support Bodies, five Military Regions and six Command Rooms.
- ThePeruvian Air Forcewas officially created on 20 May 1929, with the name of Peruvian Aviation Corps. Its main function is to serve as the country'sair defense.It also participates insocial support campaignsfor hard-to-reach populations, organizes air bridges during disasters, and participates ininternational peace missions.Its four majorair basesare located in the cities ofPiura,Callao,ArequipaandIquitos.
- ThePeruvian Navyis in charge of the country's maritime, river, and lake defense. It is made up of 26,000 sailors. Personnel are divided into three levels: superior personnel, junior personnel and seafarers.
The military is governed by both thecommander in chief,Ministry of Defense,andJoint Command of the Armed Forces(CCFFAA). The CCFFAA has subordinates to the Operational Commands and Special Commands, with which it carries out the military operations that are required for the defense and the fulfillment of the tasks that the executive power provides.[164]Conscriptionwas abolished in 1999 and replaced byvoluntary military service.[165]TheNational Police of Peruis often classified as a part of the armed forces. Although in fact it has a different organization and a wholly civil mission, its training and activities over more than two decades as ananti-terroristforce have produced markedly military characteristics, giving it the appearance of a virtual fourth military service with significant land, sea and air capabilities and approximately 140,000 personnel. The Peruvian armed forces report through the Ministry of Defense, while the National Police of Peru reports through the Ministry of Interior.[166][163]
Since the end of thecrisis in Peruin 2000, the federal government has significantly reduced annual spending in defense.[167]In the 2016–2017 budget, defense spending has constituted 1.1% of GDP ($2.3 billion), the second lowest spending relative to GDP in South America following Argentina.[168]More recently, the Armed Forces of Peru have been used incivil defense.In 2020, Peru used its military personnel and even reservists to enforce the strictquarantinemeasures placed during theCOVID-19 pandemic.[169]
Economy
The economy of Peru is the 48th largest in the world (ranked byPPP),[170]and the income level is classified asupper middleby the World Bank.[171]Peru is, as of 2011[update],one of the world's fastest-growing economies owing to an economic boom experienced during the 2000s.[172]It has an above-averageHuman Development Indexof 0.77 which has seen steady improvement overthe last 25 years.[clarify][173]Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which providehard currencyto finance imports and external debt payments.[174]Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitariandistribution of incomehave proven elusive.[175]According to 2015 data, 19.3% of its total population is poor, including 9% that lives in extreme poverty.[176]Inflation in 2012 was the lowest in Latin America at only 1.8%, but increased in 2013 as oil and commodity prices rose; as of 2014[update]it stands at 2.5%.[177]and 8,6 in 2023.[178]The unemployment rate was 3.6% in 2012.
Peruvian economic policy has varied widely overthe past decades.[clarify]The 1968–1975 government ofJuan Velasco Alvaradointroduced radical reforms, which includedagrarian reform,the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of aneconomic planning system,and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives ofincome redistributionand the end ofeconomic dependence on developed nations.[179]
Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when theliberalizinggovernment ofAlberto Fujimoriendedprice controls,protectionism,restrictions onforeign direct investment,and most state ownership of companies.[180]
As of 2010[update]Servicesaccount for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).[181]Recent economic growth had been fueled bymacroeconomicstability, improvedterms of trade,and rising investment and consumption.[182]Trade was expected to increase further after the implementation of afree trade agreement with the United Statessigned on 12 April 2006.[183]Peru's main exports were copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners were the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.[184]Peru was ranked 76th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.[185]
Informal workers represent, in 2019, 70% of the labour market according to the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI). In 2016, almost three million children and adolescents worked in the informal sector.[186]
Mining
The country is heavily dependent onminingfor the export of raw materials, which represented 61.3% of exports in 2023.[187]In 2019, the country was the second world producer ofcopper,[188]silver[189]andzinc,[190]eighth world producer ofgold,[191]third world producer oflead,[192]the world's fourth largest producer oftin,[193]the fifth world's largest producer ofboron[194]and the world's fourth largest producer ofmolybdenum.[195]– not to mention gas and of oil. The country has an expectant competitive position in global mining, maintaining mining leadership in Latin America and a solid mining history and trajectory little industrialized, Peru suffers from the international variation of commodity prices.[196]
The Yanacocha mine inCajamarcais the main source of gold extraction in Peru. It is considered the largest gold mine in South America and the second largest in the world. In 2005, 3,333,088 ounces of gold were produced. An indicator of mining growth can be seen in mining exports, having grown from US$1,447 million in 1990[197]to US$39,639 million in 2023.[187]
Agriculture
Peru is the world's largest producer ofquinoa,andmacaone of the 5 largest producers ofavocado,blueberry,artichokeandasparagus,one of the 10 largest producers in the world ofcoffeeandcocoa,and one of the 15 largest producers in the world ofpotatoandpineapple,also having a considerable production ofgrape,sugarcane,rice,banana,maizeandcassava;its agriculture is considerably diversified. In livestock, Peru is one of the 20 largest producers ofchicken meatin the world.[198]
According to a report by the UNFood and Agriculture Organization(FAO) published in August 2022, half of Peru's population is moderatelyfood insecure(16.6 million people), and more than 20% (6.8 million people), are severely food insecure: they go without food for a whole day, or even several days.[199][200]
The director of FAO Peru stresses that "this is the great paradox of a country that has enough food for its population. Peru is a net producer of food and one of the major agro-exporting powers in the region. Food insecurity is due to highsocial inequalityand low wages, with Peru's minimum wage being one of the lowest in South America and a large informal sector. According to the FAO, the small farmers themselves suffer from hunger. Poorly paid, they also suffer from the impacts ofclimate changeand face the problem ofdrug traffickingon their land and mining activity that exhausts the soil. "[199][200]
Tourism
Tourism constitutes the third largest industry in Peru, behind fishing and mining. Tourism is mainly directed towards archaeological monuments, as it has more than one hundred thousand archaeological sites. According to a study by the Peruvian government, the satisfaction rate of tourists after visiting Peru is 94%. It is the fastest growing industry in the country, growing annually at a rate of 25% over the last five years, the highest growth rate of any other country in South America.
Tourism has an impact of 7% of Peru's GDP, it is regulated and stimulated by the Commission for the Promotion of Peru for Exports and Tourism of the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism. For this reason, in 2011 Marca Perú was created, which is an initiative of the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism in association with Peruvian companies and startups to promote the purchase and consumption of products created in the country. The pillars of this initiative are: exports, tourism and investments. Tourism employs 11% of the country's economically active population (484 000 direct jobs and 340,000 indirect jobs), most of them in hospitality and transportation. Peru is known to be prefect for cultural, eco, adventure, gastronomic, beach, and luxury travel.
The places most visited by tourists are the cities ofLimaand its historic center,Cusco,which is characterized by itsIncaand colonial architecture but its main attractions are theSacred Valley of the IncasandMachu Picchu.Arequipais also a large tourist destination, for the historic center, also for theColca Canyonand finallyPunothroughLake Titicaca.The main tourist circuit of the country is the southern circuit, which includes cities such as;Ica,Nazca,Pisco,Paracas,Ayacucho,Puerto Maldonadoand others with architectural, cultural and natural attractions. The second most important route is theCallejón de Huaylas,in the department of Áncash, headquarters of adventure tourism and the main point of reference for New Andean gastronomy. Peru has 14World Heritage Sitesand 11 national parks.
Peru has many other tourist routes. Among these are those of theMantaro River valleywith the city ofHuancayoas one of its axis, and theTarmaValley as another axis, which in turn is the entrance to the central jungle and the northern city ofTrujillowhereChan Chanis located, the largest adobe citadel in the world, the traditional spa ofHuanchacoand the Huacas del Sol and de la Luna belonging to theChimú culture.Chiclayo,Piuraand the rainforest cityIquitosare also very popular destinations. According to the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism, the visit of foreign tourists increased by 7% during 2015 and would have generated US$3.5 billion in foreign currency for the country.
Industry
TheWorld Banklists the top producing countries each year, based on the total value of production. By the 2019 list, Peru has the 50th most valuable industry in the world ($28.7 billion).[201]
In 2011 and 2016 Peru was the world's largest supplier offishmeal.[202]It is also the world's leading producer of alpaca wool, and the most important exporter of cotton textile garments in Latin America, and due to its natural wealth, it is an excellent place for the development of the polymer industry worldwide. The country is in a stage of economic growth and it is expected, in light of the agreements and treaties signed in free trade areas, to become one of the most attractive South American nations for developing business.
Infrastructure
Transport
Peru's road network in 2021 consisted of 175,589 km (109,106 mi) of highways, with 29,579 km (18,380 mi) paved.[203]Some highways in the country that stand out are thePan American HighwayandInteroceanic Highway.In 2016, the country had 827 km (514 mi) ofduplicated highways,and was investing in more duplications: the plan was to have 2,634 km (1,637 mi) in 2026.[204]The country's rail network is small: in 2018, the country only had 1,939 km (1,205 mi) of railways.[205]
Peru has important international airports such asLima,CuzcoandArequipa.The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina) and Minas Gerais (Brazil).[206]Multiple airport expansions are currently under construction across Peru, the two main ones being theJorge Chávez International AirportandChinchero International Airport.Jorge Chávez International Airport,the largest in Peru, is undergoing an expansion which includes the construction of a new runway, control tower and a new terminal, along with new hotels, logistical buildings and cargo sector. Altogether, they make up the Ciudad Aeropuerto, Airport City. It will allow transit of 40 million passengers every year and will be completed in December 2024. Another ambitious airport project is theChinchero International AirportinCusco.The new airport is set to replace the old,Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airportand help passengers bypass a stop in Lima by introducing international routes.
