Wikipedia

Pipa

This article is about the Chinese instrument. For other uses, seePipa (disambiguation).

Thepipa,pípá,orp'i-p'a(Chinese:Tỳ bà) is a traditionalChinesemusical instrumentbelonging to theplucked category of instruments.Sometimes called the "Chineselute",the instrument has a pear-shaped wooden body with a varying number offretsranging from 12 to 31. Another Chinese four-string plucked lute is theliuqin,which looks like a smaller version of the pipa. The pear-shaped instrument may have existed in China as early as theHan dynasty,and although historically the termpipawas once used to refer to a variety of pluckedchordophones,its usage since theSong dynastyrefers exclusively to the pear-shaped instrument.

Pipa
A pipa from the lateMing dynasty
Classification
Related instruments
List
Sound sample
Pipa
"Pipa" in Chinese characters
ChineseTỳ bà
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinpípá
pípa
Wade–Gilespʻi²-pʻa²
IPA[pʰǐpʰǎ]
[pʰǐ.pʰa]
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanizationpèih-pàah
Jyutpingpei4-paa4
IPA[pʰej˩.pʰa˩]

The pipa is one of the most popular Chinese instruments and has been played for almost two thousand years in China. Several related instruments are derived from the pipa, including theJapanesebiwaandKoreanbipainEast Asia,and theVietnameseđàn tỳ bàinSoutheast Asia.The Korean instrument is the only one of the three that is no longer widely used.

History

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Further information:History of lute-family instruments § Short-necked lutes
Relief sculpture fromGandharashowing a lute being played by a musician (right), 1st–2nd century AD

There are some confusions and disagreements about the origin of pipa. This may be due to the fact that the word pipa was used inancient textsto describe a variety of plucked chordophones of the period from theQinto theTang dynasty,including the long-necked spiked lute and the short-necked lute, as well as the differing accounts given in these ancient texts. Traditional Chinese narrative prefers the story of the Han Chinese PrincessLiu Xijunsent tomarryabarbarianWusunking during theHan dynasty,with thepipabeing invented so she could play music on horseback to soothe her longings.[1][2]Modern researchers such asLaurence Picken,Shigeo Kishibe,and John Myers suggested a non-Chinese origin.[3][4][5]

The earliest mention of pipa in Chinese texts appeared late in theHan dynastyaround the 2nd century AD.[6][7]According to Liu Xi'sEastern Han dynastyDictionary of Names,the word pipa may have anonomatopoeicorigin (the word being similar to the sounds the instrument makes),[6]although modern scholarship suggests a possible derivation from thePersianword "barbat",the two theories however are not necessarily mutually exclusive.[8][9]Liu Xi also stated that the instrument calledpipa,though written differently (Sơn trà;pípáorPhê đem;pībǎ) in the earliest texts, originated from amongst theHu people(a general term for non-Han people living to the north and west of ancient China).[6]Another Han dynasty text,Fengsu Tongyi,also indicates that, at that time,pipawas a recent arrival,[7]although later 3rd-century texts from theJin dynastysuggest that pipa existed in China as early as theQin dynasty(221–206 BC).[10]An instrument calledxiantao( huyền đào ), made by stretching strings over a small drum with handle, was said to have been played by labourers who constructed theGreat Wall of Chinaduring the late Qin dynasty.[10][11]This may have given rise to theQin pipa,an instrument with a straight neck and a roundsound box,and evolved intoruan,an instrument named afterRuan Xian,one of theSeven Sages of the Bamboo Groveand known for playing similar instrument.[12][13]Yet another term used in ancient text wasQinhanzi( Tần Hán tử ), perhaps similar to Qin pipa with a straight neck and a round body, but modern opinions differ on its precise form.[14][15][16]

Musicians in a scene from paradise,Yulin Cave25,Tang dynasty

The pear-shaped pipa is likely to have been introduced to China from Central Asia,Gandhara,and/or India.[2]As people traveled along theSilk Road,the "oval" or oval-shaped pipa traveled through Central Asia and was introduced to China, where it became known as the "pipa."[17]Pear-shaped lutes have been depicted inKusanasculptures from the 1st century AD.[18][19]The pear-shaped pipa may have been introduced during theHan dynastyand was referred to as Han pipa. However, depictions of the pear-shaped pipas in China only appeared after the Han dynasty during theJin dynastyin the late 4th to early 5th century.[20]Pipa acquired a number of Chinese symbolisms during the Han dynasty - the instrument length of threefeetfiveinchesrepresents the three realms (heaven, earth, and man) and thefive elements,while the four strings represent the four seasons.[7]

Depictions of the pear-shaped pipas appeared in abundance from theSouthern and Northern dynastiesonwards, and pipas from this time to the Tang dynasty were given various names, such as Hu pipa ( hồ tỳ bà ), bent-neck pipa ( khúc hạng tỳ bà, quxiang pipa), some of these terms however may refer to the same pipa. Apart from the four-stringed pipa, other pear-shaped instruments introduced include the five-stringed, straight-necked, wuxian pipa ( năm huyền tỳ bà, also known asKucheanpipa ( Quy Từ tỳ bà )),[21]a six-stringed version, as well as the two-stringed hulei ( chợt lôi ). From the 3rd century onwards, through theSuiand Tang dynasty, the pear-shapedpipasbecame increasingly popular in China. By theSong dynasty,the word pipa was used to refer exclusively to the four-stringed pear-shaped instrument.

Lute detail from a Tang dynasty painting on silk, 897 A.D.

The pipa reached a height of popularity during theTang dynasty,and was a principal musical instrument in the imperial court. It may be played as a solo instrument or as part of the imperial orchestra for use in productions such asdaqu( men, grand suites), an elaborate music and dance performance.[22]During this time,PersianandKuchanperformers and teachers were in demand in the capital,Chang'an(which had a large Persian community).[23]Some delicately carvedpipas with beautiful inlaid patterns date from this period, with particularly fine examples preserved in theShosoin Museumin Japan. It had close association withBuddhismand often appeared in mural and sculptural representations of musicians in Buddhist contexts.[22]One of the BuddhistFour Heavenly Kings,the EasternDhṛtarāṣṭra,is often depicted with a pipa.[24]Additionally, masses ofpipa-playingBuddhistsemi-deities are depicted in the wall paintings of theMogao CavesnearDunhuang.The four and five-stringedpipaswere especially popular during the Tang dynasty, and these instruments were introduced into Japan during the Tang dynasty as well as into other regions such asKoreaandVietnam.The five-stringedpipahowever had fallen from use by theSong dynasty,although attempts have been made to revive this instrument in the early 21st century with a modernized five-string pipa modeled on the Tang dynasty instrument.[25]

During the Song dynasty,pipafell from favour at the imperial court, perhaps a result of the influence ofneo-Confuciannativismaspipahad foreign associations.[26]However, it continued to be played as afolk instrumentthat also gained the interest of the literati.[22]Thepipaunderwent a number of changes over the centuries.

