Wikipedia

Platypus

For other uses, seePlatypus (disambiguation).

Theplatypus(Ornithorhynchus anatinus), sometimes referred to as theduck-billed platypus,is asemiaquatic,egg-layingmammalendemic toeastern Australia,includingTasmania.The platypus is the sole living representative ormonotypic taxonof itsfamilyOrnithorhynchidaeandgenusOrnithorhynchus,though a number ofrelated speciesappear in the fossil record.

Platypus
Temporal range:Pliocene–Recent
Platypus swimming in waters nearScottsdale, Tasmania
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Monotremata
Family: Ornithorhynchidae
Genus: Ornithorhynchus
Blumenbach,1800
Species:
O. anatinus
Binomial name
Ornithorhynchus anatinus
(Shaw,1799)
Platypus range
(red – native, yellow – introduced)
Synonyms[2][3]
  • Platypus anatinusShaw, 1799
  • Ornithorhynchus paradoxusBlumenbach, 1800
  • O. novaehollandiaeLacépède,1800
  • O. fuscusPéron,1807
  • O. rufusPéron, 1807
  • O. paradoxiMeckel,1826
  • O. crispusMacGillivray,1827
  • O. laevisMacGillivray, 1827
  • O. brevirostrisOgilby,1832
  • O. agilisde Vis,1886
  • O. phoxinusO. Thomas,1923
  • O. tritonO. Thomas, 1923

Together with the four species ofechidna,it is one of the fiveextantspecies ofmonotremes,mammals that layeggsinstead of giving birth to live young. Like other monotremes, the platypus has a sense ofelectrolocation,which it uses to detect prey in cloudy water. It is one of the few species ofvenomous mammals,as the male platypus has aspuron the hind foot that delivers an extremely painfulvenom.

The unusual appearance of this egg-laying,duck-billed,beaver-tailed,otter-footed mammal at first baffled European naturalists. In 1799, the first scientists to examine a preserved platypus body judged it a fake made of several animals sewn together.

The unique features of the platypus make it important in the study ofevolutionary biology,and a recognisable and iconic symbol ofAustralia.It is culturally significant to severalAboriginal peoples,who also used to hunt it for food. It has appeared as a national mascot, features on thereverseof theAustralian twenty-cent coin,and is an emblem of the state ofNew South Wales.

The platypus was hunted for its fur, but it has been a legallyprotected speciesin all states where it occurs since 1912. Its population is not under severe threat, althoughcaptive-breedingprograms have had slight success, and it is vulnerable to pollution. It is classified as anear-threatened speciesby theIUCN,but a November 2020 report has recommended that it be upgraded tothreatened speciesunder the federalEPBC Act,due tohabitat destructionand declining numbers in all states.

Taxonomy and naming

See also:Plural form of words ending in -us § Platypus

Australian Aboriginal peoplename or have named the platypus in various ways depending onAustralian indigenous languages and dialects.Among the names found:boondaburra,mallingong,tambreet,watjarang[4](names inYass,Murrumbidgee,andTumut),[5]tohunbuck(region ofGoomburra,Darling Downs),[5]dulaiwarrung[6]oudulai warrung(Woiwurrunglanguage,Wurundjeri,Victoria),[7]djanbang(Bundjalung,Queensland),[8]djumulung(Yuinlanguage,Yuin,New South Wales),[9]maluŋgaŋ(ngunnawal language,Ngunnawal,Australian Capital Territory[10]),biladurang,wamul,dyiimalung,oornie,dungidany(Wiradjurilanguage,Wiradjuri,Vic,NSW),[7]oonah,[11]etc. The name chosen and approved inPalawa kani(reconstructedtasmanianlanguage) islarila.[12]

When the platypus was first encountered by Europeans in 1798, apeltand sketch were sent back toGreat BritainbyCaptain John Hunter,the second Governor ofNew South Wales.[13]British scientists' initial hunch was that the attributes were a hoax.[14]George Shaw,who produced the first description of the animal in theNaturalist's Miscellanyin 1799, stated it was impossible not to entertain doubts as to its genuine nature,[15]andRobert Knoxbelieved it might have been produced by some Asiantaxidermist.[14]It was thought somebody had sewn a duck's beak onto the body of a beaver-like animal. Shaw even took a pair of scissors to the dried skin to check for stitches.[16][15]