Peru has important ports inCallao,IloandMatarani.The 15 most active ports in South America in 2018 were: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).[207]ThePort of Callaois currently the largest port in Peru, but will soon be overtaken by theChancay Port Terminal,a joint project betweenChinaand Peru inChancay,north ofLima.When completed, the port will become the largest in Latin America.[208]The first stage of construction is expected to be complete in late 2024.[209]
Energy
The electricity sector has experienced notable improvements in recent years. The number of homes with electric lighting grew from 82% in 2007 to 94.2% in 2016. while the quality and effectiveness of service provision improved. Current electricity generation capacity is evenly divided between thermal energy and hydroelectric energy sources. The National Interconnected Electrical System supplies 85% of the connected population, with several isolated systems that cover the rest of the country. Peruvian electricity production totalled 5.1 TWh in the month of October 2022. Of these, 52% came from hydroelectric plants, 38.3% from thermoelectric plants (which use oil, gas and coal) and 9.7% of renewable energy plants like: wind, solar, and others.[210]
In 2021, Peru had, in terms of installed renewable electricity, 5,490 MW in hydropower (34th largest in the world), 409 MW in wind power (49th largest in the world), 336 MW in solar power (62nd largest in the world), and 185 MW in biomass.[211]
Healthcare
According to thePan American Health Organization,life expectancy for men is 72.6 years, while for women it is 77.9 years. Infant mortality is eighteen per thousand births, having been reduced 76% from 1990 to 2011.[212]The main causes of death of Peruvians areneoplasm,influenzaandpneumonia,bacterial diseases, ischemic heart diseases and cerebrovascular diseases. According to the 2017 Population and Housing Censuses, 75.5% of the population has some type of health insurance, that is, 22,173,663 people, despite this, 24.5% of the population does not have any type of insurance.[213]
Demographics
With a population of 33,396,698 inhabitants according to estimates and projections of the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics until the year 2022, Peru is thefourth most populous country in South America.[214]Its population density is 25.79 inhabitants per square kilometer and its annual growth rate is 1.1%. 58.8% of the Peruvian population lives on the coast, 27% in the mountains, and 14.2% in the jungle. In 2020, 27 million Peruvians lived in urban areas, which represents 80% of the population. Peru had a population of seven million residents in 1940; between 1950 and 2000, the demographic growth rate of Peru declined from 2.6% to 1.6%, with the population being expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.[215][216]
As of 2017[update],79.3% lived in urban areas and 20.7% in rural areas.[217]Major cities include theLima metropolitan area(home to over 9.8 million people),Arequipa,Trujillo,Chiclayo,Piura,Iquitos,Cusco,Chimbote,andHuancayo;all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the2007 census.[218]Arequipa is Peru's second largest city, with an estimated population of 1,177,000, while Trujillo is the third largest city with 1,048,000. There are 15 knownuncontactedAmerindian tribes in Peru.[219]Peru has alife expectancyof 75.0 years (72.4 for males and 77.7 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2016 from theWorld Bank.[220]
The economically active population is equivalent to 53.78% of the total population, or about 17,830,500 inhabitants. The largest cities are located on the coast, such as Sullana, Piura, Chiclayo, Trujillo, Chimbote, Lima and Ica. In the mountains, the cities of Arequipa, Cusco, Huancayo, Cajamarca and Juliaca stand out. Finally, in the jungle,Iquitosis the most important, followed byPucallpa,Tarapoto,Moyobambaand Tingo María.
Largest cities or towns in Peru
National Institute of Statistics and Informatics- INEI (Estimated 2024)[221] | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | ||
 Lima  Arequipa |
1 | Lima | Lima | 10,213,900(Metro pop.) | 11 | Ica | Ica | 362,400 |  Trujillo  Chiclayo |
| 2 | Arequipa | Arequipa | 1,177,200(Metro pop.) | 12 | Juliaca | Puno | 341,700 | ||
| 3 | Trujillo | La Libertad | 1,048,800(Metro pop.) | 13 | Tacna | Tacna | 327,800 | ||
| 4 | Chiclayo | Lambayeque | 615,700(Metro pop.) | 14 | Ayacucho | Ayacucho | 261,200 | ||
| 5 | Piura | Piura | 586,300 | 15 | Cajamarca | Cajamarca | 254,300 | ||
| 6 | Huancayo | Junín | 563,400 | 16 | Huánuco | Huánuco | 242,400 | ||
| 7 | Cusco | Cusco | 490,900 | 17 | Chincha Alta | Ica | 222,500 | ||
| 8 | Iquitos | Loreto | 458,300 | 18 | Sullana | Piura | 209,200 | ||
| 9 | Pucallpa | Ucayali | 428,700 | 19 | Huacho | Lima | 192,100 | ||
| 10 | Chimbote | Ancash | 410,300 | 20 | Tarapoto | San Martín | 178,800 | ||
Ethnic groups
Peru is amultiethnic nationformed by successive waves of different peoples over five centuries.Amerindiansinhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before theSpanish conquestin the 16th century; according to historian Noble David Cook, their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because ofinfectious diseases.[223]
The 2017 census for the first time included a question on ethnic self-identification. According to the results, 60.2% of the people identified themselves asmestizo,22.3% identified themselves asQuechua,5.9% identified themselves aswhite,3.6% identified themselves asblack,2.4% identified themselves asAymara,2.3% identified themselves as other ethnic groups, and 3.3% did not declare their ethnicity.[224]In the different stages of Peru's history, ethnic composition has varied, with a continuous decline in the Amerindian proportion, due to multiple socioeconomic and sociocultural factors, birth controls, high mortality rates, exclusion, among others. The country tends towards a slow generalized miscegenation of all ethnic segments that began from the beginning of the colonial period to the present day. Because the majority of the Peruvian population has become mestizo, some feel a superiority complex towards the natives of the mountains and the jungle, either because they do not pronounce a word properly, or simply because they do not know how to read a text well, leading to a kind ofracismtowards them.
During theViceroyalty of Peru,Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers, mi xing widely with each other and with the native population, mainly on the coast (the mountains and the jungle maintained a very little mixed indigenous majority). After independence there was European immigration from Spain, Italy, England, France, and Germany, along with the Middle East.[225]Peru freed its black slaves in 1854.[226]Chinese and Japanese arrived in the 1850s as laborers following the end of slavery, and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.[227]The first Croatian immigrants came to Peru in 1573 from Dubrovnik.[228]
In recent decades, Peruvian emigration figures have shown a marked growth and currently more than 10% of Peruvians are residing outside the country. This migratory movement has been accentuated since the year 2000, the official figure of Peruvian emigrants is 2,444,634 from 1990 to 2011. This without considering the descendant population, and the illegal floating population that is essentially found in neighboring countries. It is estimated that in the last 82 years, more than 3.5 million Peruvians emigrated from the country. With respect to the main countries of destination for Peruvian emigrants between 1990 and 2011, these were: the United States (31.5%), Spain (16%), Argentina (14.3%), Italy (10.1%), Chile (8.8%), Japan (4.1%) and Venezuela (3.8%).75% of Peruvian emigrants are between 19 and 49 years old, with a slight majority of women. For the most part, Peruvian emigration is a labor migration.
Throughout its history, Peru has received migrations from Europe (mainly Spain and Italy; and to a lesser extent from France, United Kingdom, and from other Central European countries and Southern), sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia (China and Japan). It currently receives a large number of Venezuelan immigrants, who are escaping the economic crisis that their country is suffering.
From 2016, the flow of Venezuelans to Peru increased, going from 6615 residents in that year to around 820,000 until mid-June 2019, being the most important migratory wave of the 21st century in the country. Peru is home to the second largest number of Venezuelan immigrants after Colombia.[229]
Language
According to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Peru's official languages areSpanishand, in areas where they predominate,Quechuaand other Indigenous languages. Spanish is spoken natively by 82.6% of the population, and coexists with several native languages, of which the most important is theQuechuan languages,spoken by 16.92% of the population, 1.7%Aymaraand 0.8% speaking another native language. In the urban areas of the country, especially in the coastal region, monolingualism of Spanish predominates; while in many rural areas of the country, particularly in the Amazon, multilingual populations dominate.[230]
Spanish language is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country, which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse Indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to theAmazon basin.[231]
Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a language divide between the coast where Spanish is more predominant over the Amerindian languages, and the more diverse traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The Indigenous populations east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these groups still adhere to traditional Indigenous languages, while others have been almost completely assimilated into the Spanish language. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken. In the Peruvian Amazon, numerous Indigenous languages are spoken, includingAsháninka,Bora,andAguaruna.[231]
Religion
Roman Catholicism has been the predominant faith in Peru for centuries, albeit religious practices have a high degree ofsyncretismwith Indigenous traditions.[citation needed]Two of its universities,Pontifical Catholic University of Peruand Universidad Católica San Pablo, are among the country's five top universities.[232]As of the 2017 census, 76% of the population over 12 years old described themselves asCatholic;14.1% asEvangelical;4.8% as Protestant, Jewish,Latter-day Saints,andJehovah's Witnesses;and 5.1% as nonreligious.[233]
Amerindian religious traditions continue to play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvians. Catholic festivities likeCorpus Christi,Holy Weekand Christmas sometimes blend with Amerindian traditions. Pre-Columbian Amerindian festivities remain widespread;Inti Raymi,an ancient Inca festival, is still celebrated, especially in rural communities.
The majority of towns, cities, and villages have their own official church or cathedral andpatron saint.The two saints of Peru areRose of Lima,the first Saint of the Americas, andMartin de Porres.The largest cathedral in Peru is theLima Metropolitan Cathedral.Other notable churches and cathedrals are theCusco CathedralBasilica Cathedral of Arequipaand theBasilica of Santo Domingo.
Education
In Peru, education is under the jurisdiction of theMinistry of Education,which is in charge of formulating, implementing and supervising the national education policy. According to the Political Constitution of Peru, education is mandatory and free in public schools for the initial, primary and secondary levels.. It is also free in public universities for students who have satisfactory academic performance and pass the admission exams. Most of the schools in Peru areprivateandreligious.
