Wikipedia

Phormium tenax

Phormium tenax(calledflaxinNew Zealand English;harakekeinMāori;New Zealand flax[1][2]outside New Zealand; andNew Zealand hemp[1]in historical nautical contexts) is an evergreenperennialplant native toNew ZealandandNorfolk Islandthat is an importantfibreplant and a popular ornamental plant.[3]The plant grows as a clump of long, straplike leaves, up to two metres long, from which arises a much taller flowering shoot, with dramatic yellow or red flowers.[3]

Phormium tenax
InPiha,New Zealand
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Order: Asparagales
Family: Asphodelaceae
Subfamily: Hemerocallidoideae
Genus: Phormium
Species:
P. tenax
Binomial name
Phormium tenax
Tūīon New Zealand flax

Despite being commonly known as 'flax', harakeke is of the genus Phormium and is a leaf fibre, whereas flax (linen) is of the genus Linum and is a bast fibre (which comes from the stem of the plant). The two plants have no relationship with each other.

The fibre has been widely used since the arrival ofMāorito New Zealand, originally inMāori traditional textilesand also in rope and sail making[4][2]after the arrival of Europeans until at least WWII. It is an invasive species in some of the Pacific Islands and in Australia.[5]

The blades of the plant containcucurbitacins,which are poisonous to some animals, and some of them are among the bitterest tastes to humans.[6]

Taxonomy

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Phormium tenaxJ.R.Forst & G.Forst was described in 1776 byJohann Reinhold ForsterandGeorg Forster,who were the father and son team of German botanists on thesecond voyage of James Cook.[7]

Etymology

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Theharain the Māori nameharakekeis a remnant of theAustronesianroot*paŋudaN(viaProto-Oceanic*padran) surviving inrelated languagesreferring topandanusplants with similar characteristics of sheathing leaves also used for weaving (likePandanus tectorius,also known ashalainHawaiian), as New Zealand was one of the only places where pandanus was not available.[8]

Ecology

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Thejumping spiderTrite planicepslives predominantly in the rolled-up leaves of this species.Phormium tenaxis a coastal cover plant associated with significant habitat such as the breeding habitat for theendangeredyellow-eyed penguin.[9]

Māori traditional uses

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Further information:Flax in New Zealand

New Zealand flax was one of the most commonly used fibres for weaving prior to European contact in New Zealand, due to its wide availability and long strands.[10]Harakeke can be woven raw to create open-weave items (where theparaor the waterproofepidermisof the plant is kept intact), or processed so only themukaremains, for close-weave objects.[10]The broad length of harakeke leaves allow weavers to create a variety of strip lengths, making the plant suitable for a range of objects and sizes.[10]

In pre-European society, Māori had specific plantations of flax, which was their most important textile. It was prepared by cutting the green leaves close to the base before the leaves were split and woven. Various preparations of the leaves allowed the material to be used both as a hardy flat thick-woven material (as inketeand mats) and also as a fibrous twine, used for creating both rope and finely woven cloaks.

Harakeke can be boiled with hot stones to bleach strips, however dying the fibre is difficult due to the water resistantpara.[10]However, harakeke can by dyed usingparu,[11]or an iron-rich mud.[10]Harakeke can be made more flexible with less shrinkage using thehapinetechnique, where a knife or shell is run across the fibre to remove moisture without breaking the surface layers.[10][12]

Cultivation

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Phormium tenaxhad many uses in traditional Māori society. It was the main material used for weaving, adopted after aute (paper mulberry), the traditional tree used to create fabric inPolynesia,did not thrive in New Zealand's "Scientific Plant Breeding" climate.[13]Many of the traditional uses have largely fallen into disuse, though there is an upswing in the use of traditional materials in modern Māori art and craft. The two most common forms for flax in traditional craft are the use of stripped, dried leaves as broad bands, such as in the weaving ofkete(flax baskets), and the scraping, pounding, and washing of the leaves to create a fibre —muka— which is used intāniko(weaving) of soft, durable fabric for clothing. Flax is also used as a decorative and structural element intukutuku,panelling found within Mãoriwharenui(meeting houses).

A worker feeding a flax leaf into a stripper, circa 1910.

Prior to theGreat Depressionof the 1930s, which decimated flax as an industry, there were two serious attempts by Europeans to breed for fibre. The first was byWellington-basedLeonard Cockayneabout 1908.[14]The second byMassey-basedJohn Stuart Yeatesin the late 1920s.[15][16]More recently research led byXiaowen YuanatMassey Universityhas investigated the use of novel composite materials made from flax fibre to improvesupercapacitorperformance.[17]

New Zealand Flax was cultivated onSaint Helenafrom the late 1800s to around 1966 for the production of string and rope and for export.[18]Today the plants remain but the industry has stopped; they are considered an ecological problem.[19]

Ornamental

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In recent times,P. tenaxand its cousinP. colensoihave been widely cultivated as ornamental garden plants, their striking fans of pointed leaves providing a focal point in mixed plantings or at the edge of a lawn. They are easy to grow in a sunny spot, especially in coastal areas with some protection in winter, but require reliably moist soil. They are frequently found in garden centres amongst plants with a similar appearance, notablyYuccaandCordyline.However, these are very different plants with different requirements.P. tenaxand some cultivars can grow to a substantial size - 4 m (13 ft) tall by 2 m (7 ft) broad.[20]

Cultivars

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Phormium'Amazing Red'

