Wikipedia

Pirin

This article is about the mountain range in Bulgaria. For other uses, seePirin (disambiguation).

ThePirin Mountains(Bulgarian:Пирин[ˈpirin]) are amountain rangein southwesternBulgaria,with the highest peak,Vihren,at an altitude of 2,914 m (9,560 ft).

Pirin Mountains
Bulgarian:Пирин
Pirin scenery in winter
Highest point
PeakVihren
Elevation2,915 m (9,564 ft)
Coordinates41°45′49″N23°23′58″E/ 41.76361°N 23.39944°E/41.76361; 23.39944
Dimensions
Length80 km (50 mi) north-south
Width40 km (25 mi) north-south
Area2,585 km2(998 sq mi)
Geography
CountryBulgaria
Geology
Rock type(s)granite,gneiss,marble,limestone

The range extends about 80 km (50 mi) from the north-west to the south-east and is about 40 km (25 mi) wide, spanning a territory of 2,585 km2(998 sq mi). To the north, Pirin is separated from Bulgaria's highest mountain range, theRila Mountain,by the Predel saddle, while to the south it reaches theSlavyanka Mountain.To the west is located the valley of the riverStrumaand to the east the valley of the riverMestaseparates it from theRhodope Mountains.Pirin is dotted with more than a hundred glacial lakes and is also the home of Europe's southernmost glaciers,SnezhnikaandBanski Suhodol.

The northern part of the range, which is also the highest one, is protected by thePirin National Park,declared aUNESCO World Heritage Sitein 1983. Pirin is noted for its rich flora and fauna, as well as for the presence of a number ofrelict species.Much of the area is forested, with some of the best preservedconiferwoods in Bulgaria, holding important populations of theBalkanendemicspeciesMacedonian pine,Bosnian pineandBulgarian fir.Animals include many species of high conservation value, such asbrown bear,gray wolf,wildcat,European pine marten,wild boar,red deer,roe deer,chamois,etc.

The combination of favourable natural conditions and varied historical heritage contribute makes Pirin an important tourist destination. The town ofBansko,situated on the north-eastern slopes of the mountain, has grown to be the primary ski and winter sports centre in the Balkans. A number of settlements at the foothills of Pirin have mineral spring and are spa resorts —Banya,Dobrinishte,Gotse Delchev,Sandanski,etc.Melnikat the south-western foothills of the mountain is Bulgaria's smallest town and is an architectural reserve. Within a few kilometres from the town are theMelnik Earth Pyramidsand theRozhen Monastery.

The name of the mountain may, according to one hypothesis, derive fromPerun,the highest god of theSlavic pantheonand the god of thunder and lightning. Another version is that the etymology of the range can be traced to theThracianwordPerinthos,meaning "Rocky Mountain".[citation needed]

Geography

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Overview

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Panorama of Pirin from theRazlog Valley

Pirin is situated in south-western Bulgaria and is part of theRila–RhodopeMassif.[1][2]To the north, thePredel Saddleand mountain pass at 1,140 m (3,740 ft) altitude separates it from the Rila mountain range. To the east, Pirin borders theRazlog Valley,the valley of the riverMestaand theMomina Klisura Gorgethat separate it from the Rhodope Mountains. To the south, theParil Saddle(1,170 m (3,840 ft)) divides it from theSlavyankamountain range. To the west, Pirin reaches the valley of the riverStruma,including theKresna Gorgeand theSandanski–Petrich Valley,that serve as a divide from theVlahina,MaleshevoandOgrazhdenmountains further to the west.[1][2][3]

The main orographic ridge extends from the north-west to the south-east.[1]Pirin spans an area of 2,585 km2(998 sq mi) with an average height of 1,033 m (3,389 ft). The maximum length between the Paril and Predel saddles is 80 km (50 mi); the maximum width is 40 km (25 mi).[1][2][4]Reaching an altitude of 2,914 m (9,560 ft), Pirin is the second highest mountain range in Bulgaria afterRila(2,925 m (9,596 ft)) and the eighth highest inEuropeafter theCaucasus,theAlps,Sierra Nevada,thePyrenees,Mount Etna,the aforementioned Rila, andMount Olympus.