Education is divided into different levels: Initial education corresponds to the period between zero and five years of age, and is in charge of cribs whose purpose is to provide children with the stimulation required for their comprehensive development and the gardens that offer technical-pedagogical activities. Primary education begins with the first cycle, made up of the first and second grades. The entry age for children is six years old. This level begins in the first grade and ends in the sixth grade of primary school. Secondary education consists of five years, from first to fifth year. Then comes higher education that can be technical, productive, technological or university. To enter universities it is essential to take an admission exam, although the difficulty of this depends on the requirements of the university.
Peru's literacy rate is estimated at 92.9% as of 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[234]Primary and secondary education arecompulsoryand free in public schools.[235][236]
Peru is home to one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the New World. TheNational University of San Marcos,founded on 12 May 1551, during theViceroyalty of Peru,is the first officially established and the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas.[citation needed]The University of San Marcos is known to be the best in Peru and among the best in South America.
Toponyms
Many of the PeruviantoponymshaveIndigenoussources. In the Andes communities ofAncash,CuscoandPuno,Quechua or Aymara names are overwhelmingly predominant. Their Spanish-based orthography, however, is in conflict with the normalized Alpha bets of these languages. According to Article 20 ofDecreto Supremo No 004-2016-MC(Supreme Decree) which approves the Regulations to Law 29735, published in the official newspaper El Peruano on 22 July 2016, adequate spellings of thetoponymsin the normalized Alpha bets of the Indigenous languages must progressively be proposed with the aim of standardizing the naming used by the National Geographic Institute(Instituto Geográfico Nacional, IGN).The National Geographic Institute realizes the necessary changes in the official maps of Peru.[237]
Culture
Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Iberian and Andean traditions,[239]though it has also been influenced by various European, Asian, and African ethnic groups.Peruvian artistic traditionsdate back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture ofPre-Inca cultures.The Incas maintained these crafts and madearchitecturalachievements including the construction ofMachu Picchu.Baroquedominated colonial art, though modified by Native traditions.[240]
During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of theCusco Schoolare representative.[241]Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence ofIndigenismoin the early 20th century.[242]Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has beeneclecticand shaped by both foreign and local art currents.
Visual arts
Peruvian art has its origin in theAndean civilizations.These civilizations arose in the territory of modern Peru before thearrival of the Spanish.Peruvian art incorporated European elements after the Spanish conquest and continued to evolve throughout the centuries up to the modern day.
Pre-Columbian art
Peru's earliest artwork came from theCupisniqueculture, which was concentrated on the Pacific coast, and the Chavín culture, which was largely north ofLimabetween the Andean mountain ranges of theCordillera Negraand theCordillera Blanca.Decorative work from this era, approximately the 9th century BCE, was symbolic and religious in nature. The artists worked with gold, silver, andceramicsto create a variety of sculptures and relief carvings. These civilizations were also known for their architecture and wood sculptures.
TheParacasCavernas and ParacasNecropoliscultures developed on the south coast of Peru between the 9th century BCE and the 2nd century CE. Paracas Cavernas produced complex polychrome and monochrome ceramics with religious representations. Burials from the Paracas Necropolis also yielded complex textiles, many produced with sophisticated geometric patterns. The 3rd century BCE saw the flowering of the urban culture,Moche,in theLambayequeregion. The Moche culture produced architectural works, such as theHuacas del Sol y de la Lunaand theHuaca RajadaofSipán.They were experts atcultivation in terracesandhydraulic engineeringand produced original ceramics, textiles, pictorial and sculptural works. Another urban culture, theWari civilization,flourished between the 8th and 12th centuries inAyacucho.Their centralized town planning was extended to other areas, such asPachacamac,CajamarquillaandWari Willka.Between the 9th and 13th centuries CE, the military urbanTiwanakuempire rose by the borders ofLake Titicaca.Centered around a city of the same name in modern-day Bolivia, the Tiwanaku introduced stone architecture and sculpture of a monumental type. These works of architecture and art were made possible by the Tiwanaku's developingbronze,which enabled them to make the necessary tools.
Urban architecture reached a new height between the 14th and 15th centuries in theChimú Culture.The Chimú built the city ofChan Chanin the valley of theMoche River,inLa Libertad.The Chimú were skilledgoldsmithsand created remarkable works ofhydraulic engineering.TheInca Civilization,which united Peru under its hegemony in the centuries immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, incorporated into their own works a great part of the cultural legacy of the civilizations which preceded it. Important relics of their artwork and architecture can be seen in cities likeCusco,architectural remains likeSacsayhuamánandMachu Picchuand stone pavements that united Cusco with the rest of the Inca Empire.
Colonial art
Peruvian sculpture and painting began to define themselves from theateliersfounded by monks, who were strongly influenced by the Sevillian Baroque School. In this context, the stalls of theCathedralchoir, the fountain of the Main Square of Lima both byPedro de Noguera,and a great part of the colonial production were registered. The first center of art established by the Spanish was theCuzco Schoolthat taughtQuechuaartists European painting styles.Diego Quispe Tito(1611–1681) was one of the first members of the Cuzco school andMarcos Zapata(1710–1773) was one of the last.[243]
Painting of this time reflected a synthesis of European and Indigenous influences, as is evident in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, by D. de Mora or in the canvases of the ItaliansMateo Pérez de Alesioand Angelino Medoro, the Spaniards Francisco Bejarano and J. de Illescas and the Creole J. Rodriguez.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, theBaroqueandRococostyles, with their heavy ornamentation and predominantly curved lines, also dominated the fields of architecture andplastic arts,as for example on the walls of theMonastery of San Franciscoin Lima.
Literature
Peruvian literature refers not only to literature produced in the modern Republic of Peru, but also literature produced in theViceroyalty of Peruduring the colonial period, and tooraltraditions created by diverse ethnic groups living in what is now Peru during thepre-Columbian period,such as theQuechua,theAymaraand theChankapeople.
Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression includedchroniclesandreligious literature.Some of the first chroniclers were writers and soldiers who were responsible for producing official transcripts of military expeditions. There was also a small group of non-official chroniclers or personal diarists who provided unique personal insights on the effort to subdue and colonize the region. For the most part, these chroniclers all wrote from the perspective of Spanishconquistadores,whose mission was to "civilize" and "reveal the true faith" to the native peoples of Peru. Among the official Spanish chroniclers wereFrancisco Xerez,personal secretary of Pizarro, who wrote theVerdadera relación de la conquista del Perú y provincia del Cuzco llamada la Nueva Castilla(The True Narrative of the Conquest of Peru and of Cuzco Province, Otherwise Known as New Castile), in 1534. Indigenous chroniclers were also known, such asTitu Cusi Yupanquiwho, after familiarizing himself with Spanish culture, wroteRelación de cómo los españoles entraron en Pirú y el subceso que tuvo Mango Inca en el tiempo en que entre ellos vivió(The Narrative of How the Spaniards Entered Piru and Mango Inca's Experiences while Living Among Them) in 1570.
After independence,CostumbrismandRomanticismbecame the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works ofRicardo Palma.[244]The early 20th century'sIndigenismomovement was led by such writers asCiro Alegría[245]andJosé María Arguedas.[246]Theavant-gardemovement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the establishment of magazinesColónidaandAmauta,the latter founded in 1926 by the prominent socialist essayistJosé Carlos Mariátegui.The influential poetCésar Vallejo,who was one of its collaborators, wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse in the 1920s and 1930s. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such asNobel laureateMario Vargas Llosa,a leading member of theLatin American Boom.[247]
Cuisine
Because of the Spanish expedition and discovery of America, explorers started theColumbian exchangewhich included unknown food in the Old World, including potatoes, tomatoes, and maize. Modern Indigenous Peruvian food often includes corn, potatoes, andchilies.There are now more than 3,000 kinds of potatoes grown on Peruvian terrain, according to Peru's Instituto Peruano de la Papa.[248] ModernPeruvian cuisineblendsAmerindianandSpanish foodwith strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking.[249]Common dishes includeanticuchos,ceviche,andpachamanca.Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.[250]Peru is known to have one of the best cuisines in the world. The capital, Lima, is home toCentral Restaurante,which is one of theWorld's Best Restaurantsand serves various Peruvian dishes from each geographical part of the country, the Costa (coast, Sierra (mountains) and Selva (rainforest).
Peruvian cuisine reflects local practices and ingredients – including influences from the Indigenous population including theIncaand cuisines brought in with colonizers and immigrants. Without the familiar ingredients from their home countries, immigrants modified their traditional cuisines by using ingredients available in Peru. The four traditional staples of Peruvian cuisine arecorn,potatoes and othertubers,Amaranthaceaes(quinoa,kañiwaandkiwicha) andlegumes(beansandlupins). Staples brought by the Spanish include rice, wheat, and meats (beef, pork, and chicken). Many traditional foods – such asquinoa,kiwicha,chili peppers,and several roots andtubershave increased in popularity in recent decades, reflecting a revival of interest in Native Peruvian foods and culinary techniques. It is also common to see traditional cuisines being served with a modern flair in towns likeCusco,where tourists come to visit. ChefGastón Acuriohas become well known for raising awareness of local ingredients.
Music
Peruvian music hasAndean,Spanish,andAfricanroots.[251]In pre-Columbian times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; thequenaand thetinyawere two common instruments.[252]Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like thecharango.[253]African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and thecajón,a percussion instrument.Peruvian folk dancesincludemarinera,tondero,zamacueca,diabladaandhuayno.[254]
Peruvian music is dominated by the nationalinstrument,thecharango.The charango is a member of thelutefamily of instruments and was invented duringcolonial timesby musicians imitating the Spanishvihuela.In the Canas andTiticacaregions, the charango is used in courtship rituals, symbolically invoking mermaids with the instrument to lure the woman to the male performers. Until the 1960s, the charango was denigrated as an instrument of the rural poor. After the revolution in 1959, which built theIndigenismomovement (1910–1940), the charango was popularized among other performers. Variants include thewalaycho,chillador,chinlili,and the larger and lower-tunedcharangon.
