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Polycarp

For other uses, seePolycarp (disambiguation).

Polycarp(/ˈpɒlikɑːrp/;Greek:Πολύκαρπος,Polýkarpos;Latin:Polycarpus;AD 69 – 155) was a Christianbishop of Smyrna.[2]According to theMartyrdom of Polycarp,he died a martyr, bound and burned at the stake, then stabbed when the fire failed to consume his body.[3]Polycarp is regarded as asaintandChurch Fatherin theEastern Orthodox Church,theRoman Catholic Church,Oriental Orthodox Churches,Lutheranism,andAnglicanism.

Saint

Polycarp of Smyrna
Mosaic of Saint Polycarp inside the monastery ofHosios Loukas.
Church Father
Bishop of Smyrna andHieromartyr
BornAD 69
DiedAD 155 (aged 85–86)
Smyrna,Roman Empire
Venerated inEastern Orthodox Church
Roman Catholic Church
Oriental Orthodox Church
Church of the East
Lutheranism
Anglicanism
MajorshrineSant'Ambrogio della Massima, Rome
Feast23 February (formerly 26 January)
AttributesWearing thepallium,holding a book representing hisEpistle to the Philippians
PatronageEarachesufferers[citation needed]
InfluencesClement of Rome,[1]John the Apostle
InfluencedIrenaeus
Major worksEpistle of Polycarp to the Philippians

BothIrenaeus[4]andTertullian[5]say that Polycarp had been a disciple ofJohn the Apostle,one ofJesus's disciples.InOn Illustrious Men,Jeromesimilarly writes that Polycarp was a disciple of John the Apostle, who had ordained him as a bishop of Smyrna.[6]Polycarp is regarded as one of three chiefApostolic Fathers,along withClement of RomeandIgnatius of Antioch.

Surviving writings and early accounts

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The sole surviving work attributed to him is theEpistle of Polycarp to the Philippians,a mosaic of references to theGreek Scriptures,which, along with an account ofMartyrdom of Polycarp,forms part of the collection of writings calledApostolic Fathers.After theActs of the Apostles,which describes the death ofStephen,theMartyrdomis considered one of the earliest genuine accounts of aChristian martyrdom.[2]Charles E. Hill argues extensively that the teachings Irenaeus ascribes to a certain apostolic "presbyter" throughout his writings represent lost teachings of Polycarp, his teacher.[7]

Some scholars attribute thepastoral epistles— the biblical books1 Timothy,2 Timothy,and theEpistle to Titus— to Polycarp. Since the text of those books includes attribution toPaul,this theory regarding Polycarp's authorship places the books in the category ofpseudepigrapha.Hans von Campenhausenis one scholar who holds the view that Polycarp is the real author.[8]

Life

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The chief sources of information concerning the life of Polycarp areThe Martyrdom of Polycarp,Adversus Haereses,The Epistle to Florinus,theepistles of Ignatius,and Polycarp's own letter to the Philippians. In 1999, the Harris Fragments, a collection of 3rd- to 6th-centuryCoptictexts that mention Polycarp, were published.[9]

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According to Irenaeus, Polycarp was a companion ofPapias,another "hearer of John", and a correspondent of Ignatius of Antioch. Ignatius addressed a letter to him and mentions him in hisletters to the Ephesiansand to theMagnesians.[10]Polycarp's epistle to the Philippians gives us some insights to the early usage of theNew Testamentfrom the quotes used within his letter.[11]Irenaeus regarded the memory of Polycarp as a link to the apostolic past. In his letter to Florinus, a fellow student of Polycarp who had become a Roman presbyter and later lapsed into heresy, Irenaeus relates how and when hebecame a Christian:[12]

I could tell you the place where the blessed Polycarp sat to preach theWord of God.It is yet present to my mind with what gravity he everywhere came in and went out; what was the sanctity of his deportment, the majesty of his countenance; and what were his holy exhortations to the people. I seem to hear him now relate how he conversed with John and many others who had seen Jesus Christ, the words he had heard from their mouths.[13]

