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Potawatomi

(Redirected fromPotowatomi)
This article is about the people. For the language, seePotawatomi language.
"Pottawatomie" redirects here. For other uses, seePottawatomie (disambiguation).

ThePotawatomi(/ˌpɒtəˈwɒtəmi/ⓘ[1][2]), also spelledPottawatomiandPottawatomie(amongmany variations), are aNative Americanpeople of theGreat Plains,upperMississippi River,and westernGreat Lakes region.They traditionally speak thePotawatomi language,a member of theAlgonquian family.The Potawatomi call themselvesNeshnabé,acognateof the wordAnishinaabe.The Potawatomi are part of a long-term alliance, called theCouncil of Three Fires,with theOjibweandOdawa(Ottawa). In the Council of Three Fires, the Potawatomi are considered the "youngest brother". Their people are referred to in this context asBodéwadmi,a name that means "keepers of the fire" and refers to the council fire of three peoples.[3]

Potawatomi
Bodéwadmi
Potawatomi at a rain dance in 1920
Total population
28,000
Regions with significant populations
United States(Indiana,Kansas,Michigan,Oklahoma,Wisconsin,Illinois)
Canada(Ontario)
Languages
English,Potawatomi
Religion
Catholicism,Methodism,Midewiwin
PersonBodéwadmi
  (Neshnabé)
PeopleBodéwadmik
  (Neshnabék)
LanguageBodwéwadmimwen
  (Neshnabémwen)

In the 19th century, some bands of Potawatomi were pushed to the west by European/American encroachment. In the 1830s the federal governmentremovedmost from their lands east of the Mississippi River to Indian Territory - first in Kansas, Nebraska, and last to Oklahoma. Some bands survived in the Great Lakes region and today are federally recognized as tribes, in addition to the Potawatomi in Oklahoma.

Name

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Main article:List of Potawatomi ethnonyms

The English "Potawatomi" is derived from theOjibweBoodewaadamii(g)(syncopedin theOttawaasBoodewaadmii(g)). The Potawatomi name for themselves (autonym) isBodéwadmi(without syncope:Bodéwademi;plural:Bodéwadmik), acognateof the Ojibwe form. Their name means "those who tend the hearth-fire," which refers to the hearth of theCouncil of Three Fires.The word comes from "to tend the hearth-fire," which isbodewadm(without syncope:bodewadem) in thePotawatomi language;the Ojibwe and Ottawa forms areboodawaadamandboodwaadam,respectively.

Alternatively, the Potawatomi call themselvesNeshnabé(without syncope:Eneshenabé;plural:Neshnabék), a cognate of OjibweAnishinaabe(g),meaning "original people."

Teachings

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The Potawatomi teach their children about the "Seven Grandfather Teachings" of wisdom, respect, love, honesty, humility, bravery, and truth toward each other and all creation.[4]Each principle teaches the equality and importance of their fellow tribesmen and respect for all of nature's creations.

The story that underlies these teaches the importance of patience and listening. It follows the Water Spider's journey to retrieve fire so that the other animals can survive the cold. As the other animals step forth one after another to proclaim that they shall be the ones to retrieve the fire, the Water Spider sits and waits while listening to her fellows. As they finish and wrestle with their fears, she steps forward and announces that she will be the one to bring fire back. As they laugh and doubt her, she weaves a bowl out of her web, using it to sail across the water to retrieve the fire. She brings back a hot coal out of which the animals make fire, and they celebrate her honor and bravery.

History

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Regalia at the Field Museum in Chicago

The Potawatomi are first mentioned in French records, which suggest that in the early 17th century, they lived in what is now southwesternMichigan.During theBeaver Warsthey fled to the area aroundGreen Bayto escape attacks by both theIroquoisand theNeutral Confederacy,who were seeking expanded hunting grounds. It is estimated that the Potawatomi numbered around 3,000 in 1658,.

As an important part ofTecumseh's Confederacy, Potawatomi warriors took part inTecumseh's Warand theWar of 1812.Their alliances switched repeatedly betweenUnited Kingdomand the United States as power relations shifted between the nations, and they calculated effects on their trade and land interests.

At the time of the War of 1812, a band of Potawatomi inhabited the area nearFort Dearborn,whereChicagodeveloped. Led by the chiefs Blackbird and Nuscotomeg (Mad Sturgeon), a force of about 500 warriors attacked the United States evacuation column leaving Fort Dearborn. They killed most of the civilians and 54 of CaptainNathan Heald's force, and wounded many others.George Ronan,the first graduate ofWest Pointto be killed in combat, died in this ambush. The incident is referred to as theBattle of Fort Dearborn.A Potawatomi chief namedMucktypoke(Makdébki,Black Partridge), counseled his fellow warriors against the attack. Later he saved some of the civilian captives who were being ransomed by the Potawatomi.[5]

French period (1615–1763)

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TheFrenchperiod of contact began with early explorers who reached the Potawatomi in western Michigan. They also found the tribe located along theDoor Peninsulaof Wisconsin. By the end of the French period, the Potawatomi had begun a move to theDetroitarea, leaving the large communities in Wisconsin.[5]