Division

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A view toSinanitsa

Geologically and morphologically Pirin is divided into three parts: north, central and south, which differ sharply in size and altitude.[5]North Pirinis the largest of the subdivisions and the mountain's downright part.[2]It takes up 74% of the whole range's territory, being about 42 km (26 mi) long and ranging from Predel to the north to the Todorova Polyana Saddle (1,883 m (6,178 ft)) to the south.[1][6]It is the most often visited part of the mountain, the only one to have anAlpineappearance, featuring many glacial lakes, resthouses and shelters. North Pirin is itself divided into two zones by the Kabata Saddle and the valleys of the Banderitsa and Vlahinska rivers.[1][3]The northern zone consists of the steepmarbleVihren ridge with the three highest summits in the range:Vihren(2,914 m (9,560 ft)),Kutelo(2,908 m (9,541 ft)) andBanski Suhodol(2,884 m (9,462 ft)).[3][7]The marble ridge is narrow and very steep, reaching a width of only 0.5 m (1.6 ft) at the ridgeKoncheto(2,810 m (9,220 ft)).[1]The southern zone is more massive and consists primarily ofgraniteridges, including Pirin's fourth highest summitPolezhan,at 2,851 m (9,354 ft).[1][8]The southern zone also has marble ridges, such as the Sinanitsa ridge with itshomonymous summit(2,516 m (8,255 ft)).[1]In total, the northern section of Pirin includes two summits with an altitude over 2,900 m (9,500 ft), seven over 2,800 m (9,200 ft), 13 over 2,700 m (8,900 ft), and 60 over 2,500 m (8,200 ft).[1]

Central Pirinextends between the Todorova Polyana Saddle and the Popovi Livadi Saddle. It constitutes the smallest and the shortest of the three subdivisions, covering only 7% of Pirin's total area.[1][9][10]It is composed of crystallineschistsand granite, as well as of marbled limestone in the south.[9][11]Because of thekarsticrelief there are no lakes; the rivers springing up from Central Pirin are short and with low water volume.[9]It is largely covered by deciduous forests.[10]The highest peak isOrelyak(2,099 m (6,886 ft)), while the other summits are under 2,000 m (6,600 ft).[1]

South Pirinstretches from the Popovi Livadi Saddle to the Paril Saddle and is the lowest and least rugged part. The highest peak isUshiteat 1,978 m (6,490 ft), althoughSveshtnik(1,975 m (6,480 ft)) had long been considered the highest summit.[1][9]It constitutes 19% of the mountain's territory.[10]Despite being characterised with relatively flat ridges, its lateral slopes are steep.[5]South Pirin is composed of granite with marbled limestone in the periphery. It lacks glacial forms and is covered with forests.[9][11]Like Central Pirin, the springs are short and with low water discharge.[11]

Geology, relief and peaks in Pirin

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A view toVihren,Pirin's highest summit
Orelyak, the highest peak of Central Pirin
See also:List of mountain peaks in Pirin

Geologically Pirin is ahorstforming a massiveanticlinesituated between the complexgrabenvalleys of the Struma and the Mesta, formed bymetamorphic rocks—gneiss,biotiteand crystallineschists,amphibolite,quartziteandmarble.[5][12][13]Granite rocks cover 62% of the mountain's area.[14]The tectonics of the Pirin is primarily the result ofPrecambrian,Hercynian,alpine and tectonic movements and events.[15]Its hoisting alternated with long dormant periods.[1]As a result of the activisation of the ancient Struma and Mesta faults during theNeogeneand theQuaternaryPirin rose as a massive horst.[1]

The modern relief of Pirin was shaped in thePleistocenewhen the mountain was subjected to alpine glaciation related to the global cooling.[16]This glaciation occurred in parallel with that of theAlps.[15]The process formed pointed pyramidal peaks, longU-shaped valley,cirques,morainefields and vertical cliffs that characterise Pirin's contemporary appearance.[17][18][19]These forms are most prominent at the north-eastern ridges of the mountain.[16]Some lateral moraines may reach heights of more than 1,100 m (3,600 ft).[5]The lower line of the glaciers was at 2,200–2,300 m (7,200–7,500 ft).[15]Karstlandforms also shape Pirin's relief withponors,swallow holes,caves,etc.[17][18]