By theMing dynasty,fingers replacedplectrumas the popular technique for playing pipa, although finger-playing techniques existed as early as Tang.[27]Extrafretswere added; the early instrument had 4 frets ( tướng,xiāng) on the neck, but during the early Ming dynasty extra bamboo frets ( phẩm, pǐn) were affixed onto thesoundboard,increasing the number of frets to around 10 and therefore the range of the instrument. The short neck of the Tangpipaalso became more elongated.[26]

In the subsequent periods, the number of frets gradually increased,[28]from around 10 to 14 or 16 during the Qing dynasty, then to 19, 24, 29, and 30 in the 20th century. The 4 wedge-shaped frets on the neck became 6 during the 20th century. The 14- or 16-fretpipahad frets arranged in approximately equivalent to the westerntoneandsemitone,starting at the nut, the intervals wereT-S-S-S-T-S-S-S-T-T-3/4-3/4-T-T-3/4-3/4.Some frets produced a3/4tone or "neutral tone". In the 1920s and 1930s, the number of frets was increased to 24, based on the 12 toneequal temperamentscale, with all the intervals being semitones.[29]The traditional 16-fretpipabecame less common, although it is still used in some regional styles such as the pipa in the southern genre ofnanguan/nanyin. The horizontal playing position became the vertical (or near-vertical) position by the Qing dynasty, although in some regional genres such as nanguan the pipa is still held guitar fashion.

During the 1950s, the use of metal strings in place of the traditional silk ones also resulted in a change in the sound of the pipa which became brighter and stronger.[2]

In Chinese literature

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Evolution of the pipa
Tang dynasty pipa
15th century pipa
Illustrations from the 15th century Korean workAkhak Gwebeomshowing a Tang-stylepipa(then still played in Korea but with extra frets added not found in the Tang dynastypipa), and aJoseon dynastyfolkpipa(reflecting Ming-stylepipa) with a longer neck and more frets. Tangpipawas played with a plectrum, but the Mingpipawas played with fingers.

Early literary tradition in China, for example in a 3rd-century description byFu Xuan,Ode to Pipa,[1][30]associates the Han pipa with the northern frontier,Wang Zhaojunand other princesses who weremarriedto nomad rulers of theWusunandXiongnupeoples in what is nowMongolia,northernXin gian gandKazakhstan.[2][31]Wang Zhaojun in particular is frequently referenced with pipa in later literary works and lyrics, for exampleMa Zhiyuan's playAutumn in the Palace of Han( hán cung thu ), especially since the Song dynasty (although her story is often conflated with other women including Liu Xijun),[32][31]as well as in music pieces such asZhaojun's Lament( chiêu quân oán, also the title of a poem), and in paintings where she is often depicted holding a pipa.[31]

There are many references to pipa in Tang literary works, for example, inA Music Conservatory MiscellanyDuan Anjie related many anecdotes associated with pipa.[33]Thepipais mentioned frequently in theTang dynasty poetry,where it is often praised for its expressiveness, refinement and delicacy of tone, with poems dedicated to well-known players describing their performances.[34][35][36]A famous poem byBai Juyi,"Pipa xing"( tỳ bà hành ), contains a description of a pipa performance during a chance encounter with a female pipa player on theYangtze River:[37]

Đại huyền tiếng chói tai như cấp vũ
Tiểu huyền nhất thiết như nói nhỏ
Tiếng chói tai nhất thiết lẫn lộn đạn
Hạt châu rơi trên mâm ngọc

Thick strings clatter like splattering rain,
Fine strings murmur like whispered words,
Clattering and murmuring, meshing jumbled sounds,
Like pearls, big and small, falling on a platter of jade.

The encounter also inspired a poem byYuan Zhen,Song of Pipa( tỳ bà ca ). Another excerpt of figurative descriptions of a pipa music may be found in a eulogy for a pipa player,Lament for ShancaibyLi Shen:[35]

Hàm hoa kim phượng đương thừa bát
Chuyển cổ tay hợp lại huyền xúc huy mạt
Hoa phiên phượng khiếu bầu trời tới
Bùi hồi mãn điện phi xuân tuyết

On the plectrum, figure of a golden phoenix with flowers in its beak,
With turned wrist, he gathered the strings to pluck and strum faster.
The flowers fluttered, and from Heaven the phoenix trilled,
Lingering, filling the palace hall, spring snow flew.

During the Song dynasty, many of theliteratiand poets wroteciverses,a form of poetry meant to be sung and accompanied by instruments such aspipa.They includedOuyang Xiu,Wang Anshi,andSu Shi.During theYuan dynasty,the playwrightGao Mingwrote a play fornanxiopera calledPipa ji( tỳ bà nhớ, or "Story of the Pipa" ), a tale about an abandoned wife who set out to find her husband, surviving by playing thepipa.It is one of the most enduring works in Chinese theatre, and one that became a model forMing dynastydrama as it was the favorite opera of thefirst Ming emperor.[38][39]The Ming collection of supernatural talesFengshen Yanyitells the story ofPipa Jing,a pipa spirit, but ghost stories involvingpipaexisted as early as the Jin dynasty, for example in the 4th century collection of talesSoushen Ji.Novels of the Ming and Qing dynasties such asJin Ping Meishowedpipaperformance to be a normal aspect of life in these periods at home (where the characters in the novels may be proficient in the instrument) as well as outside on the street or in pleasure houses.[26]

Playing and performance

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Decorated back of a pipa from the Ming dynasty

The name "pipa" is made up of two Chinese syllables, "pí" ( tỳ ) and "pá" ( bà ). These, according to the Han dynasty text by Liu Xi, refer to the way the instrument is played – "pí" is to strike outward with the right hand, and "pá" is to pluck inward towards the palm of the hand.[6]The strings were played using a largeplectrumin theTang dynasty,a technique still used now for the Japanesebiwa.[40]It has however been suggested that the long plectrum depicted in ancient paintings may have been used as a friction stick like a bow.[41]The plectrum has now been largely replaced by the fingernails of the right hand. The most basic technique,tantiao( đạn chọn ), involves just the index finger and thumb (tanis striking with the index finger,tiaowith the thumb). The fingers normally strike the strings of pipa in the opposite direction to the way aguitaris usually played, i.e. the fingers and thumb flick outward, unlike the guitar where the fingers and thumb normally pluck inward towards the palm of the hand. Plucking in the opposite direction totanandtiaoare calledmo( mạt ) andgou( câu ) respectively. When two strings are plucked at the same time with the index finger and thumb (i.e. the finger and thumb separate in one action), it is calledfen( phân ), the reverse motion is calledzhi( trích ). A rapid strum is calledsao( quét ), and strumming in the reverse direction is calledfu( phất ). A distinctive sound of pipa is thetremoloproduced by thelunzhi( luân chỉ ) technique which involves all the fingers and thumb of the right hand. It is however possible to produce the tremolo with just one or more fingers.