The common name "platypus" literally means 'flat-foot', deriving from theGreekwordplatúpous(πλατύπους),[17]fromplatús(πλατύς'broad, wide, flat')[18][a]andpoús(πούς'foot').[19][20]Shaw initially assigned the species theLinnaeannamePlatypus anatinuswhen he described it,[15]but the genus term was quickly discovered to already be in use as the name of the wood-boringambrosia beetlegenusPlatypus.[21]It was independently described asOrnithorhynchus paradoxusbyJohann Blumenbachin 1800 (from a specimen given to him bySir Joseph Banks)[22]and following therules of priorityof nomenclature, it was later officially recognised asOrnithorhynchus anatinus.[21]

There is no universally agreed plural form of "platypus" in the English language. Scientists generally use "platypuses" or simply "platypus". Alternatively, the term "platypi" is also used for the plural, although this is a form ofpseudo-Latin;[16]going by the word's Greek roots the plural would be "platypodes". EarlyBritishsettlerscalled it by many names, such as "watermole", "duckbill", and "duckmole".[16]Occasionally it is specifically called the "duck-billed platypus".

The scientific nameOrnithorhynchus anatinusliterally means 'duck-like bird-snout',[15]deriving itsgenus namefrom the Greek rootornith-(όρνιθornithorὄρνιςórnīs'bird')[23]and the wordrhúnkhos(ῥύγχος'snout', 'beak').[24]Itsspecies nameis derived from Latinanatinus('duck-like') fromanas'duck'.[15][25]The platypus is the sole living representative or monotypic taxon of itsfamily(Ornithorhynchidae).[26]

  • A book for children published in Germany in 1798
  • Illustration from the first scientific description in 1799
  • Colour print from 1863

Description

InDavid Collins's account of the new colony 1788–1801, he describes "an amphibious animal, of the mole species", with a drawing.[27]

The body and the broad, flat tail of the platypus are covered with dense, brown, biofluorescentfurthat traps a layer of insulating air to keep the animal warm.[16][21][28]The fur is waterproof, and textured like that of amole.[29]The platypus's tail stores fat reserves, an adaptation also found in theTasmanian devil.[30]Webbingis more significant on the front feet, which in land walking are folded up inknuckle-walkingto protect the webbing.[31]The elongated snout and lower jaw are covered in soft skin, forming the bill. The nostrils are located on the snout's dorsal surface, while the eyes and ears are just behind the snout in a groove which closes underwater.[21]Platypuses can give a low growl when disturbed, and a range of vocalisations have been reported in captivity.[16]

Size varies considerably in different regions, with average weight from 0.7 to 2.4 kg (1 lb 9 oz to 5 lb 5 oz); males have average length 50 cm (20 in), while females are the smaller at 43 cm (17 in).[21]This variation does not seem to follow any particular climatic rule and may be due to other factors such as predation and human encroachment.[32]

The platypus has an averagebody temperatureof about 32 °C (90 °F), lower than the 37 °C (99 °F) typical ofplacental mammals.[33]Research suggests this has been a gradual adaptation to harsh environmental conditions among the few marginal surviving monotreme species, rather than a general characteristic of past monotremes.[34][35]

In addition to laying eggs, the anatomy,ontogeny,and genetics of monotremes shows traces of similarity to reptiles and birds. The platypus has areptiliangait with legs on the sides of the body, rather than underneath.[21]The platypus's genes are a possible evolutionary link between the mammalianXYand bird/reptileZWsex-determination systems, as one of the platypus's five X chromosomes contains theDMRT1gene, which birds possess on their Z chromosome.[36]

As in all true mammals, the tiny bones that conduct sound in themiddle earare fully incorporated into the skull, rather than lying in the jaw as in pre-mammaliansynapsids.However, the external opening of the ear still lies at the base of the jaw.[21]The platypus has extra bones in the shoulder girdle, including aninterclaviclenot found in other mammals.[21]As in many other aquatic and semiaquaticvertebrates,the bones showosteosclerosis,increasing their density to provide ballast.[37]