In particular, he heard the account of Polycarp's discussion with John and with others who had seenJesus.Irenaeus reports that Polycarp was converted to Christianity by apostles, was consecrated a presbyter, and communicated with many who had seen Jesus. He writes that he had had the good fortune, when young, to know Polycarp, who was then far advanced in years.[14]

Visit to Anicetus

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According to Irenaeus, during the time his fellow SyrianAnicetuswasBishop of Rome,Polycarp visitedRometo discuss differences in the practices of the churches ofAsiaand Rome. Irenaeus states that on certain things the two speedily came to an understanding, while as to the observance of the New Covenant Passover, each adhered to his own custom, without breaking offfull communionwith the other.[15]Polycarp followed the Eastern practice of celebrating the feast on the14th of Nisan,the day of the JewishPassover,regardless of the day of the week on which it fell, while Anicetus followed the Western practice of celebrating the feast on the first Sunday following the firstfull moonafter thespring equinox.Anicetus allowed Polycarp to celebrate theEucharistin his own church, which was regarded by the Romans as a great honor.[15]

Martyrdom

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Polycarp miraculously extinguishing the fire burning the city ofSmyrna

In theMartyrdom,Polycarp is recorded as saying on the day of his death: "Eighty and six years I have served Him, and He has done me no wrong." This could indicate either that he was then eighty-six years old[16]or that he had lived eighty-six years after his conversion.[3]Polycarp goes on to say: "How then can I blaspheme my King and Savior? You threaten me with a fire that burns for a season, and after a little while is quenched; but you are ignorant of the fire ofeverlasting punishmentthat is prepared for the wicked. "[13]Polycarp wasburned at the stakeand pierced with a spear for refusing to burn incense to theRoman emperor.[17]On his farewell, he said: "I bless you, Father, for judging me worthy of this hour, so that in the company of the martyrs I may share the cup of Christ."[13]

The date of Polycarp's death is in dispute.Eusebiusdates it to the reign ofMarcus Aurelius,c. 166–167. However, a post-Eusebian addition to theMartyrdom of Polycarp,dates his death to Saturday, 23 February, in theproconsulshipofLucius Statius Quadratus,c. 155 or 156. These earlier dates better fit the tradition of his association with Ignatius and John the Evangelist.

TheMartyrdom of Polycarpstates that Polycarp was taken on the Sabbath and killed on "theGreat Sabbath".English patristic scholarWilliam Cave(1637–1713) believed that this was evidence that the Smyrnaeans under Polycarp observed the seventh-day Sabbath, i.e. assembled onSaturdays.[18]J. B. Lightfootrecords as a common interpretation of the expression "the Great Sabbath" to refer toPesachor another Jewish festival.[19]This is contradicted by thestandard Jewish calendar,under which Nisan 14, the date of the Pesach, can fall no earlier than late March and hence at least a month after the traditional date of Polycarp's death 23 February. Hence, Lightfoot understood the expression in reference to thePurimfestival, celebrated a month before Pesach,[20]while other scholars suggest that at the time the Jewish calendar had not yet been standardized, and that this day, both Jews and Christians celebratedPesachand a (Quartodeciman)Christian Passover,respectively.[21]

Importance

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Engraving by Michael Burghers, ca 1685

Polycarp occupies an important place in the history of the early Christian Church,[9]was called "the most admirable Polycarp one of these [elect], in whose times among us he showed himself an apostolic and prophetic teacher and bishop of the Catholic Church in Smyrna"[22]by his contemporaries. He is among the earliest Christians whose writings survived. Jerome wrote that Polycarp was a "disciple of the apostle John and by him ordained presbyter of Smyrna".[23]He was an elder of an important congregation that was a large contributor to the founding of the Christian Church. He is from an era whose orthodoxy is accepted alongside Catholics by the ancient Eastern Orthodox Churches and Oriental Orthodox Churches, and widely also by mainstream Protestants,Church of Godgroups,Sabbatarians.