A mural from the tomb of Xu Xianxiu inTaiyuan,Shanxiprovince, dated 571 CE during theNorthern Qi dynasty,showing male court musicians playing the pipa andliuqin,and a woman playing akonghou

The left hand techniques are important for the expressiveness of pipa music. Techniques that producevibrato,portamento,glissando,pizzicato,harmonicsorartificial harmonicsfound in violin or guitar are also found in pipa.String-bendingfor example may be used to produce a glissando or portamento. Note however that the frets on all Chinese lutes are high so that the fingers and strings never touch the fingerboard in between the frets, this is different from many Western fretted instruments and allows for dramatic vibrato and other pitch changing effects.

In addition, there are a number of techniques that produce sound effects rather than musical notes, for example, striking the board of the pipa for a percussive sound, or strings-twisting while playing that produces acymbal-like effect.

The strings are usually tuned toA2D3E3A3,although there are various other ways of tuning. Since the revolutions in Chinese instrument-making during the 20th century, the softer twisted silk strings of earlier times have been exchanged for nylon-wound steel strings, which are far too strong for human fingernails, so false nails are now used, constructed of plastic or tortoise-shell, and affixed to the fingertips with the player's choice of elastic tape. However, false nails made of horn existed as early as the Ming period when finger-picking became the popular technique for playing pipa.[26]

The pipa is held in a vertical or near-vertical position during performance, although in the early periods the instrument was held in the horizontal position or near-horizontal with the neck pointing slightly downwards, or upside down.[18][14]Starting about the 10th century, players began to hold the instrument "more upright", as the fingernail style became more important.[42]Through time, the neck was raised and by the Qing dynasty the instrument was mostly played upright.

Half-section of theNight Revels of Han Xizai,a 12th century reproduction of a 10th century painting byGu Hongzhong.One lady is seen entertaining guests with apipaand another lady is seen holding onto one.

Repertoire

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10th centurytablatureforpipafromDunhuangMogao Caves.

Pipa has been played solo, or as part of a large ensemble or small group since the early times. Few pieces for pipa survived from the early periods, some, however, are preserved in Japan as part oftogaku(Tang music) tradition. In the early 20th century, twenty-five pieces were found amongst 10th-century manuscripts in theMogao cavesnearDunhuang,most of these pieces however may have originated from the Tang dynasty. The scores were written intablatureform with no information on tuning given, there are therefore uncertainties in the reconstruction of the music as well as deciphering other symbols in the score.[43]Three Ming dynasty pieces were discovered in theHigh River Flows East( cao hà Giang Đông,Gaohe Jiangdong) collection dating from 1528 which are very similar to those performed today, such as "The Moon on High" ( nguyệt nhi cao,Yue-er Gao). During theQing dynasty,scores for pipa were collected inThirteen Pieces for Strings.[44]During the Qing dynasty there originally two major schools ofpipa—the Northern and Southern schools, and music scores for these two traditions were collected and published in the first mass-produced edition of solo pieces for pipa, now commonly known as theHua Collection( hoa thị phổ ).[45]The collection was edited by Hua Qiuping ( hoa thu bình, 1784–1859) and published in 1819 in three volumes.[46]The first volume contains 13 pieces from the Northern school, the second and third volumes contain 54 pieces from the Southern school. Famous pieces such as "Ambushed from Ten Sides","The Warlord Takes Off His Armour ", and" Flute and Drum at Sunset "were first described in this collection. The earliest-known piece in the collection may be" Eagle Seizing a Crane "( hải thanh noa hạc ) which was mentioned in aYuan dynastytext.[47]Other collections from the Qing dynasty were compiled by Li Fangyuan ( Lý phương viên ) and Ju Shilin ( cúc sĩ lâm ), each representing different schools, and many of the pieces currently popular were described in these Qing collections. Further important collections were published in the 20th century.

The pipa pieces in the common repertoire can be categorized aswen( văn, civil) orwu( võ, martial), andda( đại, large or suite) orxiao( tiểu, small). Thewenstyle is more lyrical and slower in tempo, with softer dynamic and subtler colour, and such pieces typically describe love, sorrow, and scenes of nature. Pieces in theWustyle are generally more rhythmic and faster, and often depict scenes of battles and are played in a vigorous fashion employing a variety of techniques and sound effects. Thewustyle was associated more with the Northern school while thewenstyle was more the Southern school. Thedaandxiaocategories refer to the size of the piece –xiaopieces are small pieces normally containing only one section, whiledapieces are large and usually contain multiple sections. The traditional pieces however often have a standard metrical length of 68 measures or beat,[48]and these may be joined to form the larger piecesdagu.[49]

Famous solo pieces now performed include:

Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin English(translation)
Thập diện mai phục Thập diện mai phục Shí Mìan Maífú Ambushed from Ten Sides
Hoàng hôn tiêu cổ /Xuân giang hoa nguyệt dạ Hoàng hôn tiêu cổ / xuân giang hoa nguyệt dạ Xīyáng Xīao Gǔ/Chūnjiāng Huā Yuèyè Flute and Drum at Sunset / Flowery Moonlit River in Spring
Dương xuân bạch tuyết Dương xuân bạch tuyết Yángchūn Baíxuě White Snow in Spring Sunlight
Thuyền rồng Thuyền rồng Lóngchuán Dragon Boat
Dân tộc Di vũ khúc Dân tộc Di vũ khúc Yìzú Wúqǔ Dance of the Yi People
Biển to đãi cát Biển to đãi cát Dàlàng Táo Shā Big Waves Crashing on Sand
Chiêu Quân ra biên cương Chiêu Quân ra biên cương Zhàojūn Chū Saì Zhaojun Outside the Frontier
Bá vương tá giáp Bá vương tá giáp Bàwáng Xiè Jiǎ The Warlord Takes Off His Armour
Cao sơn lưu thủy Cao sơn lưu thủy Gāoshān Liúshuǐ High Mountains Flowing Water
Nguyệt nhi cao Nguyệt nhi cao Yuè'er Gāo Moon on High

Most of the above are traditional compositions dating to the Qing dynasty or early 20th century, new pieces however are constantly being composed, and most of them follow a more Western structure. Examples of popular modern works composed after the 1950s are "Dance of the Yi People"and" Heroic Little Sisters of the Grassland "( thảo nguyên anh hùng tiểu tỷ muội ). Non-traditional themes may be used in these new compositions and some may reflect the political landscape and demands at the time of composition, for example" Dance of the Yi People "which is based on traditional melodies of theYi people,may be seen as part of the drive for national unity, while "Heroic Little Sisters of the Grassland" extols the virtue of those who served as model of exemplary behaviour in thePeople's commune.[50]

Schools

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Scene from a Ming dynasty painting,Tao Gu Presents a Poem,c. 1515, byTang Yin.

There are a number of different traditions with different styles of playing pipa in various regions of China, some of which then developed into schools. In the narrative traditions where the pipa is used as an accompaniment to narrative singing, there are the Suzhoutanci( Tô Châu đàn từ ), Sichuanqingyin( Tứ Xuyên thanh âm ), and Northernquyi( phương bắc khúc nghệ ) genres. Pipa is also an important component of regional chamber ensemble traditions such asJiangnan sizhu,Teochew string musicandNanguanensemble.[51]In Nanguan music, the pipa is still held in the near-horizontal position or guitar-fashion in the ancient manner instead of the vertical position normally used for solo playing in the present day.