While the Spanish guitar is widely played, so too is the Spanish-in-originbandurria.Unlike the guitar, it has been transformed by Peruvian players over the years, changing from a 12-string, 6-course instrument to one having 12 to 16 strings in a mere four courses. Violins andharps,also of European origin, are also played. A very famous instrument from Peru is thePan flute,dating back to Incan times. It is made of hollow bamboo tubes and is widely played in the Peruvian Andes.
Cinema
While the Peruvian film industry has not been nearly as prolific as that of some other Latin American countries, some Peruvian movies produced enjoyed regional success. Historically, the cinema of Perubegan in Iquitosin 1932 by Antonio Wong Rengifo (with a momentous, initialfilm billboardfrom 1900) because of therubber boomand the intense arrival of foreigners with technology to the city, and thus continued an extensive, unique filmography, with a different style than the films made in the capital, Lima.
Peru also produced the first animated 3-D film in Latin America,Piratas en el Callao.This film is set in the historical port city ofCallao,which during colonial times had to defend itself against attacks by Dutch and British privateers seeking to undercut Spain's trade with its colonies. The film was produced by thePeruviancompany Alpamayo Entertainment, which made a second 3-D film one year later:Dragones: Destino de Fuego.
In February 2006, the filmMadeinusa,produced as a joint venture between Peru and Spain and directed byClaudia Llosa,was set in an imaginary Andean village and describes the stagnating life of Madeinusa performed byMagaly Solierand the traumas of post-civil war Peru.
Llosa, who shared elements ofGabriel García Márquez'smagic realism,won an award at theRotterdam Film Festival.Llosa's second feature,The Milk of Sorrow( "La Teta Asustada" ), was nominated for the82nd Academy Awardsfor Best Foreign Language Picture, the first Peruvian film in the academy's history to be nominated. The film won the Golden Bear award at the 2009 Berlinale.
Sport
The idea of sport dates back to the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, though many games and other native forms of entertainment predated the colonial era. More recently, the American ideology of physical education linked to commercialization has had widespread appeal. Sports in the country are divided into several sports federations (one for each sports practice) that are under the tutelage of the highest state entity to regulate their practice, the Peruvian Sports Institute (IPD). Most of the sports federations are based in theVilla Deportiva Nacionalin Lima. Peru's largest stadium isEstadio Monumental "U"which has a capacity of over 80,000, making it the second largest stadium in South America. The country's national stadium is theEstadio Nacional.Peru has hosted various sporting events, such as the2004 Copa América,2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship,2013and2024 Bolivarian Games,and the largest sporting event held by the country, the2019 Pan American Games.
Footballis the most popular and widely practiced in the country. ThePeruvian Primera Divisiónis the most important club tournament in the nation. The men's team has had some important performances on the world stage. They participated in theFIFA World Cupfive times. Likewise, they have been champions of theCopa Américaon two occasions, in1939and1975,and impressed at the1936 Summer Olympicsbefore going home after withdrawing from a walkover given to Austria in the quarter-final.Teófilo Cubillasis considered Peru's greatest footballer. At the club level,Universitariostands out with the runner-up in theCopa Libertadoresin 1972 andSporting Cristalalso with the runner-up in 1997. The only Peruvian clubs with international titles are Cienciano, which won the2003 Recopa Sudamericanaand the2004 Recopa Sudamericana,and Universitario, champion of the2011 U-20 Copa Libertadores.
Other popular sports in Peru arevolleyball,surfingandkarate.Peru has won multiple gold, silver, and bronze medals at thePan American Games.ThePeru women's national volleyball teamwas one of the dominant teams in the 1980s and 90s and won the silver medal at the1988 Summer Olympics,losing to theSoviet Union3–2 after having led by a wide margin. Peru has usually been very good at surfing and volleyball.
See also
Notes and references
Notes
- ^In Peru,other languageshave been officially recognized as legitimateautochthonous languages,which are co-official alongsideSpanishin those areas where they predominate.
- ^In those areas where they predominate.
- ^The2017 National Censusincluded, for the first time, a question ofethnic self-identificationthat was addressed to people aged 12 and over considering elements such as their ancestry, their customs and their family origin to visualize and better understand the cultural reality of the country.
- ^The question about religion included in the2017 National Censuswas addressed to people aged 12 and over.
- ^/pəˈruː/pə-ROO;Spanish:Perú[peˈɾu];Quechua:Piruw[pɪɾʊw];[9]Aymara:Piruw[pɪɾʊw]
- ^Spanish:
- ^The government in each department is referred to as "regional" governments despite being departments.
Citations
- ^"Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico"(PDF).Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática.p. 231.Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 February 2020.Retrieved27 September2018.
- ^abShugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005)."Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns"(PDF).Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 August 2008.Retrieved31 August2017.
- ^abShugart, Matthew Søberg(December 2005)."Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns".French Politics.3(3): 323–351.doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087.ISSN1476-3427.OCLC6895745903.
Only in Latin America have all new democracies retained a pure presidential form, except for Peru (president-parliamentary) and Bolivia (assembly-independent).
- ^"Peru".Central Intelligence Agency. 27 February 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 10 January 2021.Retrieved24 February2023– via CIA.gov.
- ^abUnited Nations."Population, including UN projections, 2023".Archivedfrom the original on 26 February 2023.Retrieved25 February2023.
- ^abcd"World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Peru)".International Monetary Fund.10 October 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 29 October 2023.Retrieved12 October2023.
- ^"Gini Index".World Bank.Archivedfrom the original on 3 March 2024.Retrieved12 March2024.
- ^"Human Development Report 2023/24"(PDF).United Nations Development Programme.13 March 2024.Archived(PDF)from the original on 13 March 2024.Retrieved13 March2024.
- ^Quechua name used by government of Peru isPerú(see Quechua-language version of Peru ParliamentwebsiteArchived30 July 2010 at theWayback Machineand Quechua-language version of Peru Constitutionbut common Quechua name isPiruw
- ^"Perú: País megadiverso"[Peru: Megadiverse country](PDF)(in Spanish). Servicio Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 22 June 2014.
- ^Wilmer Angel, Aguilar Pereda (2019)."Establecimiento y organización del virreinato del Perú".Universidad Nacional de Trujillo.Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2024.Retrieved19 March2024.
- ^Back, Michele; Zavala, Virginia (2018).Racialization and Language: Interdisciplinary Perspectives From Perú.Routledge.pp. 286–291.Archivedfrom the original on 4 August 2021.Retrieved4 August2021.
At the end of the 1980s, a group of military elites secretly developed an analysis of Peruvian society calledEl cuaderno verde.This analysis established the policies that the following government would have to carry out in order to defeat Shining Path and rescue the Peruvian economy from the deep crisis in which it found itself.El cuaderno verdewas passed onto the national press in 1993, after some of these policies were enacted by President Fujimori.
- ^Alfredo Schulte-Bockholt (2006). "Chapter 5: Elites, Cocaine, and Power in Colombia and Peru".The politics of organized crime and the organized crime of politics: a study in criminal power.Le xing ton Books. pp. 114–118.ISBN978-0-7391-1358-5.
important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan.... Fujimori essentially adopted the Green Plan and the military became a partner in the regime.... The self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the Green Plan
- ^abcdVillalba, Fernando Velásquez (2022)."A Totalidade Neoliberal-Fujimorista: Estigmatização e Colonialidade No Peru Contemporâneo".Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais.37(109): e3710906.doi:10.1590/3710906/2022.ISSN0102-6909.S2CID251877338.
terruqueo, ou seja, a construção artificial, racista e conveniente de um inimigo sociopolítico para deslegitimar formas de protesto social
- ^Asensio, Raúl; Camacho, Gabriela; González, Natalia; Grompone, Romeo; Pajuelo Teves, Ramón; Peña Jimenez, Omayra; Moscoso, Macarena; Vásquez, Yerel; Sosa Villagarcia, Paolo (August 2021).El Profe: Cómo Pedro Castillo se convirtió en presidente del Perú y qué pasará a continuación(in Spanish) (1 ed.).Lima, Peru:Institute of Peruvian Studies.p. 92.ISBN978-612-326-084-2.Archivedfrom the original on 5 November 2022.Retrieved17 November2021.
- ^abcdBanda, Gonzalo (12 January 2023)."At Peru Protests' Epicenter, Rage—And a Sense of Betrayal".Americas Quarterly.Archivedfrom the original on 12 January 2023.Retrieved15 January2023.
- ^David E. Castro Garro."Módulo de capacitación en recursos genéticos y bioseguridad"[Training module on genetic resources and biosafety](PDF)(in Spanish).Ministerio de Ambiente de la República de Perú.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 April 2018.
- ^"Freedom in the World 2017 – Populists and Autocrats: The Dual Threat to Global Democracy"Archived27 July 2017 at theWayback MachinebyFreedom House,31 January 2017
- ^McKercher, B. J. C. (2012).Routledge Handbook of Diplomacy and Statecraft.Routledge.ISBN9781136664366.Archivedfrom the original on 17 April 2021.Retrieved30 May2020.
a Middle Power like Peru lack the diplomatic and other resources...
- ^Porras Barrenechea, Raúl.El nombre del Perú.Lima: Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968, p. 83.
- ^Raúl Porras Barrenechea,El nombre del Perú,p. 84.
- ^Raúl Porras Barrenechea,El nombre del Perú,p. 86.
- ^Vega, Garcilasco,Commentarios Reales de los Incas,Editorial Mantaro, Lima, ed. 1998. pp. 14–15. First published in Lisbon in 1609.
- ^Raúl Porras Barrenechea,El nombre del Perú,p. 87.
- ^Article I of theConstitution of Peru(1979)
- ^Dillehay, Tom D. (2017).Where the Land Meets the Sea.University of Texas Press. p. 4.ISBN9781477311493.Archivedfrom the original on 17 March 2020.Retrieved30 December2019.
- ^Cordy-Collins, Alana (1992). "Archaism or Tradition?: The Decapitation Theme in Cupisnique and Moche Iconography".Latin American Antiquity.3(3): 206–220.doi:10.2307/971715.JSTOR971715.S2CID56406255.