The main Pirin ridge is clearly distinguished; it begins inRilaand passes through the Predel saddle as far as the Paril saddle. It links the separate smaller ridges of the mountain into one system with the highest peaks situated on it. Although it curves a lot, its main direction is from the northwest to southeast and it is also a watershed between the Struma and the Mesta rivers. There are many spurs but four of them are so large that they create the appearance of the mountain: Sinanishko, Todorino, Polezhansko and Kamenishko.[1][5]

There are two peaks above 2,900 m (9,500 ft),VihrenandKutelo;seven above 2,800 m (9,200 ft); 13 above 2,700 m (8,900 ft); 32 above 2,600 m (8,500 ft) and 60 above 2,500 m (8,200 ft).[1]The highest granite peak is the Banderishki Chukar (2,732 m (8,963 ft)). Some of the highest peaks are:

A view of theMelnik Earth Pyramids

The most recognisable rock formation in the mountain range are theMelnik Earth Pyramidssituated in the southwestern reaches of Pirin in the vicinity of the homonymous town.[20]They are located at an altitude between 350 and 850 m (1,150 and 2,790 ft) and are composed of sandstone and conglomerates dated from the Neogene and the Quaternary Periods.[21]The Pyramids were formed as a result oferosionas the Melnishka River and its tributaries had carved their way into the hills forging pyramid-like forms of significant aesthetic value that reach a height of 100 m (330 ft).[20][21][22]This process began 4–5 million years ago and is still ongoing. The combination of palePliocenesandstones and red Quaternary conglomerates determines the yellowish and reddish colour gamut and the diverse shapes.[21]The Melnik Earth Pyramids constitute a specific and unique micro habitat of high conservation value and were designated a natural landmark in 1960.[20]

Similar rock formations are found further north along the slopes of Pirin facing the Struma Valley near the town of Kresna.[20]

Climate

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Low clouds in Pirin

Pirin is situated within thecontinental Mediterranean climatezone and due to its altitude the higher sectors haveAlpine climate.[5][16]The climate is influenced by Mediterranean cyclones mainly in late autumn and in winter, bringing frequent and high rainfall, and by theAzores anticyclonein summer, making the summer months hot and dry.[23]The relief has a crucial influence on the climate. Pirin has three altitude climate zones — low between 600 and 1,000 m, middle between 1,000 and 1,800 m and high above 1,800 m.[17][23]The low altitude zone is heavily influenced by the Mediterranean climate, the influence being more pronounced on the western slopes facing the Struma valley than on the eastern slopes along the Mesta valley. The high altitude zone is characterised by low temperature, low temperature amplitude, many cloudy days, lasting and thick snow cover, strong winds and intensive sun radiation.[17]

Winters are cold and prolonged while summers are cool and short.[17]The temperature decreases with the altitude, which is more visible in summer. The mean annual temperature is around 9–10 °C in the low, 5–7 °C in the middle and 2–3 °C in the high altitude zone.[23]The coldest month is January with average temperature varying between −5 and −2 °C. The hottest month is July with temperature averaging 20 °C at 1,600 m and 15 °C at 2,000 m.[23]Temperature inversions,i.e. increase in temperature with height, are observed in 75% of the winter days.[23]

The annual precipitation in Pirin is 600–700 mm in the lower zones and 1000–1200 mm in the higher.[23]The rainfall occurs mostly in winter and spring, while summer is driest season. The air humidity is 60–75% in August and 80–85 % in December.[24]In winter the precipitation is mainly snow, varying from 70–90% at the lower altitudes to 100% at higher.[25]The average number of days with snow cover varies from 20–30 to 120–160. The highest thickness of the snow cover reaches 40–60 cm at 1,000–1,800 m in February and 160–180 cm above 1,800 m in March (190 cm on Vihren).[24][26]In some winters the snow thickness can reach 250–350 cm.[24]Avalanchesare frequent.[27]

The prevailing wind direction is from the west and the north-west but southern and south-western winds are also frequent.[17][24][26]The wind speed can reach 34–40 m/s at the high ridges, being highest in February and March and lowest in August and September.[17][24]The percentage of windless days increases in summer and autumn to 30–40% at lower altitude and 10–15% at higher. In the highest zone the percentage does not exceed 5–7% annually.[24]

Hydrology

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One of theValyavishki LakesandGazeySummit
One of theSamodivski Lakes