More recently severalcultivarshave been selected as decorative garden plants, including:[21]

  • 'Bronze Baby' - arching bronze leaves, 2-to-3-foot (0.61 to 0.91 m) plant.
  • 'Dazzler' - arching leaves that are bronze-maroon with red and pink stripes, plant reaches 3 feet in height
  • 'Duet'agm[22]
  • Purpureum Groupagm[23]
  • 'Sundowner'agm[24]- 6-foot-tall (1.8 m) plant, leaves are striped with bronze, green and rose-pink
  • 'Variegatum'agm[25]
  • 'Yellow Wave'agm[26]

Those markedagmhave gained theRoyal Horticultural Society'sAward of Garden Merit.[27]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ab"Phormium tenax".Germplasm Resources Information Network.Agricultural Research Service,United States Department of Agriculture.Retrieved18 December2017.
  2. ^abChitham, Karl (2019).Crafting Aotearoa: a cultural history of making in New Zealand and the wider Moana Oceania.Kolokesa Uafā Māhina-Tuai, Damian Skinner, Rigel Sorzano. Wellington, New Zealand: Te Papa Press. p. 111.ISBN978-0-9941362-7-5.OCLC1118996645.
  3. ^abRoger Holmes and Lance Walheim. 2005.California Home Landscaping,Creative Homeowner PressISBN978-1-58011-254-3
  4. ^"Our Flax for the Navy | NZETC".
  5. ^"Phormium tenax (PIER species info)".Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER). 9 January 2011.Retrieved20 August2012.
  6. ^Kupchan, S.Morris; Meshulam, Haim; Sneden, Albert T. (1978). "New cucurbitacins from Phormium tenax and Marah oreganus".Phytochemistry.17(4): 767–769.Bibcode:1978PChem..17..767K.doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)94223-7.
  7. ^Johann Reinhold Forster;Georg Forster(1 March 1776),Characteres generum plantarum: uas in itinere ad insulas maris australis, collegerunt,descripserunt, delinearunt, annis mdcclxxii-mdcclxxv(in Latin) (2nd ed.), London,doi:10.5962/BHL.TITLE.4448,WikidataQ67939286
  8. ^"Proto-Polynesian Etymologies: *Fara".Te Mära Reo: The Language Garden.Benton Family Trust.Retrieved15 January2019.
  9. ^C. Michael, Hogan (April 6, 2009)."Yellow-eyed Penguin (EN)-Megadyptes antipodes(Hombron & Jacquinot, 1841) ".IgoTerra.Archivedfrom the original on 2 August 2015.
  10. ^abcdefMckendry, Lisa (2020)."Māori archaeological textiles: a structural analysis of Māori raranga 'woven' basketry from the Waitakere Ranges in Auckland Museum".Records of the Auckland Museum.55:19–28.doi:10.32912/RAM.2020.55.2.ISSN1174-9202.JSTOR27008990.S2CID229659991.WikidataQ106827316.
  11. ^Chitham, Karl (2019).Crafting Aotearoa: a cultural history of making in New Zealand and the wider Moana Oceania.Kolokesa Uafā Māhina-Tuai, Damian Skinner, Rigel Sorzano. Wellington, New Zealand: Te Papa Press. p. 55.ISBN978-0-9941362-7-5.OCLC1118996645.
  12. ^McCallum, Rua Elizabeth; Carr, Debra Julie (2012)."Identification and use of plant material for the manufacture of New Zealand indigenous woven objects".Ethnobotany Research & Applications.10:185–198.doi:10.17348/era.10.0.185-198.hdl:10125/23555.ISSN1547-3465.
  13. ^Tamarapa, Awhina (2011).Māori Cloaks.Te Papa Press.ISBN978-1-877385-56-8.
  14. ^"Scientific Plant Bredding".Dominion.Vol. 1, no. 191. 7 May 1908. p. 7.
  15. ^"Progress Made - Various Investigations".Evening Post.Vol. 108, no. 150. 21 December 1929.
  16. ^"Valuable Work Done".Evening Post.Vol. 110, no. 71. 20 September 1930.
  17. ^"Massey researchers awarded more than $13 million in MBIE funding".massey.ac.nz.Retrieved2024-02-10.
  18. ^"The Flax Industry | Saint Helena Island Info: All about St Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean".
  19. ^"Endemic Species | Saint Helena Island Info: All about St Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean".
  20. ^RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants.United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136.ISBN978-1405332965.
  21. ^Frances Tenenbaum. 2003. "Taylor's Encyclopedia of Garden Plants", Houghton Mifflin CompanyISBN0-618-22644-3
  22. ^"RHS Plant Selector -Phormium'Duet'".Retrieved6 February2021.
  23. ^"Phormium tenaxPurpureum Group ".RHS.Retrieved18 January2021.
  24. ^"RHS Plant Selector -Phormium'Sundowner'".Retrieved6 February2021.
  25. ^"RHS Plant Selector -Phormium tenax'Variegatum'".Retrieved6 February2021.
  26. ^"RHS Plant Selector -Phormium'Yellow Wave'".Retrieved6 February2021.
  27. ^"AGM Plants - Ornamental"(PDF).Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 78.Retrieved25 April2018.

Further reading

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  • James Hector. 1889.Phormium tenax as a fibrous plant,second edition, New Zealand. Geological Survey Dept, New Zealand, published by G. Didsbury, Government Printer, 95 pages
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