- ^"Chavin (Archaeological Site)".UNESCO. Archived fromthe originalon 8 May 2016.Retrieved27 July2014.
- ^Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999).World History: Patterns of Interaction.Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell.ISBN0-395-87274-X.
- ^abKeatinge, Richard W.; Conrad, Geoffrey W. (1983). "Imperialist expansion in Peruvian prehistory: Chimu administration of a conquered territory".Journal of Field Archaeology.10(3): 255–283.doi:10.1179/009346983791504246.
- ^Blom, Deborah E.; Janusek, John W. (2004). "Making Place: Humans as Dedications in Tiwanaku".World Archaeology.36:123–141.doi:10.1080/0043824042000192623.S2CID154741300.
- ^Pre-Inca CulturesArchived3 November 2016 at theWayback Machine.countrystudies.us.
- ^Demarest, Arthur Andrew; Conrad, Geoffrey W. (1984).Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–59.ISBN0-521-31896-3.
- ^PeruThe IncasArchived3 November 2016 at theWayback Machine
- ^Torero Fernández de Córdoba, Alfredo. (1970) "Lingüística e historia de la Sociedad Andina", Anales Científicos de la Universidad Agraria, VIII, 3–4, págs. 249–251. Lima: UNALM.
- ^"The Inca – All Empires".allempires.Archived fromthe originalon 20 January 2012.
- ^"The Inca"at theWayback Machine(archived 10 November 2009)The National Foreign Language Center at the University of Maryland.29 May 2007. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
- ^Lavallé, Bernard (2004),"7 El fin de Atahualpa",Francisco Pizarro: Biografía de una conquista,Travaux de l'IFEA (in Spanish), Lima: Institut français d’études andines, pp. 123–139,ISBN978-2-8218-2650-2,archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2024,retrieved19 March2024
- ^"Battle of Cajamarca | Summary | Britannica".britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 4 February 2021.Retrieved19 March2024.
- ^Lovell, W. George (1992). "'Heavy Shadows and Black Night': Disease and Depopulation in Colonial Spanish America ".Annals of the Association of American Geographers.82(3): 426–443.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1992.tb01968.x.JSTOR2563354.
- ^Schottenhammer, Angela (2019)."Connecting China with the Pacific World?".Orientierungen. Zeitschrift zur Kultur Asiens:144.ISSN0936-4099.Archivedfrom the original on 27 May 2021.Retrieved27 May2021.
The wreck excavation could prove that European style jewelry was being made in the Philippines. Some 56 intact storage jars were discovered. Investigations revealed that they had come from kilns in South China, Cochin China (Vietnam), and Siam (Thailand), and one was of Spanish design. The archaeology of the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, consequently, also provides us with intriguing new insights into the trans-Pacific trade connection and the commodities involved. Each time a galleon arrived at Acapulco, a market, la feria, was organized. This attracted all kinds of people such as Indian peddlers, Mexican and Peruvian merchants, soldiers, the king's officials, and friars, as well as a few Chinese and some Filipinos. From Acapulco, the goods were transported into the hinterlands, into Mexico City, and various other places, including Peru. The Peruvian port at that time was Callao and the Ciudad de los Reyes, that is Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Generally speaking, much of what was not sold (rezagos) directly in Acapulco was redirected towards Peru. Peruvian ships, mainly loaded with silver, mercury, cacao from Guayaquil, and Peruvian wines, sailed to ports along the Mexican and Guatemalan coasts, returning with Asian goods and leftover cargo from the galleon ships. Besides Callao and Guayaquil, Paita was also frequently a port of call.
- ^"Second book of the second part of the Conquests of the Filipinas Islands, and chronicle of the religious of our Father, St. Augustine".Zamboanga City History.Archivedfrom the original on 28 February 2021.Retrieved18 February2021.
He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reenforcement of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom.
- ^Russell Bourne,Gods of War, Gods of Peace(New York: Harcourt Books, 2002), 7–9.
- ^Kathryn Burns,Colonial Habits(Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1999), 15–40.
- ^abConquest and Colony of Peru."Conquest and Colony of Peru".discover-peru.org.Archivedfrom the original on 18 August 2016.Retrieved28 July2014.
- ^"Peru".countrystudies.us.Archived fromthe originalon 3 November 2016.Retrieved27 July2014.
- ^"Túpac Amaru II".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 3 June 2019.Retrieved10 July2018.
- ^Scheina, 2003,Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899,p. 58.
- ^Gootenberg (1991) p. 12.
- ^Discover Peru (Peru cultural society).War of IndependenceArchived21 October 2016 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 28 July 2014
- ^Gootenberg (1993) pp. 5–6.
- ^Gootenberg (1993) p. 9.
- ^Klarén, Peter (2000).Peru: society and nationhood in the Andes.New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 262–276,ISBN0195069285.
- ^"Francisco Morales Bermudez, ex-Peruvian military ruler, dies at 100".Washington Post.ISSN0190-8286.Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2022.
- ^Brands, Hal (15 September 2010). "The United States and the Peruvian Challenge, 1968–1975".Diplomacy & Statecraft.21(3).Taylor & Francis:471–490.doi:10.1080/09592296.2010.508418.S2CID154119414.
- ^"Welcome, Mr. Peruvian President: Why Alan García is no hero to his people".Council on Hemispheric Affairs.2 June 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 18 April 2019.Retrieved18 April2019.
- ^abLeonard, Thomas M. (2013).Encyclopedia of the Developing World.Taylor and Francis. p. 685.ISBN9781135205157.
The inflation rate in 1990 was 7,650%....President Fujimori immediately implemented a program of severe austerity and privatization programs. The economic shock therapy hit the poor the hardest, but brought inflation down to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992.
- ^abEconomic Survey of Latin America and the Caribbean 1992.ECLAC. 31 December 1992. p. 31.ISBN9789210601191.Archivedfrom the original on 27 April 2023.Retrieved19 March2023.
- ^Luis Rossell, Historias gráficas de la violencia en el Perú, 1980–1984, 2008
- ^Rospigliosi, Fernando (1996).Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista.Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. pp. 46–47.
- ^Gaussens, Pierre (2020)."The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s".Canadian Journal of Bioethics.3(3): 180+.doi:10.7202/1073797ar.S2CID234586692.
a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention
- ^Burt, Jo-Marie (September–October 1998). "Unsettled accounts: militarization and memory in postwar Peru".NACLA Report on the Americas.32(2).Taylor & Francis:35–41.doi:10.1080/10714839.1998.11725657.
the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.
- ^abcAlfredo Schulte-Bockholt (2006). "Chapter 5: Elites, Cocaine, and Power in Colombia and Peru".The politics of organized crime and the organized crime of politics: a study in criminal power.Le xing ton Books. pp. 114–118.ISBN978-0-7391-1358-5.
important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan.... Fujimori essentially adopted the 'Plan Verde,' and the military became a partner in the regime.... The autogolpe, or self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the 'Plan Verde.'
- ^abRospigliosi, Fernando (1996).Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista.Lima, Peru: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. pp. 28–40.
- ^abAvilés, William (Spring 2009). "Despite Insurgency: Reducing Military Prerogatives in Colombia and Peru".Latin American Politics and Society.51(1).Cambridge University Press:57–85.doi:10.1111/j.1548-2456.2009.00040.x.S2CID154153310.
- ^Cameron, Maxwell A. (June 1998). "Latin American Autogolpes: Dangerous Undertows in the Third Wave of Democratisation".Third World Quarterly.19(2).Taylor & Francis:228.doi:10.1080/01436599814433.
the outlines for Peru's presidential coup were first developed within the armed forces before the 1990 election. This Plan Verde was shown to President Fujimorti after the 1990 election before his inauguration. Thus, the president was able to prepare for an eventual self-coup during the first two years of his administration
- ^"El" Plan Verde "Historia de una traición".Oiga.647.12 July 1993.Archivedfrom the original on 8 October 2021.Retrieved8 January2022.
- ^abMitrovic, Mijail (30 December 2021)."At the fabric of history: Peru's political struggle under (and against) the pandemic".Dialectical Anthropology.45(4): 431–446.doi:10.1007/s10624-021-09634-5.PMC8716181.PMID34980936.
- ^Black, Jan (2018).Latin America Its Problems and Its Promise: A Multidisciplinary Introduction.Taylor and Francis. p. 355.ISBN9780429974694.Archivedfrom the original on 27 April 2023.Retrieved19 March2023.
In September 1992, a small, elite squad within Peru's antiterrorist police (established under Garcia) captured the Shining Path leader, Abimael Guzman. Within the next few weeks, using information in Guzman's hideout, police arrested more than 1,000 suspected guerillas. During the next few years, the Shining Path was decimated.
- ^Gaussens, Pierre (2020)."The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s".Canadian Journal of Bioethics.3(3): 180+.doi:10.7202/1073797ar.S2CID234586692.
a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention
- ^Back, Michele; Zavala, Virginia (2018).Racialization and Language: Interdisciplinary Perspectives From Perú.Routledge.pp. 286–291.Archivedfrom the original on 4 August 2021.Retrieved4 August2021.
At the end of the 1980s, a group of military elites secretly developed an analysis of Peruvian society calledEl cuaderno verde.This analysis established the policies that the following government would have to carry out in order to defeat Shining Path and rescue the Peruvian economy from the deep crisis in which it found itself.El cuaderno verdewas passed onto the national press in 1993, after some of these policies were enacted by President Fujimori.... It was a program that resulted in the forced sterilization of Quechua-speaking women belonging to rural Andean communities. This is an example of 'ethnic cleansing' justified by the state, which claimed that a properly controlled birth rate would improve the distribution of national resources and thus reduce poverty levels.... The Peruvian state decided to control the bodies of 'culturally backward' women, since they were considered a source of poverty and the seeds of subversive groups
- ^ab"Peru".The Economist.17 October 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 10 April 2008.