According to Eusebius,Polycrates of Ephesuscited the example of Polycarp in defense of local practices during thequartodeciman controversy.[24]

Irenaeus, who as a young man had heard Polycarp preach, described him as[25]"a man who was of much greater weight, and a more steadfast witness of truth, thanValentinus,andMarcion,and the rest of theheretics.”Polycarp lived in an age after the deaths of the apostles, when a variety of interpretations of the sayings of Jesus were being preached. His role was to authenticate orthodox teachings through his connection with the apostle John: "a high value was attached to the witness Polycarp could give as to the genuine tradition of old apostolic doctrine"[3]"his testimony condemning as offensive novelties the figments of the heretical teachers". Irenaeus states (iii. 3) that on Polycarp's visit to Rome, his testimony converted many disciples of Marcion and Valentinus.

Veneration and Commemoration

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TheMartyrdom of Polycarpis one of the earliest, if not the earliest, accounts of the veneration of the relics of a saint and the annual commemoration of a saint on the date of his or her death:

And so we afterwards took up his bones which are more valuable than precious stones and finer than refined gold, and laid them in a suitable place; where the Lord will permit us to gather ourselves together, as we are able, in gladness and joy, and to celebrate the birth-day of his martyrdom for the commemoration of those that have already fought in the contest, and for the training and preparation of those that shall do so hereafter.[26]

Relics of Polycarp are under the main altar of the church ofSant'Ambrogio della Massima.[27][28]The right arm of St. Polycarp had been kept at the Monastery of the Dormition of the Theotokos-Saint Polycarp, in Ampelakiotissa near Nafpaktos, Greece, for over 500 years. It was stolen on 14 March 2013 and never recovered; however, a fragment, taken from the arm on a previous occasion, was discovered and returned to the monastery on 14 July 2019.[29]

In theRoman Catholic,Eastern OrthodoxandGreek CatholicChurches, the feast day of Saint Polycarp is 23 February. In theRoman Catholic liturgical calendar,the feast day has the liturgical rank of obligatory memorial, but if the memorial is within the season of Lent that year, it is reduced in rank to a commemoration. In the Coptic Orthodox Church, his feast day is on 29 Amshir (8 March in theGregorian calendar). Polycarp isrememberedin theChurch of Englandwith aLesser Festivalon 23 February.[30]He is also honored in theLutheran Churcheson 23 February.[31]

Theology

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Saint Polycarp

Polycarp'ssoteriologyis not clear; he does cite Ephesians 2:8 to saysalvationis bygracerather than works, though later exhorts his readers to do good works. It is not clear from the text how he views works in relation to salvation as his comments are too little to make a clear conclusion. He could have believed that works are mere results of saving grace or that they are necessary to keep salvation and that they have meritorious value, thus we cannot know if he was amonergistor asynergist.[32]

Polycarp in his letter callsJesusthe "son of God" and the "eternal high priest" and that "to him all heavenly and earthly things were subjected, whom every breath worships, who comes as a judge of the living and the dead". He also highlighted the sinlessness of Jesus,[33]defended the doctrine of theIncarnationand the death of Christ on the cross, and clearly opposeddocetism.[33]Polycarp outright denied the teachings ofMarcion,claiming he was the firstborn ofSatan.[34]Polycarp's statements in theMartyrdom of Polycarpalso appear to havetrinitariantheology.[35]

What we know of Polycarp's eschatology is largely confined to the affirmation of theresurrection of the deadand Christ'ssecond comingas a judge.[33]Polycarp was perhaps apremillennialist;Polycarp's student Irenaeus was a premillennialist along with his associate Papias, which suggests that Polycarp also held similar views.[36][37]

Polycarp refers to multiple books of the New Testament as scripture, including:Matthew,Acts,1 John,Philippians,Jude,1 Peter,1 Timothy,2 Timothy,Romansand others.[38]Polycarp also quotes the deuterocanonicalbook of Tobit;however, from his manner of quotation it is not possible to know how much authority he afforded it.[39]