The platypusjawis constructed differently from that of other mammals, and the jaw-opening muscle is different.[21]Modern platypus young have three teeth in each of themaxillae(one premolar and twomolars) anddentaries(three molars), which they lose before or just after leaving the breeding burrow;[21]adults instead develop heavilykeratinisedfood-grinding pads calledceratodontes.[21][38][39]The first upper and third lower cheek teeth of platypus nestlings are small, each having one principal cusp, while the other teeth have two main cusps.[40]

  • Diving
  • Surfacing

Venom

Main article:Platypus venom
The calcaneus spur on the male's hind limb is used to inject venom.

While both male and female platypuses are born with back ankle spurs, only the males' deliver venom.[41][42][43] It is powerful enough to kill smaller animals such as dogs, and though it is not lethal to humans, it can inflict weeks of agony.[44][45]Edemarapidly develops around the wound and gradually spreads through the affected limb, and it may develop into an excruciatinghyperalgesia(heightened sensitivity to pain) persisting for days or even months.[46][47]

The venom is composed largely ofdefensin-likeproteins(DLPs) produced by the immune system, three of which are unique to the platypus.[44]In other animals, defensinskillpathogenic bacteria and viruses, but in platypuses they are also collected into a venom against predators. Venom is produced in thecruralglands of the male, which are kidney-shapedalveolar glandsconnected by a thin-walled duct to acalcaneusspur on each hind limb. The female platypus, in common with echidnas, has rudimentary spur buds that do not develop (dropping off before the end of their first year) and lack functional crural glands.[21]Venom production rises among males during the breeding season, and it may be used to assert dominance.[44]

Similar spurs are found on many archaic mammal groups, indicating that this was an ancient general characteristic among mammals.[48]

Electrolocation

The platypus has secondarily acquiredelectroreception.Its receptors are arranged in stripes on its bill, giving it high sensitivity to the sides and below; it makes quick turns of its head as it swims to detect prey.[49]

Monotremesare the only mammals (apart from theGuiana dolphin)[50]known to have a sense ofelectroreception,and the platypus's electroreception is the most sensitive of any monotreme.[51][49]Feeding by neither sight nor smell,[52]the platypus closes its eyes, ears, and nose when it dives.[53]Digging in the bottom of streams with its bill, its electroreceptors detect tiny electric currents generated by the muscular contractions of its prey, enabling it to distinguish between animate and inanimate objects.[49]Experiments have shown the platypus will even react to an "artificial shrimp" if a small electric current is passed through it.[54]

Theelectroreceptorsare located in rostrocaudal rows in the skin of the bill, whilemechanoreceptorsfor touch are uniformly distributed across the bill. The electrosensory area of thecerebral cortexis in the tactilesomatosensoryarea, and some cortical cells receive input from both electroreceptors and mechanoreceptors, suggesting the platypus feels electric fields like touches. These receptors in the bill dominate thesomatotopic mapof the platypus brain, in the same way human hands dominate thePenfield homunculus map.[55][56]

The platypus can feel the direction of an electric source, perhaps by comparing differences insignal strengthacross the sheet of electroreceptors, enhanced by the characteristic side-to-side motion of the animal's head while hunting. It may also be able to determine the distance of moving prey from the time lag between their electrical and mechanical pressure pulses.[49]

Monotreme electrolocation for hunting in murky waters may be tied to their tooth loss.[57]The extinctObdurodonwas electroreceptive, but unlike the modern platypus it foragedpelagically.[57]

Eyes

In recent studies it has been suggested that the eyes of the platypus are more similar to those ofPacific hagfishor Northern Hemispherelampreysthan to those of most tetrapods. The eyes also containdouble cones,unlike most mammals.[58]