- ^White, Gavin David (2009)."Displacement, decentralisation and reparation in post-conflict Peru".Forced Migration Review.Archived fromthe originalon 15 October 2017.Retrieved2 July2017.
- ^Ortiz de Zárate, Roberto (6 June 2016)."Keiko Fujimori Higuchi".Barcelona Centre for International Affairs.Archivedfrom the original on 9 December 2022.Retrieved21 February2021.
- ^"Fujimori 'to run for presidency'".BBC. 20 September 2004.Archivedfrom the original on 3 March 2016.Retrieved13 February2016.
- ^Forero, Juan (9 April 2006)."Fujimori's Daughter Polishes Her Jailed Father's Image on the Road to Congress in Peru".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Archivedfrom the original on 4 October 2020.Retrieved3 June2021.
- ^"Peru's Fujimori sentenced to 25 years prison".Reuters.7 April 2009.Archivedfrom the original on 12 April 2009.Retrieved10 July2018.
- ^Flannery, Nathaniel Parish."Political Risk Analysis: How Will Peru's Economy Perform In 2017?".Forbes.Archivedfrom the original on 9 December 2022.Retrieved9 December2022.
- ^"The Political Limits of Presidential Impeachment: Lessons from Latin America".German Institute for Global and Area Studies.2021.Archivedfrom the original on 9 December 2022.Retrieved9 December2022.
- ^"Peru's Prime Minister Ana Jara deposed over spy row".BBC.BBC News. 31 March 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 20 August 2017.Retrieved19 August2017.
- ^abAsensio, Raúl; Camacho, Gabriela; González, Natalia; Grompone, Romeo; Pajuelo Teves, Ramón; Peña Jimenez, Omayra; Moscoso, Macarena; Vásquez, Yerel; Sosa Villagarcia, Paolo (2021).El Profe: Cómo Pedro Castillo se convirtió en presidente del Perú y qué pasará a continuación(in Spanish) (1 ed.).Lima, Peru:Institute of Peruvian Studies.p. 92.ISBN978-612-326-084-2.Archivedfrom the original on 5 November 2022.Retrieved17 November2021.
- ^abTaj, Mitra (7 December 2021)."'Too many mistakes': Peru's president threatened with impeachment after shaky start ".Financial Times.Archivedfrom the original on 10 December 2022.Retrieved13 December2021.
- ^ab"Peru's Keiko Fujimori backs long-shot effort to impeach President Castillo".Reuters.19 November 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 29 November 2021.Retrieved13 December2021.
- ^abTegel, Simeon (15 October 2021)."Can Pedro Castillo Save His Presidency?".Foreign Policy.Archivedfrom the original on 15 October 2021.Retrieved13 December2021.
- ^Tegel, Simeon (12 August 2018)."Corruption scandals have ensnared 3 Peruvian presidents. Now the whole political system could change".The Washington Post.Archivedfrom the original on 9 November 2020.Retrieved17 August2018.
- ^"Peru's Vizcarra Begins Presidency With 57 Pct Approval Rating".U.S. News & World Report.15 April 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 16 April 2018.Retrieved16 April2018.
- ^"Peruvian Congress votes to impeach President Martín Vizcarra".BBC News.10 November 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 28 August 2021.Retrieved17 August2021.
- ^"Peru's President Merino resigns after deadly crackdown on protesters".BBC News.16 November 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 3 October 2021.Retrieved17 August2021.
- ^"Francisco Sagasti sworn in as interim Peruvian leader".BBC News.18 November 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 16 November 2020.Retrieved17 August2021.
- ^"Pedro Castillo declared president-elect of Peru".BBC News.20 July 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 13 August 2021.Retrieved17 August2021.
- ^"Peru: Pedro Castillo sworn in as president".DW.28 July 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 13 August 2021.Retrieved17 August2021.
- ^"The bicentennial of Peru's independence: A historic opportunity".The Jakarta Post.Archivedfrom the original on 20 January 2022.Retrieved20 January2022.
- ^"Peru's President Accused of Coup After Move to Dissolve Congress".Bloomberg.7 December 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 8 December 2022.Retrieved8 December2022.
- ^"Peru's President Pedro Castillo replaced by Dina Boluarte after impeachment".BBC News.7 December 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 8 December 2022.Retrieved8 December2022.
- ^"Peru president removed from office and charged with 'rebellion' after alleged coup attempt".The Guardian.8 December 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 7 December 2022.Retrieved8 December2022.
- ^ab"Daniel Encinas:" Dina Boluarte ha hecho una coalición con fuerzas que no ganaron la elección "".La Republica(in Spanish). 2 January 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 16 January 2023.Retrieved12 January2023.
- ^"Perú Libre presentará moción de interpelación contra ministro del Interior".La Republica(in Spanish). 4 January 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 12 January 2023.Retrieved12 January2023.
- ^Chaboo, C.S. & A. Catenazzi. 2015. Beetles (Coleoptera) of Peru: A survey of the Families. Biogeography. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 88(02):140–143.
- ^Andes Handbook,HuascaránArchived8 October 2016 at theWayback Machine.2 June 2002.
- ^Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú,El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico,p. 16.
- ^Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú,El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico,p. 31.
- ^Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática,Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005,p. 21.
- ^Grove, Matthew J; Baker, Paul A; Cross, Scott L; Rigsby, Catherine A; Seltzer, Geoffrey O (2003). "Application of Strontium Isotopes to Understanding the Hydrology and Paleohydrology of the Altiplano, Bolivia-Peru".Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.194(1–3): 281–297.Bibcode:2003PPP...194..281G.doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00282-7.
- ^Oficina nacional de evaluación de recursos naturales (previous INRENA)."Inventario nacional de lagunas y represamientos"(PDF).INRENA.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 25 June 2007.Retrieved3 March2008.
- ^Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú,El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico,pp. 24–25.
- ^Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú,El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico,pp. 25–26.
- ^Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú,El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico,pp. 26–27.
- ^Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática,Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005,p. 50.
- ^"Peru Wildlife: Portal for information about wildlife and ecotourism in Peru".peruwildlife.info.Archivedfrom the original on 17 May 2008.Retrieved28 November2016.
- ^Ortega, H., Hidalgo, M., Correa, E., Espino, J., Chocano, L., Trevejo, G.,... & Quispe, R. (2012). Lista anotada de los peces de aguas continentales del Peru. Estado actual del conocimiento, distribución, usos y aspectos de conservación. Lima, Perú: Ministerio del Ambiente
- ^ab"Peru: Wildlife".Select Latin America. Archived fromthe originalon 26 February 2010.Retrieved16 September2009.
- ^Chaboo, C.S. 2015. Beetles (Coleoptera) of Peru: A survey of the Families. Part I. Overview. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 88(02):135–139.
- ^Dillon, Michael O."The solanaceae of the lomas formations of coastal Peru and Chile"(PDF).sacha.org.Archived(PDF)from the original on 13 July 2007.Retrieved28 November2016.
- ^Grantham, H. S.; et al. (2020)."Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material".Nature Communications.11(1): 5978.Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G.doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3.ISSN2041-1723.PMC7723057.PMID33293507.
- ^"Peru: Government".globaledge.msu.edu.Archivedfrom the original on 15 July 2020.Retrieved11 March2020.
- ^Andrade, Guilherme Trivellato (21 April 2017).From Promise to Delivery: Organizing the Government of Peru to Improve Public Health Outcomes(Thesis).Archivedfrom the original on 17 July 2020.Retrieved2 April2020.
- ^Fernandini, Patrick Wieland; Sousa, Ronnie Farfan (2015)."Overview of the different levels of government".The Distribution of Powers and Responsibilities Affecting Forests, Land Use, and Redd+ Across Levels and Sectors in Peru:1–12.Archivedfrom the original on 26 July 2020.Retrieved2 April2020.
- ^Serra, Diego (30 August 2019)."Defending bicameralism and equalising powers: The case of Peru".Constitutional Reform of National Legislatures.pp. 142–162.doi:10.4337/9781788978644.00016.ISBN9781788978644.S2CID203215051.Archivedfrom the original on 15 July 2020.Retrieved2 April2020.
- ^Constitución Política del Perú,Article No. 112.
- ^Constitución Política del Perú,Article No. 122.
- ^Hildebrancht, Martha (2003).El Habla Culta (o lo que debiera serlo).Lima. p. 37.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^Tegel, Simeon."Peru's president dissolved Congress. Then Congress suspended the president".Washington Post.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2020.Retrieved2 April2020.
- ^Constitución Política del Perú,Article No. 90.
- ^Constitución Política del Perú,Articles No. 107–108.
- ^Constitución Política del Perú,Article No. 146.
- ^Clark, Jeffrey.Building on quicksand.Retrieved 24 July 2007.
- ^"Reglamento del Congreso de la Republica".www2.congreso.gob.pe.Archivedfrom the original on 15 July 2020.Retrieved11 March2020.
- ^Lee, Sang Hoon; Magallanes, José Manuel; Porter, Mason A. (1 March 2017)."Time-dependent community structure in legislation cosponsorship networks in the Congress of the Republic of Peru".Journal of Complex Networks.5(1): 127–144.arXiv:1510.01002.doi:10.1093/comnet/cnw004.ISSN2051-1310.S2CID15837465.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2021.Retrieved2 April2020.
- ^"Under fire Peru president resigns".BBC News.22 March 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 4 March 2020.Retrieved11 March2020.
- ^Romero, César (28 February 2023)."Tribunal Constitucional falla a favor del Congreso, que tendrá un poder absoluto y sin control judicial".La República(in Spanish).Archivedfrom the original on 16 March 2023.Retrieved2 March2023.
- ^Romero, César (25 February 2023)."El Tribunal Constitucional está destruyendo el régimen democrático del país".La República(in Spanish).Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2023.Retrieved2 March2023.
- ^Brennan, Jason; Hill, Lisa (2014).Compulsory Voting: For and Against.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-107-04151-6.Archivedfrom the original on 9 August 2020.Retrieved30 May2020.
- ^Constitución Política del Perú,Article No. 31.