Pirin forms the water divide between the basins of the rivers Struma and Mesta. The watershed follows the main ridge of the mountain in direction north-west to south-east. As the main ridge is situated closer to the Mesta valley, the tributaries to the Struma tend to be longer.[28][29]The rivers are short, steep and with high water volume; the river bottom is rocky or covered with large sediments.[28]The water discharge is highest in May and June and lowest in September. The streamflow is largely derived from snow melting and glacial lakes in spring and summer and almost exclusively from groundwater in winter.[28]The rivers and streams form numerous leaps and waterfalls but they are generally not as high as those inRilaor theBalkan Mountains.The highest one isPopinolashki waterfall,measuring some 12 m.[30]Pirin is the source of 10 tributaries to the Struma, includingPirinska Bistritsa,Sandanska Bistritsa,Melnishka rekaandVlahina reka,as well as another 10 to the Mesta, such asIztok,DisilitsaandRetizhe.[28][30]Reaching a length of 53 km, Pirinska Bistritsa is the longest river in the massif.[31]Pirin has abundantmineral springs,being among Bulgaria's richest areas. Based on the chemical composition they are divided into two thermal groups — in the Mesta and the Struma basins.[32]The springs in the Mesta basin to the east are more alkaline, with lower mineralisation (below 400 mg/L) and conductance; those on the western slopes reach higher temperatures, up to 86 °C.[32]

A total of 176glacial lakesare situated in the mountain range, all of them in North Pirin.[5]Of them, 119 are permanent, and the rest dry out in summer.[28]About 65% of them are located in the north-eastern area and discharge into the Mesta basin; the other 35% are to the south-west, their water flowing into the tributaries of the Struma.[19][28]Approximately 90% of the lakes are nestled between 2,100 m and 2,450 m. At an altitude of 2,710 m the Upper Polezhan Lake is the highest in Pirin, as well as in Bulgaria and theBalkan Peninsula.[6][19][28]The total area of all lakes is 1.8 km2;the largest one beingPopovo Lakewith 123,600 m2,[33]which makes it the fourth largest glacial lake in the country. With a depth of 29.5 m, it is also Pirin's deepest lake and Bulgaria's second.[30]The water is transparent as deep as 15 m.[34]Many of the lakes are covered with ice during most of the year. The ice thickness reaches 3 m in the highest lakes.[34]The lakes and the lake groups are:

Pirin is also home to two smallglaciers,remnants from the last Ice Age.Snezhnikais located in the deepGolemiya Kazancirque at the steep northern foot of Vihren and is the southernmost glacier inEurope.[35]Banski Suhodol Glacieris larger and situated a bit to the north below Koncheto Ridge.[36]

Nature

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A panorama of Pirin

The vegetation of Pirin is vertically divided into five distinct elevation zones: Mediterranean, deciduous, coniferous, that combined form thetree linereaching approximately altitude of 2,000 m, shrubs forming thesubalpine lineup to 2,500 m and alpine meadows, also known as thealpine lineabove 2,500 m.[5]The Mediterranean zone is dominated, among other, by pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens) and Oriental Hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis), the deciduous zone by European oak (Quercus robur) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica), and the coniferous — by Macedonian pine (Pinus peuce), Bosnian pine (Pinus heldreichii) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris).[5]The subalpine line is mainly covered with dwarf mountain pine (Pinus mugo) and common juniper (Juniperus communis).[5][37]The alpine line is covered with grass, moss, lichen and abundant inbilberriesand rare flowers such as the edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum).[34][38]Pirin is home to Bulgaria's oldest tree, the 1300–yearBaikushev's pine— a Bosnian pine that is a contemporary of the foundation of theBulgarian statein 681 AD.[39]

The endemic Pirin poppy (Papaver degenii) under Vihren

The total number ofvascular plantsis 1315 species, or approximately 1/3 of Bulgaria's flora, many of them being rare and under protection.[26][40][41]There are 18 species endemic to Pirin, including Pirin poppy (Papaver degenii), Kozhuharov oksitropis (Oxytropis kozhuharovii), Urumov oksitropis (Oxytropis urumovii) among others,[26]as well as another 17 taxa restricted only to Bulgaria, which makes a total of 35 Bulgarian endemic species.[41]The endemic genusPiriniais named after the mountain range, containing a single speciesPirinia koenigiirestricted to Pirin.[42]Thenon-vascular plantsare represented by 165algae,329mossand 367lichenspecies.[41][43]