Although the platypus's eyes are small and not used under water, several features indicate that vision was important for its ancestors. Thecornealsurface and the adjacent surface of the lens is flat, while the posterior surface of the lens is steeply curved, similar to the eyes of other aquatic mammals such as otters and sea-lions. Atemporal(ear side) concentration ofretinal ganglion cells,important for binocular vision, indicates a vestigial role inpredation,though the actual visual acuity is insufficient for such activities. Limited acuity is matched by lowcortical magnification,a smalllateral geniculate nucleus,and a largeoptic tectum,suggesting that thevisual midbrainplays a more important role than thevisual cortex,as in some rodents. These features suggest that the platypus has adapted to an aquatic and nocturnal lifestyle, developing its electrosensory system at the cost of its visual system. This contrasts with the small number of electroreceptors in theshort-beaked echidna,which dwells in dry environments, while thelong-beaked echidna,which lives in moist environments, is intermediate between the other two monotremes.[55]

Biofluorescence

In 2020, research revealed that platypus fur gives a bluish-greenbiofluorescentglow inblack light.[59]

Distribution, ecology, and behaviour

Dentition, as illustrated in Knight'sSketches in Natural History
Swimming underwater atSydney Aquarium,Australia

The platypus is semiaquatic, inhabiting small streams and rivers over an extensive range from the cold highlands ofTasmaniaand theAustralian Alpsto thetropical rainforestsof coastalQueenslandas far north as the base of theCape York Peninsula.[60]

Inland, its distribution is not well known. It was considered extinct on theSouth Australianmainland, with the last sighting recorded atRenmarkin 1975.[61]In the 1980s,John Wamsleycreated a platypus breeding program inWarrawong Sanctuary(seebelow), which subsequently closed.[62][63]In 2017 there were some unconfirmed sightings downstream from the sanctuary,[61]and in October 2020 a nesting platypus was filmed inside the recently reopened sanctuary.[64]

There is a population onKangaroo Island[65]introduced in the 1920s, said to stand at 150 individuals in the Rocky River region ofFlinders Chase National Park.In the2019–20 Australian bushfire season,large portions of the island burnt, decimating wildlife. However,SA Department for Environment and Waterrecovery teams worked to reinstate their habitat, with a number of sightings reported by April 2020.[66]

The platypus is no longer found in the mainMurray–Darling Basin,possibly due to decliningwater qualityfrom land clearing andirrigation[67]although it is found in theGoulburn Riverin Victoria.[68]Along the coastal river systems, its distribution is unpredictable: absent in some relatively healthy rivers, but present in some quite degraded ones, for example the lowerMaribyrnong.[69]

In captivity, platypuses have survived to 30 years of age, and wild specimens have been recaptured when 24 years old.Mortality ratesfor adults in the wild appear to be low.[70]Natural predators includesnakes,water rats,goannas,hawks,owls,andeagles.Low platypus numbers in northern Australia are possibly due to predation bycrocodiles.[71]The introduction ofred foxesin 1845 for sport hunting may have had some impact on its numbers on the mainland.[32]The platypus is generallynocturnalandcrepuscular,but can be active on overcast days.[72][73]Its habitat bridgesriversand theriparian zone,where it finds both prey and river banks to dig resting and nesting burrows.[73]It may have a range of up to 7 km (4.3 mi), with a male's home range overlapping those of three or four females.[74]

The platypus is an excellent swimmer and spends much of its time in the water foraging for food. It has a swimming style unique among mammals,[75]propelling itself by alternate strokes of the front feet, while the webbed hind feet are held against the body and only used for steering, along with the tail.[76]It can maintain its relatively low body temperature of about 32°C (90°F) while foraging for hours in water below 5°C (41°F).[21]Dives normally last around 30 seconds, with an estimated aerobic limit of 40 seconds, with 10 to 20 seconds at the surface between dives.[77][78]

The platypus rests in a short, straight burrow in the riverbank about 30 cm (12 in) above water level, its oval entrance-hole oftenhiddenunder a tangle of roots.[75]It may sleep up to 14 hours per day, after half a day of diving.[79]

Diet

The platypus is acarnivore,feeding onannelidworms,insect larvae,freshwatershrimp,andyabby(crayfish) that it digs out of the riverbed with its snout or catches while swimming. It carries prey to the surface in cheek-pouches before eating it.[75]It eats about 20% of its own weight each day, which requires it to spend an average of 12 hours daily looking for food.[77]