- ^"Peru: Sistemas Electorales / Electoral Systems".pdba.georgetown.edu.Archivedfrom the original on 9 January 2020.Retrieved2 April2020.
- ^(in Spanish)Congreso de la República del Perú,Grupos ParlamentariosArchived29 December 2007 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 27 August 2011.
- ^"Elections Show Fissures in Peru's Political Institutions".Finch Ratings.14 April 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 7 June 2021.Retrieved19 July2021.
- ^Aquino, Marco (20 July 2021)."Peru socialist Castillo confirmed president after lengthy battle over results".Reuters.Archivedfrom the original on 20 July 2021.Retrieved3 November2021.
- ^"The curious case of Peru's persistent president-to-prison politics".The Week.Archivedfrom the original on 22 November 2021.Retrieved22 November2021.
- ^"Peru's presidential lineup: graft probes, suicide and impeachment".Reuters.15 November 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 22 November 2021.Retrieved22 November2021.
- ^Dennis, Claire (23 August 2017)."Another Top Peru Politician Embroiled in Odebrecht Scandal".InSight Crime.Archivedfrom the original on 15 December 2022.Retrieved15 December2022.
- ^"El misterio del harakiri | IDL Reporteros".IDL Reporteros.11 December 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 28 January 2023.Retrieved15 December2022.
- ^Pozo Díaz, Hildebrando Castro (August 2008)."Existen regiones en nuestro pais"(PDF).Congreso de la Republica de Peru.Archived(PDF)from the original on 24 March 2020.Retrieved2 April2020.
- ^Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales,Article No. 11.
- ^"Gobierno del Perú".gob.pe(in Spanish).Archivedfrom the original on 19 June 2020.Retrieved12 March2020.
- ^Dickovick, J. Tyler (1 January 2007)."Municipalization as Central Government Strategy: Central-Regional–Local Politics in Peru, Brazil, and South Africa".Publius: The Journal of Federalism.37(1): 1–25.doi:10.1093/publius/pjl012.ISSN0048-5950.Archivedfrom the original on 17 April 2021.Retrieved2 April2020.
- ^Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales,Article No. 10.
- ^Schönwälder, Gerd (2002).Linking Civil Society and the State: Urban Popular Movements, the Left, and Local Government in Peru, 1980–1992.Penn State Press.ISBN978-0-271-02379-3.Archivedfrom the original on 17 April 2021.Retrieved18 November2020.
- ^Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales,Article No. 66.
- ^Monika Huber; Wolfgang Kaiser (February 2013)."Mixed Feelings".dandc.eu.Archivedfrom the original on 7 July 2018.Retrieved8 May2013.
- ^Pique, Ricardo (1 May 2019)."Higher pay, worse outcomes? The impact of mayoral wages on local government quality in Peru".Journal of Public Economics.173:1–20.doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2019.01.005.ISSN0047-2727.S2CID14763370.Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2021.Retrieved2 April2020.
- ^Costa, Eduardo Ferrero (1987). "Peruvian Foreign Policy: Current Trends, Constraints and Opportunities".Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs.29(2): 55–78.doi:10.2307/166073.ISSN0022-1937.JSTOR166073.
- ^St John, Ronald Bruce (1992).The foreign policy of Peru.Boulder: Lynne Rienner,ISBN1555873049,pp. 223–224.
- ^Lincoln, Jennie K.; Ferris, Elizabeth G. (2019).The Dynamics Of Latin American Foreign Policies: Challenges For The 1980s.Routledge.ISBN978-1-000-31605-6.Archivedfrom the original on 17 April 2021.Retrieved18 November2020.
- ^Blanco-Jiménez, M., Parra-Irineo, G., González-González, N. and Tavizon-Salazar, A. (30 May 2019). "Pacific Alliance: Political, Economic, and Commercial Implications".Regional Integration in Latin America.Vol. 1. pp. 1–12.doi:10.1108/978-1-78973-159-020191001.ISBN978-1-78973-160-6.S2CID181395804.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^Alonso Morán de Romaña (25 January 2018)."Productivity provides the key to Peru's bid for OECD membership".LSE Latin America and Caribbean.Archivedfrom the original on 29 March 2020.Retrieved29 March2020.
- ^"Peru's OECD member status bid likely to succeed".andina.pe(in Spanish). 2 July 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 29 March 2020.Retrieved29 March2020.
- ^"The treaties of free trade (FTA) and exports of aggro-industrial products in Peru".Socrates.7(1 and 2). 2019.ISSN2347-2146.Archivedfrom the original on 18 February 2020.Retrieved2 April2020.
- ^Shaffer, Gregory; Winters, L. Alan (April 2017)."FTA Law in WTO Dispute Settlement: Peru–Additional Duty and the Fragmentation of Trade Law".World Trade Review.16(2): 303–326.doi:10.1017/S1474745616000550.ISSN1474-7456.
- ^BBC News (4 November 2005),Peru–Chile border row escalatesArchived15 January 2009 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 16 May 2007.
- ^Global Affairs Canada-Affaires Mondiales Canada (29 August 2019)."Lima Group statement".GAC.Archivedfrom the original on 29 March 2020.Retrieved29 March2020.
- ^"2024 Global Peace Index"(PDF).
- ^"Ránking ubica al Perú como la cuarta Fuerza Armada más poderosa de Latinoamérica".RPP(in Spanish). 29 July 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 17 July 2020.Retrieved31 March2020.
- ^abWilliams, James L. (1972). "Revolution from Within: Changing Military Perspectives in Peru".Naval War College Review.25(2): 43–60.ISSN0028-1484.JSTOR44639763.
- ^Ministerio de Defensa,Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional.Ministerio de Defensa, 2005, 90.
- ^Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar,Articles No. 29, 42 and 45.
- ^Vásquez, George L. (1994). "The Peruvian Army in War and Peace: 1980–1992".Journal of Third World Studies.11(2): 100–116.ISSN8755-3449.JSTOR45197485.
- ^Weber, Cynthia (1990). "Representing Debt: Peruvian Presidents Belaunde's and Garcia's Reading/Writing of Peruvian Debt".International Studies Quarterly.34(3): 353–365.doi:10.2307/2600575.ISSN0020-8833.JSTOR2600575.
- ^"Military expenditure (% of GDP) – Peru | Data".data.worldbank.org.Archivedfrom the original on 15 July 2020.Retrieved31 March2020.
- ^"Peru calls up 10,000 army reserves to enforce quarantine".Reuters.1 April 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 6 April 2020.Retrieved2 April2020.
- ^PeruArchived23 January 2021 at theWayback Machine.CIA, The World Factbook
- ^The World Bank,Data by country: PeruArchived8 November 2016 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved on 1 October 2011.
- ^BBC (31 July 2012),Peru country profileArchived5 November 2016 at theWayback Machine.
- ^"Peru".Human Development Reports.United Nations. 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 28 December 2017.Retrieved7 January2018.
- ^Thorp, p. 4.
- ^Thorp, p. 321.
- ^"Overview".Archivedfrom the original on 29 December 2017.Retrieved2 January2018.
- ^"Peru and the IMF".International Monetary Fund.Archivedfrom the original on 3 July 2014.Retrieved27 July2014.
- ^Montero, Juan Carlos Pérez (1 March 2023)."Perú registró una inflación de 0,43% en febrero de 2023".Finanzas Digital(in Spanish).Archivedfrom the original on 4 March 2023.
- ^Thorp, pp. 318–319.
- ^Sheahan, John (1999).Searching for a better society: the Peruvian economy from 1950.University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 157.ISBN0271018720.
- ^2006 figures.(in Spanish)Banco Central de Reserva,Memoria 2006Archived9 September 2016 at theWayback Machine,p. 204. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
- ^(in Spanish)Banco Central de Reserva,Memoria 2006Archived9 September 2016 at theWayback Machine,pp. 15, 203. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
- ^Office of the U.S. Trade Representative,United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement,12 April 2006. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
- ^2006 figures.(in Spanish)Banco Central de Reserva,Memoria 2006Archived9 September 2016 at theWayback Machine,pp. 60–61. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
- ^World Intellectual Property Organization(2024)."Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship"(PDF).wipo.int.Geneva. p. 18.doi:10.34667/tind.50062.ISBN978-92-805-3681-2.Retrieved1 October2024.
- ^"Capítulo 4 La Informalidad y la Fuerza de Trabajo"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 24 March 2023.Retrieved4 March2023.
- ^ab"PRODUCCIÓN CUPRÍFERA AUMENTÓ UN 12.7% EN 2023 Y EL PERÚ SE MANTIENE COMO EL SEGUNDO MAYOR PRODUCTOR DE COBRE DEL MUNDO".Sociedad de Comercio Exterior del Perú(in Spanish).Retrieved13 August2024.
- ^"Copper"(PDF).Mineral Commodity Summaries.USGS. January 2021.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^"Silver"(PDF).Mineral Commodity Summaries.USGS. January 2021.Archived(PDF)from the original on 15 May 2021.
- ^"Zinc"(PDF).Mineral Commodity Summaries.USGS. January 2021.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^"Gold"(PDF).Mineral Commodity Summaries.USGS. January 2021.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^"Lead"(PDF).Mineral Commodity Summaries.USGS. January 2021.Archived(PDF)from the original on 15 May 2021.
- ^"Tin"(PDF).Mineral Commodity Summaries.USGS. January 2021.Archived(PDF)from the original on 13 August 2021.
- ^USGS Boron Production StatisticsArchived18 July 2021 at theWayback Machine(PDF)
- ^USGS Molybdenum Production StatisticsArchived9 October 2022 at Ghost Archive (PDF)
- ^"Duas opções: direita ou direita – Le Monde Diplomatique".diplomatique.org.br.6 June 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 12 July 2022.Retrieved12 July2022.
- ^"II. SECTOR EXTERNO"(PDF).bcrp.gob.pe(in Spanish). 31 December 1990. p. 32.Retrieved13 August2024.