There were originally two major schools of pipa during the Qing dynasty—the Northern (Zhili,Trực Lệ phái ) and Southern (Zhe gian g,Chiết Giang phái ) schools—and from these emerged the five main schools associated with the solo tradition. Each school is associated with one or more collections of pipa music and named after its place of origin:

A page of music notation from the Li Collection by Li Fangyuan.
  • Wuxischool ( vô tích phái ) – associated with theHua Collectionby Hua Qiuping, who studied with Wang Junxi ( vương quân tích ) of the Northern school and Chen Mufu ( trần mục phu ) of the Southern school, and may be considered a synthesis of these two schools of the Qing dynasty.[45]As the first published collection, theHua Collectionhad considerable influence on later pipa players.
  • Pudongschool ( Phổ Đông phái ) – associated with theJu Collection( cúc thị phổ ) which is based on an 18th-century handwritten manuscript,Xianxu Youyin( nhàn tự u âm ), by Ju Shilin.
  • Pinghuschool ( bình hồ phái ) – associated with theLi Collection( Lý thị phổ ) first published in 1895; it was compiled by Li Fangyuan who came from a family of many generations ofpipaplayers.[52]
  • Chongmingschool ( sùng minh phái ) – associated withOld Melodies of Yingzhou( Doanh Châu cổ điều ) compiled by Shen Zhaozhou ( Thẩm triệu châu, 1859–1930) in 1916.
  • Shanghaior Wang school ( uông phái ) – named after Wang Yuting ( uông dục đình ) who created this style of playing. It may be considered a synthesis of the other four schools especially the Pudong and Pinghu schools. Wang did not publish his notation book in his lifetime, although handwritten copies were passed on to his students.

These schools of the solo tradition emerged by students learning to play the pipa from their master, and each school has its own style, performance aesthetics, notation system, and may differ in their playing techniques.[53][54]Different schools have different repertoire in their music collection, and even though these schools share many of the same pieces in their repertoire, a same piece of music from the different schools may differ in their content. For example, a piece like "The Warlord Takes off His Armour" is made up of many sections, some of themmeteredand some withfree meter,and greater freedom in interpretation is possible in the free meter sections. Different schools however can have sections added or removed, and may differ in the number of sections with free meter.[53]The music collections from the 19th century also used thegongche notationwhich provides only a skeletal melody and approximate rhythms sometimes with the occasional playing instructions given (such as tremolo or string-bending), and how this basic framework can become fully fleshed out during a performance may only be learnt by the students from the master. The same piece of music can therefore differ significantly when performed by students of different schools, with striking differences in interpretation,phrasing,tempo,dynamics,playing techniques, andornamentations.

In more recent times, many pipa players, especially the younger ones, no longer identify themselves with any specific school. Modern notation systems, new compositions as well as recordings are now widely available and it is no longer crucial for a pipa players to learn from the master of any particular school to know how to play a score.

Performers

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ASui dynasty(581–618)terracottapipa-player in asuit of armor

Historical

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Pipa is commonly associated with Princess Liu Xijun and Wang Zhaojun of the Han dynasty, although the form of pipa they played in that period is unlikely to be pear-shaped as they are now usually depicted. Other early known players ofpipainclude GeneralXie Shangfrom the Jin dynasty who was described to have performed it with his leg raised on tiptoe.[55]The introduction of pipa from Central Asia also brought with it virtuoso performers from that region, for example Sujiva ( tô chỉ bà,Sujipo) from the Kingdom ofKuchaduring theNorthern Zhoudynasty, Kang Kunlun ( khang Côn Luân ) fromKangju,and Pei Luoer ( Bùi Lạc Nhi ) fromShule.Pei Luoer was known for pioneering finger-playing techniques,[27]while Sujiva was noted for the "Seven modes and seven tones", amusical modaltheory from India.[56][57](Theheptatonic scalewas used for a time afterwards in the imperial court due to Sujiva's influence until it was later abandoned). These players had considerable influence on the development ofpipaplaying in China. Of particular fame were the family ofpipaplayers founded by Cao Poluomen ( tào Bà La Môn ) and who were active for many generations from theNorthern Weito Tang dynasty.[58]

Texts from Tang dynasty mentioned many renowned pipa players such as He Huaizhi ( hạ hoài trí ), Lei Haiqing ( lôi hải thanh ), Li Guaner ( Lý quản nhi ), and Pei Xingnu ( Bùi hưng nô ).[36][59][60]Duan Anjie described the duel between the famous pipa player Kang Kunlun and the monk Duan Shanben ( đoạn bản tốt nhất ) who was disguised as a girl, and told the story of Yang Zhi ( dương chí ) who learned how to play the pipa secretly by listening to his aunt playing at night.[33]Celebrated performers of the Tang dynasty included three generations of the Cao family—Cao Bao ( tào bảo ), Cao Shancai ( tào thiện tài ) and Cao Gang ( tào mới vừa ),[61][62]whose performances were noted in literary works.[63][35]

During the Song dynasty, players mentioned in literary texts include Du Bin ( đỗ bân ).[64]From the Ming dynasty, famous pipa players include Zhong Xiuzhi ( chung tú chi ), Zhang Xiong ( trương hùng, known for his playing of "Eagle Seizing Swan" ), the blind Li Jinlou ( Lý gần lâu ), and Tang Yingzeng ( canh ứng từng ) who was known to have played a piece that may be an early version of "Ambushed from Ten Sides".[65]

During the Qing dynasty, apart from those of the various schools previously mentioned, there was Chen Zijing ( trần tử kính ), a student of Ju Shilin and known as a noted player during the late Qing dynasty.

Modern era

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Wu Man playing pipa atWOMEX15

In the 20th century, two of the most prominentpipaplayers were Sun Yude ( tôn dụ đức; 1904–1981) and Li Tingsong ( Lý đình tùng; 1906–1976). Both were pupils of Wang Yuting (1872–1951), and both were active in establishing and promotingGuoyue( "national music" ), which is a combination of traditional regional music and Western musical practices. Sun performed in the United States, Asia, and Europe, and in 1956 became deputy director of theShanghai Chinese Orchestra.As well as being one of the leading pipa players of his generation, Li held many academic positions and also carried out research on pipa scales and temperament.Wei Zhongle( vệ trọng nhạc; 1908－1997) played many instruments, including theguqin.In the early 1950s, he founded the traditional instruments department at theShanghai Conservatory of Music.Players from the Wang and Pudong schools were the most active in performance and recording during the 20th century, less active was the Pinghu school whose players include Fan Boyan ( phàn bá viêm ). Other noted players of the early 20th century includeLiu Tianhua,a student of Shen Zhaozhou of the Chongming school and who increased the number of frets on thepipaand changed to anequal-temperedtuning, and the blind playerAbingfrom Wuxi.