The vertebrate fauna of Pirin consists of 229 species. The mammal species are 45[44][45]and includebrown bear,gray wolf,wildcat,European pine marten,wild boar,red deer,roe deerandchamois.[46]The total number of bird species is 159,[45]including three relicts —boreal owl,white-backed woodpeckerandEurasian three-toed woodpecker,and a number of birds of prey, such aslesser spotted eagle,booted eagle,golden eagle,short-toed snake eagle,saker falcon,peregrine falcon,etc.[47]There are 11 reptile, 8 amphibian and 6 fish species.[48][49]The number of invertebrate species discovered so far is 2091 but they remain poorly studied and are expected to rise to 4500.[50]

The rich wildlife in the mountain is protected by thePirin National Parkfounded in 1962 and designated aUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitein 1983.[51]The park spans an area of 403,32 km2and includes two nature reserves,Bayuvi Dupki–Dzhindzhiritsa[52]andYulen.[53][54]There are two more reserves in Pirin beyond the limits of the national park,Tisata[55]andOrelyak.[56]

History

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Due to the fertile foothills and the favourable terrain for defence Pirin has been continuously inhabited since prehistoric times.[57]Archaeological remains left by theThracianshave been discovered at the western foothills along the Struma Valley and in the Razlog Valley. As the region was annexed by theRoman Empireby the 1st century BC the number of settlements saw further expansion.[57]During theEarly Middle Agesthe area around Pirin was settled bySlavic tribesalong with most of theBalkansand was absorbed by theBulgarian Empirein the 9th century.[58]Throughout the Middle Ages Pirin remained contested between the Bulgarian and theByzantine Empiresuntil it was conquered by theOttoman Turksin the late 14th century. The population of the region played an active role during theBulgarian National Revivaland the struggle for national liberation.[57][5]The important 18th century Bulgarian enlightenerPaisius of Hilendarand author ofIstoriya Slavyanobolgarskayawas born in Bansko at the northern foothills of Pirin.[59]Bulgaria achievedliberationin 1878 but as a result of theCongress of BerlinPirin remained in the Ottoman Empire. In response, the local population in Pirin rebelled in theKresna–Razlog uprising(1878–1879) and later took part in theIlinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising(1903) but both were quelled by the Ottomans.[57]The region was finally liberated by the Bulgarian Army in October 1912 during the course of theFirst Balkan War(1912–1913).[57]

Settlements, transportation and economy

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Melnik, the nation's smallest town, is a centre of wine production and one of the100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria

Pirin is a sparsely populated mountain range with all the settlements located at the foothills and none in the mountain itself.[57]Administratively it falls entirely inBlagoevgrad Province.From north to south there are four towns at the western foothills facing the Struma Valley, namelySimitli(pop. 6,647 as of 2016),[60]Kresna(3,267),[60]Sandanski(26,023)[60]andMelnik(170),[60]as well as three more to the north and the east —Bansko(7,369),[60]Dobrinishte(2,377)[60]andGotse Delchev(19,087).[60][57]There are a number of villages, including among othersBrezhani,Vlahi,Ploski,Lilyanovo,Dzhigurovo,Gorna Sushitsa,Kashina,Pirin,Belyovo,Novo Delchevo,Kremen,Breznitsa,Dobrotino,Kornitsa,Lazhnitsa,etc.[57]

Pirin is served by two main roads — the first classI-1 road,part ofEuropean route E79,along the Struma valley to the west that links the capitalSofiaand the provincial centreBlagoevgradwith Greece atKulata,and the second classII-19 roadwhich branches off I-1 at Simitly, goes east crossing the Predel Saddle and then turns south along the Mesta Valley to Gotse Delchev and the border with Greece atIlinden.[61]TheStruma motorwayis planned to run in parallel with the I-1 road, with one section between Novo Delchevo and the border already finished and another one linking Novo Delchevo and Kresna under construction as of 2017. Due to the rugged relief Pirin is crossed by only one road, the third class III-198 road that links I-1 and II-19 through the Paril Saddle between Central and South Pirin.[57][61]The mountain range is served by theBulgarian State Railwaysvia railway line No. 5 along the Struma Valley in the west and theSeptemvri–Dobrinishte narrow-gauge linewith terminus at the latter town in the northern foothills.[61]