Reproduction

Platypus's nest with eggs (replica)

The species has a singlebreeding seasonbetween June and October, with some local variation.[71]Investigations have found both resident and transient platypuses, and suggest apolygynousmating system.[80]Females are believed to become sexually mature in their second year, with breeding observed in animals over nine years old.[80]Duringcopulation,the male grasps the female's tail with his bill, wraps his tail around her, then grips her neck or shoulder, everts hispenisthrough hiscloaca,and inserts it into herurogenital sinus.[81]He takes no part in nesting, living in his year-long resting burrow. After mating, the female constructs a deep, elaborate nesting burrow up to 20 m (65 ft) long.[82]She tucks fallen leaves and reeds underneath her curled tail, dragging them to the burrow to soften the tunnel floor with folded wet leaves, and to line the nest at the end with bedding.[16]

The male platypus haspenile spinesand an asymmetricalglans penis,with the right side smaller than the left.[83]The female has twoovaries,but only the left one is functional.[84][72]She lays one to three (usually two) small, leathery eggs (similar to those of reptiles), about11 mm (7⁄16in) in diameter and slightly rounder than bird eggs.[85]The eggs developin uterofor about 28 days, with only about 10 days of externalincubation(in contrast to a chicken egg, which spends about one day in tract and 21 days externally).[72]The female curls around the incubating eggs, which develop in three phases.[86]In the first, theembryohas no functional organs and relies on theyolk sacfor sustenance, until the sac is absorbed.[87]During the second phase, the digits develop, and in the last phase, theegg toothappears.[86]At first, Europeannaturalistscould hardly believe that the female platypus lays eggs, but this was finally confirmed byWilliam Hay Caldwellin 1884.[21][44]

Most mammal zygotes go throughholoblasticcleavage, splitting into multiple divisible daughter cells. However,monotremeslike the platypus, along withreptiles and birds,undergo meroblastic cleavage, in which the ovum does not split completely. The cells at the edge of the yolk remain continuous with the egg's cytoplasm, allowing the yolk and embryo to exchange waste and nutrients with the egg through the cytoplasm.[88]

Young platypus are called "puggles". Newly hatched platypuses are vulnerable, blind, and hairless, and are fed by the mother's milk, that provides all the requirements for growth and development.[89][90]The platypus'smammary glandslackteats,with milk released through pores in the skin. The milk pools in grooves on the mother's abdomen, allowing the young to lap it up.[16][71]After they hatch, the offspring are milk-fed for three to four months.

During incubation and weaning, the mother initially leaves the burrow only for short periods to forage. She leaves behind her a number of thin soil plugs along the length of the burrow, possibly to protect the young from predators; pushing past these on her return squeezes water from her fur and allows the burrow to remain dry.[91]After about five weeks, the mother begins to spend more time away from her young, and at around four months, the young emerge from the burrow.[71]A platypus is born with teeth, but these drop out at a very early age, leaving the horny plates it uses to grind food.[38]

Evolution

Platypus

Echidnas

livebirth

Marsupials

trueplacenta

Placentals

Evolutionary relationships between the platypus and other mammals[92]

The platypus and other monotremes were very poorly understood, and some of the 19th century myths that grew up around them – for example, that the monotremes were "inferior" orquasireptilian– still endure.[93]In 1947,William King Gregorytheorised that placental mammals and marsupials may have diverged earlier, and a subsequent branching divided the monotremes and marsupials, but later research and fossil discoveries have suggested this is incorrect.[93][94]In fact, modern monotremes are the survivors of an early branching of the mammal tree, and a later branching is thought to have led to themarsupialand placental groups.[93][95]Molecular clockand fossil dating suggest platypuses split fromechidnasaround 19–48million years ago.[96]