- ^"Agriculture in Peru, by FAO".Archivedfrom the original on 16 October 2020.Retrieved12 July2022.
- ^ab"Food crisis deepens in Peru, more than half of the population lacks enough to eat".Atalayar.December 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 4 March 2023.
- ^ab"In Peru, half the population lacks food security".22 January 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 4 March 2023.Retrieved4 March2023.
- ^"Manufacturing, value added (current US$) | Data".data.worldbank.org.Archivedfrom the original on 7 January 2020.Retrieved12 July2022.
- ^"Peru prepara indústria pesqueira para enfrentar mudança climática".GZH.12 July 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 12 July 2022.Retrieved12 July2022.
- ^"Estadística – Infraestructura de Transportes – Infraestructura Vial".gob.pe.Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2022.Retrieved12 July2022.
- ^"Visión de desarrolo de la infraestructura vial"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 17 July 2022.Retrieved12 July2022.
- ^"Estadística – Infraestructura de Transportes – Infraestructura Ferroviaria".gob.pe.Archivedfrom the original on 22 October 2022.Retrieved12 July2022.
- ^Andrade, Artur Luiz (29 October 2018)."Brasil tem 9 dos maiores aeroportos da América Latina".Portal PANROTAS.Archivedfrom the original on 11 January 2021.Retrieved12 July2022.
- ^"actividad portuaria de América Latina y el Caribe 2018"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 14 January 2021.Retrieved12 July2022.
- ^"With Peru port project, China gains a foothold in America's backyard".NBC News.15 November 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 9 May 2024.Retrieved9 May2024.
- ^"Chinese-backed port project in Peru to be the 'gateway from South America to Asia,' official says".AP News.23 August 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 16 May 2024.Retrieved10 May2024.
- ^"Peru Electricity Production, 1978 – 2023 | CEIC Data".ceicdata.Archivedfrom the original on 26 January 2023.Retrieved26 January2023.
- ^"Renewable Capacity Statistics 2022"(PDF).IRENA.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved19 May2022.
- ^"Core Indicators, Health Situation in the America's"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 1 June 2023.Retrieved9 May2024.
- ^"Perfil Sociodemografico"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 February 2020.Retrieved27 September2018.
- ^"El Perú tiene una población de 31 millones 488 mil 625 habitantes"[Peru has a population of 31 million 488 thousand 625 inhabitants].inei.gob.pe(in Spanish). INEI. 11 July 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2017.Retrieved7 January2018.
- ^Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática,Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050,pp. 37–38, 40.
- ^"First results of the Peruvian population census conducted last year".The Peru Telegraph.26 June 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 10 July 2018.Retrieved10 July2018.
- ^"Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico"(PDF).Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática.p. 16.Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 February 2020.Retrieved27 September2018.
- ^Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática,Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú,p. 24.
- ^"Isolated Peru tribe threatened by outsiders.USAToday. 31 January 2012
- ^"Life expectancy at birth, total (years) | Data".data.worldbank.org.Archivedfrom the original on 26 August 2018.Retrieved25 August2018.
- ^""Situación de la Población Peruana, 2024. Una mirada de la diversidad étnica"(PDF).Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática.p. 20.Retrieved3 August2024.
- ^"2017 Peruvian census"(PDF).
- ^Cook, Noble David (1982)Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620.Cambridge University Press. p. 114.ISBN0521239958.
- ^"Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico"(PDF).Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática.p. 214.Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 February 2020.Retrieved27 September2018.
- ^Vázquez, Mario (1970) "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru", pp. 79–81 inRace and class in Latin America.Columbia Univ. Press.ISBN0-231-03295-1
- ^"Peru apologises for abuse of African-origin citizensArchived19 July 2018 at theWayback Machine".BBC News. 29 November 2009
- ^Mörner, Magnus (1967),Race mixture in the history of Latin America,p. 131.
- ^"Peru izabrao predsjednicu peruansko-hrvatskog prijateljstva".index.hr(in Croatian).Retrieved21 September2024.
- ^"Miles de venezolanos ingresan a Perú antes que entre en vigencia requisito de visa humanitaria | Mundo | Gestion".14 June 2019. Archived fromthe originalon 14 June 2019.Retrieved23 September2024.
- ^"Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico"(PDF).Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática.p. 198.Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 February 2020.Retrieved27 September2018.
- ^ab(in Spanish)Resonancias.orgArchived7 October 2016 at theWayback Machine– Aboriginal languages of Peru
- ^World University Ranking 2023, Times Higher Education,https:// timesArchived27 January 2022 at theWayback Machinehighereducation > world-ranking
- ^"Catholicism and evangelism: the two most common religions in Latin America".Statista.26 October 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 19 November 2022.Retrieved18 November2022.
- ^Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática,Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú,p. 93.
- ^PeruArchived23 January 2021 at theWayback Machine.CIA, The World Factbook
- ^Constitución Política del Perú,Article No. 17.
- ^"Decreto Supremo que aprueba el Reglamento de la Ley N° 29735, Ley que regula el uso, preservación, desarrollo, recuperación, fomento y difusión de las lenguas originarias del Perú, Decreto Supremo N° 004-2016-MC".Archivedfrom the original on 29 October 2017.Retrieved10 July2017.
- ^"Textile Doll".Walters Art Museumsite.Archivedfrom the original on 4 June 2023.Retrieved3 August2023.
- ^Belaunde, Víctor Andrés (1983).Peruanidad.Lima: BCR, p. 472.
- ^Bailey, pp. 72–74.
- ^Bailey, p. 263.
- ^Lucie-Smith, Edward (1993).Latin American art of the 20th centuryArchived20 August 2016 at theWayback Machine.London: Thames and Hudson,ISBN0500203563,pp. 76–77, 145–146.
- ^Bayón, Damián (1998). "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.),A cultural history of Latin America.Cambridge: University of Cambridge,ISBN0521626269,pp. 425–428.
- ^Martin, "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870", pp. 37–39.
- ^Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 151–152.
- ^Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 178–179.
- ^Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 186–188.
- ^"7 Things You Need to Know about Peruvian Cuisine".MICHELIN Guide.Archivedfrom the original on 4 February 2019.Retrieved4 February2019.
- ^Custer, pp. 17–22.
- ^Custer, pp. 25–38.
- ^Romero, Raúl (1999). "Andean Peru". In: John Schechter (ed.),Music in Latin American culture: regional tradition.New York: Schirmer Books, pp. 385–386.
- ^Olsen, Dale (2002).Music of El Dorado: the ethnomusicology of ancient South American cultures.Gainesville: University Press of Florida,ISBN0813029201,pp. 17–22.
- ^Turino, Thomas(1993). "Charango". In: Stanley Sadie (ed.),The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments.New York: MacMillan Press Limited, vol. I,ISBN0333378784,p. 340.
- ^Romero, Raúl (1985). "La música tradicional y popular". In: Patronato Popular y Porvenir,La música en el Perú.Lima: Industrial Gráfica, pp. pp. 243–245, 261–265.
Bibliography
- Bailey, Gauvin Alexander.Art of colonial Latin America.London: Phaidon, 2005.ISBN0714841579.
- Constitución Política del Perú.29 December 1993.
- Custer, Tony.The Art of Peruvian Cuisine.Lima: Ediciones Ganesha, 2003.ISBN9972920305.
- Garland, Gonzalo."Perú Siglo XXI", series of 11 working papers describing sectorial long-term forecasts, Grade, Lima, Peru, 1986–1987.
- Garland, Gonzalo. Peru in the 21st Century: Challenges and Possibilities inFutures: the Journal of Forecasting, Planning, and Policy,Volume 22, No. 4, Butterworth-Heinemann, London, England, May 1990.
- Gootenberg, Paul. (1991)Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru.Princeton: Princeton University Press.ISBN0691023425.
- Gootenberg, Paul. (1993)Imagining development: economic ideas in Peru's "fictitious prosperity" of Guano, 1840–1880.Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN0520082907.
- Higgins, James (editor).The Emancipation of Peru: British Eyewitness Accounts,2014. Online atjhemanperuArchived21 April 2020 at theWayback Machine
- Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú.El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico.Lima: Auge, 1996.
- Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática."Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 7 March 2007.(8.31 MB).Lima: INEI, 2005.
- Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática.Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú.Lima: INEI, 2008.
- Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática.Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050.Lima: INEI, 2001.
- Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar
DOC.28 September 1999. - Ley N° 27867,Ley Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales.16 November 2002.
- Martin, Gerald. "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.),A cultural history of Latin America.Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 3–45.
- Martin, Gerald. "Narrative since c. 1920". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.),A cultural history of Latin America.Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 133–225.
- Porras Barrenechea, Raúl.El nombre del Perú.Lima: Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968.
- Scheina, Robert (2003),Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899,Brassey's,ISBN978-1-57488-450-0
- Thorp, Rosemary, and Geoffrey Bertram.Peru 1890–1977: growth and policy in an open economy.New York: Columbia University Press, 1978.ISBN0231034334
Further reading
- Akers, Charles Edmond;Edmundson, George(1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 21 (11th ed.). pp. 264–278.
- Economy
- (in Spanish)Banco Central de Reserva.Cuadros Anuales HistóricosArchived1 May 2011 at theWayback Machine.
- (in Spanish)Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática.Perú: Perfil de la pobreza por departamentos, 2004–2008.Lima: INEI, 2009.
- Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 1920–1950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.),A cultural history of Latin America.Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 227–260.
External links
Definitionsfrom Wiktionary
Mediafrom Commons
Newsfrom Wikinews
Quotationsfrom Wikiquote
Textsfrom Wikisource
Textbooksfrom Wikibooks
Resourcesfrom Wikiversity
- Country ProfilefromBBC News
- Peru.The World Factbook.Central Intelligence Agency.
- World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Peru
- PeruLinksArchived15 October 2008 at theWayback Machineweb directory
Wikimedia Atlas of Peru
Perutravel guide from Wikivoyage- (in Spanish)Web portalof the Peruvian Government
Geographic data related toPeruatOpenStreetMap