Lin Shicheng ( lâm thạch thành; 1922–2006), born in Shanghai, began learning music under his father and was taught by Shen Haochu ( Thẩm hạo sơ; 1899–1953), a leading player in the Pudong school style of pipa playing. He also qualified as a doctor of Chinese medicine. In 1956, after working for some years in Shanghai, Lin accepted a position at theCentral Conservatory of Musicin Beijing.Liu Dehai(1937–2020), also born in Shanghai, was a student of Lin Shicheng and in 1961 graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Liu also studied with other musicians and has developed a style that combines elements from several different schools. Ye Xuran ( diệp tự nhiên ), a student of Lin Shicheng and Wei Zhongle, was the Pipa Professor at the first Musical Conservatory of China, theShanghai Conservatory of Music.He premiered the oldest Dunhuang Pipa Manuscript (the first interpretation made by Ye Dong) in Shanghai in the early 1980s.

Other prominent students of Lin Shicheng at theCentral Conservatory of Musicin Beijing include Liu Guilian ( Lưu quế liên, born 1961),Gao HongandWu Man.Wu Man, probably the best knownpipaplayer internationally, received the first-ever master's degree in pipa and won China's first National Academic Competition for Chinese Instruments. She lives inSan Diego,Californiaand works extensively with Chinese, cross-cultural, new music, and jazz groups. Shanghai-born Liu Guilian graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and became the director of the Shanghai Pipa Society, and a member of the Chinese Musicians Association and Chinese National Orchestral Society, before immigrating to Canada. She now performs with Red Chamber and the Vancouver Chinese Music Ensemble. Gao Hong graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and was the first to do a joint tour with Lin Shicheng in North America. They recorded the critically acclaimed CD "Eagle Seizing Swan" together.

Noted contemporary pipa players who work internationally includeMin Xiao-Fen,Zhou Yi,Qiu Xia He,Liu Fang,Cheng Yu,Jie Ma,Gao Hong,Yang Jing,Yang Wei ( dương duy ),[66]Yang Jin ( dương cẩn ), Guan Yadong ( quản á đông ), Jiang Ting ( Tưởng đình ), Tang Liang xing ( canh lương hưng ),[67]and Lui Pui-Yuen ( Lữ bồi nguyên, brother ofLui Tsun-Yuen).[68]Some other notable pipa players in China include Yu Jia ( du gia ), Wu Yu Xia ( Ngô ngọc hà ), Fang Jinlong ( phương cẩm long ) and Zhao Cong ( Triệu thông ).

Use in contemporary classical music

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Pipa players from theNENUFolklorical Orchestra during a tour in theLand of Valencia.

In the late 20th century, largely through the efforts of Wu Man (in USA),Min Xiao-Fen(in USA), composerYang Jing(in Europe) and other performers, Chinese and Westerncontemporary composersbegan to create new works for the pipa (both solo and in combination with chamber ensembles and orchestra). Most prominent among these areMinoru Miki,Thüring Bräm,YANG Jing,Terry Riley,Donald Reid Womack,Philip Glass,Lou Harrison,Tan Dun,Bright Sheng,Chen Yi,Zhou Long,Bun-Ching Lam,andCarl Stone.

Cheng Yuresearched the old Tang dynasty five-stringed pipa in the early 2000s and developed a modern version of it for contemporary use.[69]It is very much the same as the modern pipa in construction save for being a bit wider to allow for the extra string and the reintroduction of the soundholes at the front. It has not caught on in China but in Korea (where she also did some of her research) thebipawas revived since then and the current versions are based on Chinese pipa, including one with five-strings. The 5 String Pipa is tuned like a Standard Pipa with the addition of an Extra Bass String tuned to an E2 (Same as the Guitar) which broadens the range (Tuning is E2, A2, D3, E3, A3). Jiaju Shen from The Either also plays an Electric 5 String Pipa/Guitar hybrid that has the Hardware from an Electric Guitar combined with the Pipa, built by an instrument maker named Tim Sway called "Electric Pipa 2.0".

Use in other genres

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The pipa has also been used in rock music; the California-based bandIncubusfeatured one, borrowed from guitaristSteve Vai,in their 2001 song "Aqueous Transmission,"as played by the group's guitarist,Mike Einziger.[70]The Shanghai progressive/folk-rock bandCold Fairyland,which was formed in 2001, also usepipa(played byLin Di), sometimes multi-tracking it in their recordings. Australian dark rock bandThe Eternaluse thepipain their song "Blood" as played by singer/guitaristMark Kelsonon their albumKartika.The artistYang Jingplayspipawith a variety of groups.[71]The instrument is also played by musicianMin Xiaofenin "I See Who You Are", a song fromBjörk's albumVolta.Western performers of pipa include French musicianDjang San,who integrated jazz and rock concepts to the instrument such aspower chordsandwalking bass.[72]

Electric pipa

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An electric pipa

The electric pipa was first developed in the late 20th century by addingelectric guitar–style magnetic pickups to a regular acoustic pipa, allowing the instrument to be amplified through aninstrument amplifierorPA system.

A number of Western pipa players have experimented with amplified pipa. Brian Grimm placed thecontact micpickup on the face of the pipa and wedged under the bridge so he is able to plug into pedalboards, live computer performance rigs, and direct input (DI) to an audio interface for studio tracking.[73][self-published source]In 2014, French zhongruan player and composerDjang San,created his own electric pipa and recorded an experimental album that puts the electric pipa at the center of music.[74]He was also the first musician to add a strap to the instrument, as he did for the zhongruan, allowing him to play the pipa and the zhongruan like a guitar.[citation needed]

Djang San

In 2014, an industrial designer residing in the United States Xi Zheng ( Trịnh tỉ ) designed and crafted an electric pipa – "E-pa" in New York. In 2015, pipa player Jiaju Shen ( Thẩm gia cư ) released a mini album composed and produced by Li Zong ( tông lập ),[75]with E-pa music that has a strong Chinese flavor within a modern Western pop music mould.[citation needed]

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  • Sandstone carving, showing the typical way a pipa was held when played with plectrum in the early period.Northern Weidynasty (386–534 AD).
  • Painted panel of the sarcophagus ofYü Hung,depicts one of thePersianorSogdianfigures playing pipa. 592 AD,Sui dynasty.
  • Anapsara(feitian) playing pipa, using fingers with the pipa held in near upright position. Mural fromKizil,estimated Five Dynasties to Yuan dynasty, 10th to 13th century.[76]
  • Modern pipa player, with the pipa held in near upright position
  • A pipa player playing with the pipa behind his back.Dunhuang,Mogao Caves.
  • An early depiction of pipa player in a group of musicians. From theDingjiazha Tomb No. 5,period of theNorthern Wei(384-441 A.D.)
  • ASong dynastyfresco depicts a female pipa player among a group of musicians
  • Group of female musician from theFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdomsperiod (907-960 AD)
  • A mural from aYuan dynastytomb found inHengshan County, Shaanxi,showing a man playing the pipa
  • A Chinese woman playing a pipa, 1870
  • A group of Qing dynasty musicians fromFuzhou