The economy is based on agriculture, industry, services and tourism. There are small deposits ofsub-bituminous coalas well as significant quantities of high-qualitymarblethat is processed in Sandanski and part of the production is exported.[34][62]A number of small hydro power plants have been constructed, mainly along Sandanska Bistritsa River.[34]The rivers are also used for irrigation.[32]Forests cover 1,996 km2(771 sq mi), or 5.5% of Bulgaria's total, and are of commercial importance because of the high-quality timber. As logging is restricted in the protected areas the wood-processing industry in Pirin forms 3.5% of the nation's total production in that sector.[57]The lower parts of the mountain offer favourable conditions for agriculture, the most important cash crops beinggrapes,peanuts,tobaccoandanise.[5][62][63]The region around Melnik is renowned for its centuries-old traditions in producing distinct red wines. Manufacturing industry is centred in Sandanski, Gotse Delchev, Bansko and Simitli; the main sectors are food processing, machine building and furniture production.[32][34]

Tourism

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A ski zone in Bansko

The favourable natural conditions for winter sports, spa and recreation combined with the architectural heritage make Pirin a popular tourist destination.[64]Bansko is by far the most developed winter resort in the mountain range, being also Bulgaria's most popular one for foreigners — over 79,000 foreign tourists have stayed in Bansko for the 2016/17 winter season spending an average of four nights.[65]Bansko has 75 kmski runsequipped with artificial snow machines as well as 22 km lifting facilities and provides conditions foralpine skiing,cross-country skiing,biathlon,snowboard,etc.[66][67]The top elevation is 2,560 m while the lowest is 990 m.[67]Bansko regularly hosts European alpine ski and biathlon cups.[67]Another much smaller resort is Dobriniste with 5 km of ski tracks.[68]

The abundant mineral springs are a prerequisite for health and spa tourism. The most developed spa resorts are Dobrinishte and Sandanski. The former has 17 springs with a total discharge of 782 L/min and temperature of 28°С to 41.2°С and has a mineral beach among the other facilities.[69][70]Sandanski is home to 11 springs with a total discharge of 1200 L/min and temperature of 33°С to 83°С that have been utilised since Antiquity.[71]Other mineral baths are located in Bansko,Banya,Vlahi,Dolna Gradeshnitsa,Levunovo,Marikostinovo,Musomishta,Oshtava,Simitli andHotovo.[64]

Rozhen Monastery

There are 20 marked hiking trails within the borders of Pirin National Park.[72]The steep rock faces in Northern Pirin provide favourable conditions foralpine climbing.[73]The most popular places for practising climbing are the north wall of Vihren, as well as the peaks Kamenitsa, Banski Suhodol, Sinanitsa and Dzhengal among others.[74]Pirin Golf Club near Bansko has 18- and 5-hole golf courses.[75]

Cultural tourism is also well developed. Melnik has been designated an architectural reserve and one of the100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria.[76]Among the main sights are the ruins of the medieval fortress and theChurch of St Nicholas,as well as a number of national revival style houses, such as theKordopulov House.[76][77]A few kilometres to the east of the town isRozhen Monastery,the biggest one in Pirin.[78]The monastery was established in the early 13th century during theSecond Bulgarian Empireand has the shape of an irregular hexagon.[76][78]There are frescoes dated from the 16th century. Rozhen Monastery was a regional centre for learning and calligraphy.[78]In close proximity to the monastery is the Church of Saints Cyril and Methodius, built on the initiative of the Prominent Bulgarian revolutionaryYane Sandanski,which nowadays houses his tomb.[76]The town of Sandanski boasts the ruins of a 5-6th century episcopal basilica that has been recently renovated.[76]Bansko also has an old quarter with 18-19th century houses[79]and the Church of Holy Trinity whose 30-meters high belfry is the symbol of the town.[80]

Honour

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Pirin GlacieronGraham LandinAntarcticais named after Pirin Mountain.