Polycarp's letter to the Philippians only mentions presbyters and deacons, which indicates the church at Philippi was led by a plurality of "elder-bishops", which would imply a different ecclesiastical polity than what is found inIgnatius of Antioch'sletters. Against this, according to Steinhauser, the letter does not offer concrete evidence that the Philippian church viewed presbyters and bishops as synonyms, though still admitting that the letter still raises questions about the polity of theearly church.Steinhauser hypothesized that there was possibly a temporary vacancy in the Philippian church.[40]

Polycarp was aQuartodeciman.According to Eusebius, Polycarp claimed that he celebrated Easter on the 14th of Nisan withJohn the Apostle.[41][42]Polycarp appears to make heresy a more serious issue than immorality. Polycarp calls immoral people to repent but called the false teachers "firstborn of Satan."[43]

Polycarp stated, "I have served him [Christ] eighty-six years and in no way has he dealt unjustly with me." Proponents of infant baptism have argued that this quote shows Polycarp beingbaptized as an infant,the argument being that if Polycarp was a servant of Christ for 86 years, he would have been a servant of Christ from infancy, suggesting infant baptism. However, Credobaptists such as Schoedel William have offered a different interpretation of the words of Polycarp, stating that the quote is ambiguous as regards to baptism, and that Polycarp can be understood as meaning by paraphrasing: "I have always served Jesus and I am not going to cease even at the age of 86."[44]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Richardson, Cyril C. (1953). Early Christian Fathers. Pag 125–137.
  2. ^abPolycarpat theEncyclopædia Britannica
  3. ^abcHenry Wace,Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century A.D., with an Account of the Principal Sects and Heresies,s.v."Polycarpus, bishop of Smyrna".
  4. ^Irenaeus,Adversus HaeresesIII.3
  5. ^Tertullian,De praescriptione hereticorum32.2
  6. ^"Kirby, Peter." St. Polycarp of Smyrna. "Early Christian Writings. 2020. 10 January 2020".
  7. ^Hill, Charles E. (2006).From the Lost Teaching of Polycarp: Identifying Irenaeus' Apostolic Presbyter and the Author of Ad Diognetum.Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. v,2–3, 7, 8ff (8–94).ISBN3-16-148699-4.OCLC64571945.
  8. ^Grant, Robert M.(1963). "Chapter 14: The Non-Pauline Epistles".A Historical Introduction to the New Testament.Harper and Row.
  9. ^abHartog, Paul (2002).Polycarp and the New Testament.Mohr Siebeck. p. 17.ISBN978-3-16-147419-4.
  10. ^Irenaeus,V.xxxiii.
  11. ^That Ancient Faith,How Polycarp (And Others) Show The Early Use Of The New Testament
  12. ^Bacchus, Francis Joseph (1911)."St. Polycarp".In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  13. ^abcFr. Paolo O. Pirlo, SHMI (1997). "St. Polycarp".My First Book of Saints.Sons of Holy Mary Immaculate – Quality Catholic Publications. pp.58–59.ISBN971-91595-4-5.
  14. ^Liguori, Alphonsus. "St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna",Victories of the Martyrs,(Eugene Grimm, ed.), New York, Benziger Brothers, 1888, p. 66This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
  15. ^abAndrews, Herbert Tom (1911)."Polycarp".InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.20–22.
  16. ^Staniforth, Maxwell, trans.Early Christian WritingsLondon: Penguin Books (1987): 115.
  17. ^"Polycarp – Martyrdom".Polycarp.net.
  18. ^William Cave,Primitive Christianity: or the Religion of the Ancient Christians in the First Ages of the Gospel.1840, revised edition by H. Cary. Oxford, London, p. 84–85).