Reconstruction of ancient platypus relativeSteropodon

The oldest discovered fossil of the modern platypus dates back to about 100,000 years ago during theQuaternaryperiod, though a limb bone ofOrnithorhynchusis known fromPliocene-aged strata.[97]The extinct monotremesTeinolophosandSteropodonfrom theCretaceouswere once thought to be closely related to the modern platypus,[94]but are now considered more basal taxa.[98]The fossilisedSteropodonwas discovered inNew South Walesand is composed of an opalised lower jawbone with three molar teeth (whereas the adult contemporary platypus is toothless). The molar teeth were initially thought to betribosphenic,which would have supported a variation of Gregory's theory, but later research has suggested, while they have three cusps, they evolved under a separate process.[99]The fossil jaw ofTeinolophosis thought to be about 110million years old, making it the oldest mammal fossil found in Australia. Unlike the modern platypus (andechidnas),Teinolophoslacked a beak.[98]

In 2024,Late Cretaceous(Cenomanian)-aged fossil specimens of actual early platypus relatives were recovered from the same rocks asSteropodon,including thebasalOpaliosand the more derivedDharragarra,the latter of which may be the oldest member of the platypusstem-lineage, as it retains the samedental formulafound in Cenozoic platypus relatives.[100]MonotrematumandPatagorhynchus,two other fossil relatives of the platypus, are known from the latest Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) and the mid-PaleoceneofArgentina,indicating that some monotremes managed to colonizeSouth Americafrom Australia when the two continents were connected viaAntarctica.These are also considered potential members of the platypus stem-lineage.[99][101][100]The closest fossil relative of the platypus wasObdurodon,known from the lateOligoceneto theMioceneof Australia. It closely resembled the modern platypus, aside from the presence of molar teeth.[100]A fossilised tooth of the giant platypusObdurodon tharalkooschildwas dated 5–15million years ago. Judging by the tooth, the animal measured 1.3 metres long, making it the largest platypus on record.[102]

The loss of teeth in the modern platypus has long been Enigma tic, as a distinctive lower molar tooth row was previously present in its lineage for over 95 million years. Even its closest relative,Obdurodon,which otherwise closely resembles the platypus, retained this tooth row. More recent studies indicate that this tooth loss was a geologically very recent event, occurring only around thePlio-Pleistocene(around 2.5 million years ago), when therakali,a large semiaquaticrodent,colonized Australia fromNew Guinea.The platypus, which previously fed on a wide array of hard and soft-bodied prey, was outcompeted by the rakali over hard-bodied prey such as crayfish and mussels. This competition may have selected for the loss of teeth in the platypus and their replacement by horny pads, as a way of specializing for softer-bodied prey, which the rakali did not compete with it over.[100]

Genome

Platypus skeleton

Because of the early divergence from thetherian mammalsand the low numbers of extant monotreme species, the platypus is a frequent subject of research in evolutionary biology. In 2004,researchersat theAustralian National Universitydiscovered the platypus has tensex chromosomes,compared with two (XY) in most other mammals. These ten chromosomes form five unique pairs of XY in males and XX in females, i.e. males are X1Y1X2Y2X3Y3X4Y4X5Y5.[103]One of the X chromosomes of the platypus has great homology to the bird Z chromosome.[104]The platypus genome also has both reptilian and mammalian genes associated with egg fertilisation.[52][105]Though the platypus lacks the mammalian sex-determining geneSRY,a study found that the mechanism of sex determination is theAMH geneon the oldestY chromosome.[106][107]A draft version of the platypus genome sequence was published inNatureon 8May 2008, revealing both reptilian and mammalian elements, as well as two genes found previously only in birds, amphibians, and fish. More than 80% of the platypus's genes are common to the other mammals whose genomes have been sequenced.[52]An updated genome, the most complete on record, was published in 2021, together with the genome of theshort-beaked echidna.[108]

Conservation

Status and threats

Except for its loss from the state of South Australia, the platypus occupies the same general distribution as it did prior toEuropean settlement of Australia.However, local changes and fragmentation of distribution due to human modification of its habitat are documented. Its historical abundance is unknown and its current abundance difficult to gauge, but it is assumed to have declined in numbers, although as of 1998 was still being considered as common over most of its current range.[73]The species was extensively hunted for its fur until the early years of the 20th century. Although the species gained legal protections beginning in Victoria in 1890[109]and throughout Australia by 1912,[110]until about 1950 it was still at risk of drowning in the nets of inlandfisheries.[67]