See also

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References

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  1. ^abSong Shu《 Tống thư · nhạc chí một 》Book of Songquoting earlier work by Fu Xuan ( phó huyền ),Ode to Pipa( tỳ bà phú ). Original text: Tỳ bà, phó huyền 《 tỳ bà phú 》 rằng: Hán khiển ô tôn công chúa gả côn di, niệm này đi đường tư mộ, cố sử công nhân tài tranh, trúc, vì lập tức chi nhạc. Dục từ phong tục địa phương ngữ, tên cổ rằng tỳ bà, lấy này dễ truyền với ngoại quốc cũng. Translation: Pipa – Fu Xuan's "Ode to Pipa" says: "The Han Emperor sent the Wusun princess to marry Kunmi, and being mindful of her thoughts and longings on her journey, instructed craftsmen to modify the Chinese zitherZhengandzhuto make an instrument tailored for playing on horseback. Therefore the common use of the old term pipa came about because it was transmitted to a foreign country. "(Note that this passage contains a number of assertions whose veracity has been questioned by scholars.)
  2. ^abcdMillward, James A. (10 June 2011)."The pipa: How a barbarian lute became a national symbol".Danwei.Archived fromthe originalon 13 June 2011.
  3. ^Picken 1955,p. 40.
  4. ^Myers 1992,p. 5.
  5. ^Shigeo Kishibe (1940). "The Origin of the Pipa".Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.19:269–304.
  6. ^abcdChinese Text Project – 《 thích danh · thích nhạc cụ 》Shiming by Liu Xi ( Lưu Hi )]. Original text: Sơn trà, bổn xuất phát từ hồ trung, lập tức sở cổ cũng. Đẩy tay trước rằng tì, dẫn tay lại rằng ba. Tượng này cổ khi, nhân cho rằng danh cũng. Translation: Pipa, originated from amongst the Hu people, who played the instrument on horseback. Striking outward with the hand is called "pi", plucking inward is called "pa", sounds like when it is played, hence the name. (Note that this ancient way of writing pipa ( sơn trà ) also means "loquat".)
  7. ^abcỨng thiệu -《 phong tục thông nghĩa · thanh âm 》Fengsu Tongyi(Common Meanings in Customs) byYing Shao.Original text: Phê đem: Cẩn ấn: Này cận đại nhạc gia sở làm, không biết ai cũng. Lấy tay phê đem, nhân cho rằng danh. Trường ba thước năm tấc, pháp thiên địa người cùng ngũ hành, bốn huyền tượng bốn mùa. Translation: Pipa, made by recent musicians, but maker unknown. Played "pi" and "pa" with the hand, it was thus named. Length of three feet five inches represents the Heaven, Earth, and Man, and the five elements, and the four strings represent the four seasons. (Note that this length of three feet five inches is equivalent to today's length of approximately two feet and seven inches or 0.8 meter.)
  8. ^Myers 1992,pp. 10–11.
  9. ^"Avaye Shayda - Kishibe's diffusionism theory on the Iranian Barbat and Chino-Japanese Pi' Pa'".Archived fromthe originalon 12 September 2012.Retrieved20 April2021.
  10. ^ab《 tỳ bà lục 》Records of Pipaby Duan Anjie ( đoạn an tiết )] citing Du Zhi ofJin dynasty.Original text: Nhạc lục vân, tỳ bà bổn xuất phát từ huyền đào. Mà đỗ chí cho rằng Tần chi mạt thế, khổ với trường thành chi dịch. Bá tánh huyền đào mà cổ chi Translation: According to Yuelu, pipa originated fromxiantao.Du Zhi thought that towards the end of Qin dynasty, people who suffered as forced labourers on the Great Wall, played it using strings on a drum with handle. (Note that for the word xiantao, xian means string, tao meanspellet drum,one common form of this drum is a flat round drum with a handle, a form that has some resemblance to Ruan.)
  11. ^《 cũ đường thư · âm nhạc nhị 》 Jiu TangshuOld Book of Tang.Original text: Tỳ bà, bốn huyền, hán nhạc cũng. Sơ, Tần trường thành chi dịch, có đào mà cổ chi giả. Translation: Pipa, four strings, comes from Han dynasty music. In the beginning, forced labourers on the Qin dynasty's Great Wall played it using a drum with handle.
  12. ^"The music of pipa".Archived fromthe originalon 2012-04-25.Retrieved2011-10-21.
  13. ^Đỗ hữu 《 thông điển 》TongdianbyDu You.Original text: Đàn Nguyễn, cũng Tần tỳ bà cũng, mà hạng trường quá nay chế, liệt mười có tam trụ. Võ Thái Hậu khi, người Thục khoái lãng với cổ mộ trung đến chi, tấn Trúc Lâm Thất Hiền đồ đàn Nguyễn sở đạn cùng này cùng loại, nhân gọi chi đàn Nguyễn. Translation: Ruan Xian, also called Qin pipa, although its neck was longer than today's instrument. It has 13 frets. DuringEmpress Wuperiod, Kuailang from Sichuan found one in an ancient tomb. Ruan Xian of The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove from the Jin dynasty was pictured playing this same kind of instrument, it was therefore named after Ruan Xian.
  14. ^ab《 cũ đường thư · âm nhạc nhị 》 Jiu TangshuOld Book of Tang.Original text: Nay 《 thanh nhạc 》 tấu tỳ bà, tục gọi chi “Tần Hán tử”, thân thể tu cổ mà tiểu, nghi là huyền đào chi di chế. Mặt khác toàn sung thượng duệ hạ, khúc hạng, hình dạng và cấu tạo hơi đại, nghi này là hán chế. Kiêm tựa hai chế giả, gọi chi “Tần Hán”, cái gọi thông dụng Tần, hán phương pháp. Translation: Today's "Qingyue" performancepipa,commonly called theQinhanzi,has a round body with a small neck, and is suspected to be descended fromXiantao.The others are all shaped full on top and pointed at the bottom, neck bent, rather large, and suspected to be of Han dynasty origin. Being composite of two different constructions, it's called "Qinhan", as it is thought to use both Qin and Han methods. (Note that the description of the pear-shapedpipaas being "full on top and pointed at the bottom", an orientation that is inverted compared to modern instrument, and refers to the way pipa was often held in ancient times).
  15. ^John Myers (1992)."Chapter 1: A General history of the Pipa".The way of the pipa: structure and imagery in Chinese lute music.Kent State University Press. p. 10.ISBN0-87338-455-5.