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See also

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Citations

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  1. ^abcdefghijklmnopqEncyclopaedia Bulgaria 1986,p. 228
  2. ^abcdDonchev & Karakashev 2004,p. 127
  3. ^abcDimitrova et al. 2004,p. 52
  4. ^Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria 1980,pp. 367–368
  5. ^abcdefghijklGeographic Dictionary of Bulgaria 1980,p. 368
  6. ^abMalchev & Sotirov 2015,p. 105
  7. ^Donchev & Karakashev 2004,pp. 127–128
  8. ^Dimitrova et al. 2004,pp. 52–53
  9. ^abcdeDonchev & Karakashev 2004,p. 128
  10. ^abcMalchev & Sotirov 2015,p. 106
  11. ^abcDushkov 1972,p. 15
  12. ^Dimitrova et al. 2004,p. 53
  13. ^Donchev & Karakashev 2004,pp. 128–129
  14. ^Dushkov 1972,p. 10
  15. ^abcDimitrova et al. 2004,p. 55
  16. ^abcDushkov 1972,p. 11
  17. ^abcdefgEncyclopaedia Bulgaria 1986,p. 229
  18. ^abDonchev & Karakashev 2004,p. 129
  19. ^abcPerry 2010,p. 184
  20. ^abcd"Pyramidal Formations in Sand and Clay Rocks".Red Book of Bulgaria, vol. III Natural Habitats.Retrieved14 July2017.
  21. ^abc"Melnik Earth Pyramids".Geological Phenomena of Bulgaria.Retrieved14 July2017.
  22. ^Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria 1980,p. 312
  23. ^abcdefDimitrova et al. 2004,p. 50
  24. ^abcdefDimitrova et al. 2004,p. 51
  25. ^Dimitrova et al. 2004,pp. 50–51
  26. ^abcdPerry 2010,p. 186
  27. ^Donchev & Karakashev 2004,p. 130
  28. ^abcdefgEncyclopaedia Bulgaria 1986,p. 230
  29. ^Dimitrova et al. 2004,pp. 57–58
  30. ^abcDimitrova et al. 2004,p. 58
  31. ^Dushkov 1972,p. 14
  32. ^abcdDushkov 1972,p. 16
  33. ^Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria 1980,p. 384
  34. ^abcdefEncyclopaedia Bulgaria 1986,p. 231
  35. ^Grunewald & Scheithauer 2010,p. 129
  36. ^Gechev 2011,pp. 49, 63
  37. ^Perry 2010,p. 187
  38. ^Perry 2010,p. 188
  39. ^Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria 1980,p. 24
  40. ^Dimitrova et al. 2004,p. 76
  41. ^abc"Pirin National Park: Flora".Official Site of Pirin National Park.Archived fromthe originalon 14 September 2016.Retrieved7 July2017.
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  43. ^Dimitrova et al. 2004,pp. 74–75
  44. ^Dimitrova et al. 2004,p. 91
  45. ^ab"Pirin National Park: Fauna".Official Site of Pirin National Park.Archived fromthe originalon 19 October 2016.Retrieved7 July2017.
  46. ^Dimitrova et al. 2004,pp. 92–94
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  48. ^Dimitrova et al. 2004,pp. 84–85
  49. ^Perry 2010,p. 189
  50. ^Dimitrova et al. 2004,p. 81
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Sources

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References

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  • Мичев (Michev), Николай (Nikolay); Михайлов (Mihaylov), Цветко (Tsvetko); Вапцаров (Vaptsarov), Иван (Ivan); Кираджиев (Kiradzhiev), Светлин (Svetlin) (1980).Географски речник на България[Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Наука и култура (Nauka i kultura).
  • Димитрова (Dimitrova), Людмила (Lyudmila) (2004).Национален парк "Пирин". План за управление[Pirin National Park. Management Plan] (in Bulgarian). и колектив. Sofia:Ministry of Environment and Water,Bulgarian Foundation "Biodiversity".
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  • Малчев (Malchev), Малчо (Malcho); Сотиров (Sotirov), Чавдар (Chavdar) (2015).Планински туризъм[Mountain Tourism] (in Bulgarian).Shumen:Университетско издетелство "Епископ Константин Преславски" (Shumen University Press).ISBN978-954-577-899-5.
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  • Grunewald, Karsten; Scheithauer, Jörg (2010)."Europe's southernmost glaciers: response and adaptation to climate change"(PDF).Journal of Glaciology.56(195).International Glaciological Society:129–142.Bibcode:2010JGlac..56..129G.doi:10.3189/002214310791190947.ISSN0022-1430.S2CID130305078.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2 April 2015.Retrieved9 July2016.
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