TheInternational Union for Conservation of Naturerecategorised its status as "near threatened" in 2016.[111]The species is protected by law, but the only state in which it is listed as endangered is South Australia, under theNational Parks and Wildlife Act 1972.In November 2020 a recommendation was made to list the platypus as a vulnerable species across all states[112]with a vulnerable listing being made official in Victoria under the state'sFlora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988on 10 January 2021.[113]

Habitat destruction

The platypus is not considered to be in immediate danger of extinction, because conservation measures have been successful, but it could be adversely affected by habitat disruption caused bydams,irrigation,pollution,netting, and trapping.[114]Reduction of watercourse flows and water levels through excessive droughts and extraction of water for industrial, agricultural, and domestic supplies are also considered a threat. TheIUCNlists the platypus on itsRed Listas "Near Threatened"[1]as assessed in 2016, when it was estimated that numbers had reduced by about 30 percent on average since European settlement. The animal is listed as endangered in South Australia, but it is not covered at all under the federalEPBC Act.[115][116]

Researchers have worried for years that declines have been greater than assumed.[115]In January 2020, researchers from theUniversity of New South Walespresented evidence that the platypus is at risk ofextinction,due to a combination of extraction ofwater resources,land clearing,climate changeand severedrought.[117][118]The study predicted that, considering current threats, the animals' abundance would decline by 47–66% andmetapopulationoccupancy by 22–32% over 50 years, causing "extinction of local populations across about 40% of the range". Under projections of climate change projections to 2070, reduced habitat due to drought would lead to 51–73% reduced abundance and 36–56% reduced metapopulation occupancy within 50 years respectively. These predictions suggested that the species would fall under the "Vulnerable" classification. The authors stressed the need for national conservation efforts, which might include conducting more surveys, tracking trends, reduction of threats and improvement of river management to ensure healthy platypus habitat.[119]Co-author Gilad Bino is concerned that the estimates of the 2016 baseline numbers could be wrong, and numbers may have been reduced by as much as half already.[115]

A November 2020 report by scientists from theUniversity of New South Wales,funded by a research grant from theAustralian Conservation Foundationin collaboration with theWorld Wildlife Fund Australiaand theHumane Society International Australiarevealed that that platypus habitat in Australia had shrunk by 22 per cent in the previous 30 years, and recommended that the platypus should be listed as a threatened species under theEPBC Act.[112][120]Declines in population had been greatest in NSW, in particular in theMurray–Darling basin.[121][112]

Disease

Platypuses generally suffer from fewdiseasesin the wild; however, as of 2008 there was concern in Tasmania about the potential impacts of a disease caused by the fungusMucor amphibiorum.The disease (termedmucormycosis) affects only Tasmanian platypuses, and had not been observed in platypuses in mainland Australia. Affected platypuses can develop skin lesions orulcerson various parts of their bodies, including their backs, tails, and legs. Mucormycosis can kill platypuses, death arising from secondary infection and by affecting the animals' ability to maintain body temperature and forage efficiently. The Biodiversity Conservation Branch at the Department of Primary Industries and Water collaborated with NRM north andUniversity of Tasmaniaresearchers to determine the impacts of the disease on Tasmanian platypuses, as well as the mechanism of transmission and spread of the disease.[122]

Wildlife sanctuaries

Much of the world was introduced to the platypus in 1939 whenNational Geographic Magazinepublished an article on the platypus and the efforts to study and raise it in captivity. The latter is a difficult task, and only a few young have been successfully raised since, notably atHealesville SanctuaryinVictoria.The leading figure in these efforts wasDavid Fleay,who established a platypusary (a simulated stream in a tank) at the Healesville Sanctuary, where breeding was successful in 1943.[123]In 1972, he found a dead baby of about 50 days old, which had presumably been born in captivity, at hiswildlife parkatBurleigh Headson theGold Coast,Queensland.[124]Healesville repeated its success in 1998 and again in 2000 with a similar stream tank.[125]Since 2008, platypus has bred regularly at Healesville,[126]including second-generation (captive born themselves breeding in captivity).[127]Taronga ZooinSydneybred twins in 2003, and breeding was again successful there in 2006.[125]