  16. ^Đỗ hữu 《 thông điển 》TongdianbyDu Youciting Fu Xuan of Jin dynasty. Original text: Phó huyền vân: “Thể viên bính thẳng, trụ có mười hai.” Translation: Fu Xuan said: "The body is round and the handle straight, and has twelve frets."
  17. ^Silk Roads Programme."Cultural Selection: The Evolution in Forms of Lutes and other Stringed Instruments along the Silk Roads".UNESCO.UNESCO Youth Eyes on the Silk Roads - Bahram Bayat.Retrieved7 May2024.
  18. ^abPicken 1955,pp. 32–42.
  19. ^"Bracket with two musicians 100s, Pakistan, Gandhara, probably Butkara in Swat, Kushan Period (1st century-320)".The Cleveland Museum of Art.RetrievedMarch 25,2015.
  20. ^Albert E. Dien (2007).Six Dynasties Civilization.Yale University Press. pp. 342–348.ISBN978-0-300-07404-8.
  21. ^Myers 1992,p. 8.
  22. ^abcThe Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 2.Routledge. 23 October 2008. pp. 1104–1105.ISBN978-0415994040.
  23. ^See alsoThe Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics,by Edward H. Schafer; University of California Press, 1963.
  24. ^"Diamond Gate".Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism.2015.Retrieved5 July2023.
  25. ^"Cheng Yu: 5-string pipa".Ukchinesemusic.Retrieved20 April2021.
  26. ^abcdJames A. Millward (June 2012). "Chordophone Culture in Two Early Modern Societies:" A Pipa-Vihuela "Duet".Journal of World History.23(2): 237–278.doi:10.1353/jwh.2012.0034.JSTOR23320149.S2CID145544440.
  27. ^abĐỗ hữu 《 thông điển 》TongdianbyDu YouOriginal text: Cũ đạn tỳ bà, toàn dùng mộc bát đạn chi, Đại Đường Trinh Quán trung thủy có tay đạn phương pháp, nay cái gọi là xâu tỳ bà giả là cũng. 《 phong tục thông 》 cái gọi là lấy tay tỳ bà chi, biết nãi phi dùng bát chi nghĩa, há đời trước cố hữu xâu chi giả? Tay đạn pháp, cận đại đã phế, tự Bùi Lạc Nhi thủy vì này. Translation: The olden ways of playing pipa all used a wooden plectrum for playing. During the reign of the Tang dynasty'sEmperor Taizong,there began the use of a finger-playing technique, which is what's called plucked pipa today. What's referred to inCommon Meanings in Customsas playingpipaby hand is thus understood to be played without plectrum, but how are we sure that there were those who played by plucking in this early period? The use of this technique has fallen away in recent times, but it was started by Pei Luoer. (Note that Pei Luoer is also known as Pei Shenfu ( Bùi thần phù )).
  28. ^"Tỳ bà tiểu tri thức".Sohu.
  29. ^Lui, Tsun-Yuen; Wu, Ben (2001)."Pipa".Grove Music Online.doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.45149.
  30. ^Đỗ hữu 《 thông điển 》TongdianbyDu You.A longer quote of Fu Xuan here.
  31. ^abcStephen H. West; Wilt L. Idema, eds. (2010).Monks, Bandits, Lovers, and Immortals.Hackett Publishing Company. p. 158.ISBN9781603844338.
  32. ^Ping Wang; Nicholas Morrow Williams, eds. (5 May 2015).Southern Identity and Southern Estrangement in Medieval Chinese Poetry.Hong Kong University Press. pp. 84–86.ISBN978-9888139262.
  33. ^ab"Nhạc phủ tạp lục - duy cơ kho sách, tự do thư viện".Zh.wikisource.org.Retrieved20 April2021.
  34. ^Lưu Nguyệt châu (April 2007).Đường người âm nhạc thơ nghiên cứu: Lấy đàn Không tỳ bà sáo già là chủ.Tú uy xuất bản. pp. 120–134.ISBN9789866909412.
  35. ^abcLý thân 《 bi thiện tài 》Lament for Shancai by Li Shen. The name Shancai is also used to mean virtuoso or maestro in the Tang dynasty.
  36. ^abNguyên chẩn 《 tỳ bà ca 》Archived2012-04-26 at theWayback MachinePipa Song byYuan Zhen.
  37. ^Tỳ bà hànhThe "Pipa Song" by Bai Juyi,translation here
  38. ^Faye Chunfang Fei, ed. (2002).Chinese Theories of Theater and Performance from Confucius to the Present.University of Michigan Press. p. 41.ISBN978-0472089239.
  39. ^Jin Fu (2012).Chinese Theatre(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 447.ISBN978-0521186667.
  40. ^"Pipa - A Chinese lute or guitar, its brief history, photos and music samples".Philmultic.Retrieved20 April2021.
  41. ^Myers 1992,p. 14.
  42. ^"Pipa ( bà ) late 16th–early 17th century".Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  43. ^A report on Chinese research into the Dunhuang music manuscriptsChen Yingshi,Musica Asiatica,1991ISBN0-521-39050-8
  44. ^Xiansuo Shisan Tao ( huyền tác mười ba bộ, later incorporated into Complete String Music huyền tác 俻 bộ )
  45. ^abThis was first published asNanbei Erpai Miben Pipapu Zhenzhuan( nam bắc nhị phái sách quý tỳ bà phổ chân truyền )
  46. ^John Myers (1992).The way of the pipa: structure and imagery in Chinese lute music.Kent State University Press.ISBN0-87338-455-5.
  47. ^Luanjing Zayong 《 loan kinh tạp vịnh 》[permanent dead link‍]by Yang Yunfu ( dương duẫn phu ) Original text: Vì ái tỳ bà điều có tình, nguyệt cao chưa phóng chén rượu đình, tân khang phiên đến Lương Châu khúc bắn ra thiên nga tránh hải thanh hải. 《 hải thanh noa thiên nga 》 tân thanh cũng. This piece is however listed as "Eagle Seizing a Swan" ( hải thanh noa thiên nga ) here.
  48. ^John Myers (1992)."Chapter 3 – Musical structure in the Hua Collection".The way of the pipa: structure and imagery in Chinese lute music.Kent State University Press. pp. 39–40.ISBN0-87338-455-5.
  49. ^Myers 1992,pp. 20–21.
  50. ^Bulag, Uradyn E. (July 1999). "Models and Moralities: The Parable of the Two" Heroic Little Sisters of the Grassland "".The China Journal.42(42): 21–41.doi:10.2307/2667639.JSTOR2667639.S2CID143684883.
  51. ^The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 2.Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Routledge. 2008. pp. 1104–1105.ISBN978-0415994040.
  52. ^The Li Collection was published asNanbei Pai Shisan Tao Daqu Pipa XinpuNam bắc phái mười ba bộ men tỳ bà mới sáng tácin 1895.
  53. ^abLin, Esther E.-Shiun (20 April 1996).Pipa pai: concept, history and analysis of style.Open.library.ubc.ca(Thesis).doi:10.14288/1.0087817.Retrieved20 April2021.
  54. ^"Comparison of Three Chinese Traditional Pipa Music Schools with the Aid of Sound Analysis"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 26 April 2012.Retrieved20 April2021.