  19. ^J. B. Lightfoot,Apostolic Fathers. Part II. S. Ignatius. S. Polycarp.Vol. 1, p. 610-611.
  20. ^J. B. Lightfoot,Apostolic Fathers. Part II. S. Ignatius. S. Polycarp.Vol. 1, p. 713.
  21. ^August Strobel, Ursprung und Geschichte der frühchristlichen Osterkalenders, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1977, pp. 247–248
  22. ^MartPol 16:2 and Smyr 8:2
  23. ^Schaff, Philip (ed.),Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,2, vol. 3
  24. ^"Eusebius, Church History, Book V, Chapter 24".
  25. ^Irenaeus,Adversus HaeresesIII.3.4
  26. ^"Medieval Sourcebook: The Martyrdom of Polycarp trans. J.B. Lightfoot".Fordham University.Retrieved23 February2024.
  27. ^"Polycarp, bishop and martyr – February 23rd".Saint In Rome & Beyond.Retrieved23 February2024.
  28. ^Schaubler, Vera; Schindler, Hanns Michael (1998).Heilige und Namenspatrone im Jahreslauf.Augsburg: Pattloch Verlag. p. 77.ISBN3629008305.
  29. ^Sanidopoulos, John."A Relic of Saint Polycarp Returns to Nafpaktos (Update on the 2013 Theft)".Orthodox Christianity Then And Now.Retrieved23 February2024.
  30. ^"The Calendar".The Church of England.Retrieved27 March2021.
  31. ^Lutheran Service Book.Concordia Publishing House. 2006. pp. xiii.ISBN978-0-7586-1217-5.
  32. ^Cooper, Jordan (27 June 2013).The Righteousness of One: An Evaluation of Early Patristic Soteriology in Light of the New Perspective on Paul.Wipf and Stock Publishers.ISBN978-1-62189-771-2.
  33. ^abcSmirne), Policarpo (santo, vescovo di (25 July 2013).Polycarp's Epistle to the Philippians and the Martyrdom of Polycarp: Introduction, Text, and Commentary.University Press.ISBN978-0-19-922839-3.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^Hill, Charles E.; Hill, Charles Evan (2006).From the Lost Teaching of Polycarp: Identifying Irenaeus' Apostolic Presbyter and the Author of Ad Diognetum.Mohr Siebeck.ISBN978-3-16-148699-9.
  35. ^P, Gilles Emery, O.; Levering, Matthew (27 October 2011).The Oxford Handbook of the Trinity.OUP Oxford.ISBN978-0-19-955781-3.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^"A Brief History of Early Premillennialism".Scholars Crossing.
  37. ^Chung, Sung Wook; Mathewson, David L. (27 August 2018).Models of Premillennialism.Wipf and Stock Publishers.ISBN978-1-5326-3769-8.
  38. ^Wilson, Luke J. (21 November 2021)."How Polycarp (And Others) Show The Early Use Of The New Testament".That Ancient Faith.Retrieved8 May2022.
  39. ^Berding, Kenneth (22 December 2015).Polycarp and Paul: An Analysis of Their Literary and Theological Relationship in Light of Polycarp's Use of Biblical and Extra-Biblical Literature.BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-31327-9.
  40. ^Smirne), Policarpo (santo, vescovo di (25 July 2013).Polycarp's Epistle to the Philippians and the Martyrdom of Polycarp: Introduction, Text, and Commentary.University Press.ISBN978-0-19-922839-3.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Easter Controversy".newadvent.org.Retrieved6 May2022.
  42. ^"The Passover-Easter-Quartodeciman Controversy".Grace Communion International.Retrieved6 May2022.
  43. ^Reeves, Michael; Maiden, Peter (20 March 2015).Introducing Major Theologians: From The Apostolic Fathers To The Twentieth Century.Inter-Varsity Press.ISBN978-1-78359-367-5.
  44. ^Schoedel, William R. (3 June 2020).The Apostolic Fathers, A New Translation and Commentary, Volume V: Polycarp, Martyrdom of Polycarp, Fragments of Papias.Wipf and Stock Publishers.ISBN978-1-7252-8086-1.
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