Captivity

As of 2019, the only platypuses in captivity outside of Australia are in theSan Diego Zoo Safari Parkin theU.S. stateofCalifornia.[128][129]Three attempts were made to bring the animals to theBronx Zoo,in 1922, 1947, and 1958. Of these, only two of the three animals introduced in 1947,Penelopeand Cecil,[130]lived longer than eighteen months.[131]

Human interactions

Usage

Aboriginal Australiansused to hunt platypuses for food (their fatty tails being particularly nutritious), while, after colonisation, Europeans hunted them for fur from the late 19th century until 1912, when it was prohibited by law.[132]In addition, European researchers captured and killed platypus or removed their eggs, partly in order to increase scientific knowledge, but also to gain prestige and outcompete rivals from different countries.[112]

Cultural references

The platypus has been a subject in theDreamtimestories ofAboriginal Australians,some of whom believed the animal was a hybrid of a duck and awater rat.[133]: 57–60 

According to one story of the upperDarling River,[112]the major animal groups, the land animals, water animals and birds, all competed for the platypus to join their respective groups, but the platypus ultimately decided to not join any of them, feeling that he did not need to be part of a group to be special,[133]: 83–85 and wished to remain friends with all of those groups.[112]Another Dreaming story emanate of the upper Darling tells of a young duck which ventured too far, ignoring the warnings of her tribe, and was kidnapped by a large water-rat called Biggoon. After managing to escape after some time, she returned and laid two eggs which hatched into strange furry creatures, so they were all banished and went to live in the mountains.[112]

The platypus is also used by some Aboriginal peoples as atotem,which is to them "a natural object, plant or animal that is inherited by members of a clan or family as their spiritual emblem", and the animal holds special meaning as a totem animal for theWadi Wadipeople, who live along theMurray River.Because of their cultural significance and importance inconnection to country,the platypus is protected and conserved by these Indigenous peoples.[112]

The platypus has often been used as a symbol of Australia'scultural identity.In the 1940s, live platypuses were given to allies in theSecond World War,in order to strengthen ties and boost morale.[112]

Platypuses have been used several times as mascots: Syd the platypus was one of the three mascots chosen for theSydney 2000 summer Olympicsalong with an echidna and akookaburra,[134]Expo Oz the platypus was the mascot forWorld Expo 88,which was held inBrisbanein 1988,[135]and Hexley the platypus is the mascot for theDarwinoperating system, theBSD-based core ofmacOSand other operating systems fromApple Inc.[136]

Since the introduction ofdecimal currencytoAustraliain 1966, the em Boss ed image of a platypus, designed and sculpted byStuart Devlin,has appeared on the reverse (tails) side of the20-cent coin.[137]The platypus has frequently appeared in Australian postage stamps, most recently the 2015 "Native Animals" series and the 2016 "Australian Animals Monotremes" series.[138][139]

In the American animated seriesPhineas and Ferb,thetitle charactersown a pet bluish-green platypus namedPerrywho, unknown to them, is a secret agent. Such choices were inspired by media underuse, as well as to exploit the animal's striking appearance;[140]additionally, show creatorDan Povenmire,who also wrote the character's theme song, said that its opening lyrics are based on the introductory sentence of the Platypus article on Wikipedia, copying the "semiaquatic egg-laying mammal" phrase word for word and appending the phrase "of action";[141]however, the article did not include "egg-laying mammal" in the lead sentence until 2014, several years after the song released. As a character, Perry has been well received by both fans and critics.[142][143]Coincidentally, real platypuses show a similar cyan colour when seen under ultraviolet lighting.[144]

  • Platypus fur cape made in 1890, now in the National Gallery of Victoria
  • Early 20th-centurymatchboxlabel
  • 9d postage stamp from 1937

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^The same root gives rise toplatysma,a broad, wide and flat muscle of the neck.

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