  55. ^Lưu nghĩa khánh 《 Thế Thuyết Tân Ngữ 》A New Account of the Tales of the Worldby Liu Yiqing. Original text: Hoàn đại tư mã rằng: “Chư quân mạc nói nhỏ, nhân tổ xí chân bắc cửa sổ hạ đạn tỳ bà, cố đều có phía chân trời chân nhân tưởng.” Translation:Grand Marshal Huansaid: "Gentlemen, do not disparage Renzu, he played the pipa under the north window with his leg raised on tiptoe, and thus evoked thoughts of an immortal in heaven." (Note that Renzu ( nhân tổ ) refers to Xie Shang.)
  56. ^Tùy thưBook of Sui.Original text: Đầu tiên là chu Võ Đế khi, có Quy Từ người rằng tô chi bà, từ Đột Quyết Hoàng Hậu nhập quốc, thiện hồ tỳ bà. Nghe này sở tấu, một đều bên trong gian có thất âm. Cho nên hỏi chi, đáp vân: 『 phụ ở Tây Vực, xưng là tri âm. Đại tương truyền tập, điều có bảy loại. 』 lấy này bảy điều, khám giáo thất âm, minh nếu hợp phù Translation: In the beginning, during the reign ofEmperor Wu of Northern Zhou,there was a Kuchean named Sujiva, who came into the country with theTu-jueempress and excelled in playing thehu pipa.Listening to what he played, within one scale there were seven notes. He was thus questioned about it, and he replied: "In the Western Region, my father was praised for his knowledge of music. As transmitted and practised through generations, there were seven kinds of mode." Taking his seven modes, and on investigating and comparing them with the seven notes, they fitted together and tallied well.
  57. ^Laurence E. R. Picken and Noel J. Nickson (2000).Music from the Tang court(PDF).Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-78084-1.
  58. ^《 cũ đường thư · âm nhạc nhị 》 Jiu Tangshu(Old Book of Tang) Original text: Sau Ngụy có tào Bà La Môn, chịu Quy Từ tỳ bà với thương nhân, gia truyền này nghiệp. Đến tôn diệu đạt, đặc biệt Bắc Tề cao dương sở trọng, thường tự đánh hồ cổ lấy cùng chi. Translation: DuringLater Weithere was Cao Poluomen, who was a trader in Kuchean pipa for whose craft he was famous. His grandchild Miaoda [ tào diệu đạt ] in particular was highly regarded byEmperor Wenxuan of Northern Qidynasty, who would often play thehudrum in accompaniment. (Note that Poluomen (or Bolomen) meansBrahminor Indian.)
  59. ^"Tỳ bà lục - duy cơ kho sách, tự do thư viện".Zh.wikisource.org.Retrieved20 April2021.
  60. ^Note that some people claimed Pei Xingnu to be the female player described in the poemPipa Xing,there is however no definitive proof of that claim.
  61. ^Duan Anjie –A Music Conservatory Miscellany(Yuefu zalu Nhạc phủ tạp lục )Original text: – trinh nguyên trung có vương phân, tào bảo, bảo này tử thiện tài này tôn tào cương toàn tập sở nghệ. Thứ có Bùi hưng nô, cùng cương đồng thời. Tào cương thiện vận bát, nếu mưa gió, mà không sự khấu huyền, hưng nô trường với hợp lại vê, không bát hơi mềm. Người đương thời gọi: “Tào cương có tay phải, hưng nô có tay trái.” Note that Shancai was used as a word to mean virtuoso or maestro during the Tang dynasty.
  62. ^Tỳ bà hành (Pipa xing )Original text: – khúc bãi từng giáo thiện tài phục, trang thành mỗi bị thu nương đố. Translation: Her art the admiration even of master Shancai, Her beauty the envy of all pretty girls.
  63. ^Lưu vũ tích 《 tào mới vừa 》Cao Gang byLiu YuxiOriginal text: Đại huyền rầm rĩ 囋 tiểu huyền thanh, phun tuyết hàm phong ý tứ sinh. Vừa nghe tào mới vừa đạn mỏng mị, nhân sinh không hợp ra kinh thành.
  64. ^Houshan Shihua《 sau núi thi thoại 》by Chen Shidao ( trần sư nói ), relating a story aboutOuyang Xiulistening to Du Bin. Original text: Cố công thơ vân: Tòa trung say khách ai nhất hiền? Đỗ bân tỳ bà da làm huyền. Từ bân chết thế mạc truyền. Translation: So Master (Ouyang Xiu) in his poem says: "Who amongst the drunken guests in their seats was the most worthy? It's Du Bin who played the pipa with animal hide for strings. Ever since Du Bin's death such skill is lost to the world".
  65. ^《 canh tỳ bà truyện 》Original text: Mà vưu đắc ý với 《 sở hán 》 một khúc, đương này hai quân quyết chiến khi, thanh động thiên địa, ngói phòng nếu phi trụy. Từ mà sát chi, có kim thanh, tiếng trống, kiếm nỏ thanh, nhân mã lui tránh thanh. Chốc lát không tiếng động. Lâu chi, có oán mà khó hiểu giả, vì sở tiếng ca; thê mà tráng giả, vì hạng vương bi ca khẳng khái tiếng động, đừng cơ thanh; hãm đại trạch, có truy kỵ thanh; đến ô giang, có hạng vương tự vận thanh, dư kỵ nhựu tiễn tranh hạng vương thanh.
  66. ^"Wei Yang".Naxos.
  67. ^"Liang- xing Tang".National Endowment for the Arts.
  68. ^Chou, Oliver (6 December 2014)."Lui Pui-yuen, master of Chinese music, returns to perform once again".South China Morning Post.
  69. ^Cheng Yu: 5 string pipa(retrieved 13 July 2016
  70. ^"Incubus - Mike Einziger Guitar Gear Rig and Equipment".Uberproaudio.Retrieved20 April2021.
  71. ^"[search page, albums featuring Yang Jing]".yangjingmusic.Archived fromthe originalon 14 July 2019.
  72. ^Pauline Bandelier (June 19, 2015)."La scène musicale alternative pékinoise vue par Jean Sébastien Héry (Djang San)".chine-info.Archived fromthe originalon June 24, 2018.RetrievedJuly 8,2016.
  73. ^"BC GRIMM Experimental Acoustic-Electric Music EPK".Grim Musik.26 January 2017.
  74. ^"Experimental Electric Pipa - thí nghiệm điện tỳ bà, by Zhang Si'an (Djang San trương tư an )".Djangsan.bandcamp.Retrieved20 April2021.
  75. ^"Black Silk - Single by Jiaju Shen".Music.apple.30 June 2015.Retrieved20 April2021.
  76. ^"Celestial Pipa Musician".Smithsonian Museum.HISTORICAL PERIOD(S) Five Dynasties to Yuan Dynasty, 10th to 13th century; MEDIUM Pigment on stucco; DIMENSIONS H x W: 38.2 x 36.2 cm (15 1/16 x 14 1/4 in); GEOGRAPHY China; CREDIT LINE Gift of Arthur M. Sackler; COLLECTION Arthur M. Sackler Gallery; ACCESSION NUMBER S1987.265

Bibliography

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