British period (1763–1783)

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The British period of contact began when France ceded its lands after its defeat by Britain in theFrench and Indian War(the North American front of theSeven Years' War).Pontiac's Rebellionwas an attempt by Native Americans to push the British and other European settlers out of their territory. The Potawatomi captured every British frontier garrison but the one at Detroit.[5]

The Potawatomi nation continued to grow and expanded westward from Detroit, most notably in the development of the St. Joseph villages adjacent to theMiamiin southwestern Michigan. The Wisconsin communities continued and moved south along the Lake Michigan shoreline.[5]

United States treaty period (1783–1830)

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The United States treaty period of Potawatomi history began with theTreaty of Paris,which ended theAmerican Revolutionary Warand established the United States' interest in the lower Great Lakes. It lasted until the treaties forIndian removalwere signed. The US recognized the Potawatomi as a single tribe. They often had a few tribal leaders whom all villages accepted. The Potawatomi had a decentralized society, with several main divisions based on geographic locations:MilwaukeeorWisconsinarea,DetroitorHuron River,theSt. Joseph River,theKankakee River,TippecanoeandWabash Rivers,theIllinois Riverand Lake Peoria, and theDes PlainesandFox Rivers.

The chiefs listed below are grouped by geographic area.

See also:Treaty with the Potawatomi

Milwaukee Potawatomi

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  • Manamol[5]
  • Siggenauk (Siginak:"Le Tourneau" or "Blackbird" )[5]

Chicago Potawatomi

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Des Plaines and Fox River Potawatomi

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  • Aptakisic (fl. 1830s,Abtagizheg"Half Day" )[6]
  • Mukatapenaise, a.k.a.Black Partridge(Mkedébnés"Blackbird" )[5]
  • Waubonsie(Wabenizhi, 'He Causes Paleness,' related to 'waben' meaning dawn.)[5]
  • Waweachsetoh[5]along with La Gesse, Gomo or Masemo (Resting Fish)

Illinois River Potawatomi

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Shabbona
  • Mucktypoke[5](Makdébki:"Black Partridge" )
  • Senachewine[5](died1831) (Petacho orZnajjewan"Difficult Current" ) was the brother of Gomo who was chief among the Lake Peoria Potawatomi

Kankakee River (Iroquois and Yellow Rivers) Potawatomi

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St. Joseph and Elkhart Potawatomi

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Tippecanoe and Wabash River Potawatomi

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Fort Wayne Potawatomi

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Metealithograph (1842)
  • Metea[7](1760?–1827) (Mdewé,"Sulks" )
  • Wabnaneme[5][7]on the Pigeon River

American removal period (1830–1840)

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The removal period of Potawatomi history began with the treaties of the late 1820s, when the United States created reservations.Billy Caldwelland Alexander Robinson negotiated for the United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa and Potowatomi in theSecond Treaty of Prairie du Chien(1829), by which they ceded most of their lands in Wisconsin and Michigan. Some Potawatomi became religious followers of the "Kickapoo Prophet",Kennekuk.Over the years, the US reduced the size of the reservations under pressure for land by incoming European Americans.[citation needed]

The final step followed theTreaty of Chicago,negotiated in 1833 for the tribes by Caldwell and Robinson. In return for land cessions, the US promised new lands, annuities and supplies to enable the peoples to develop new homes. The Illinois Potawatomi were removed toNebraskaand the Indiana Potawatomi toKansas,both west of the Mississippi River. Often annuities and supplies were reduced, or late in arrival, and the Potawatomi suffered after their relocations. Those in Kansas were later removed toIndian Territory(nowOklahoma). The removal of the Indiana Potawatomi was documented by a Catholic priest,Benjamin Petit,who accompanied the Indians on thePotawatomi Trail of Deathin 1838. Petit died while returning to Indiana in 1839. His diary was published in 1941, over 100 years after his death, by the Indiana Historical Society.[8]

Many Potawatomi found ways to remain, primarily those in Michigan. Others fled to theirOdawaneighbors or to Canada to avoid removal to the west.

Leopold Pokagon

Bands

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Ed Pigeon, Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish cultural coordinator and language instructor, with son, 2006
Rain dance,Kansas,c. 1920

There are several active bands of Potawatomi.

United States

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Federally recognizedPotawatomi tribes in the United States:

Canada – First Nations with Potawatomi people

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Population

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Year Total United
States		 Canada
1667[10] 4,000
1765[11] 1,500
1766[11] 1,750
1778[11] 2,250
1783[11] 2,000
1795[11] 1,200
1812[11] 2,500
1820[11] 3,400
1843[11] 1,800
1854[10] 4,440 4,040 400
1889[12] 1,582 1,416 166
1908[11] 2,742 2,522 220
1910[10] 2,620 2,440 180
1997[13] 25,000
1998[10] 28,000
c.2006[14][failed verification] 21,000 17,000 4,000
2010 23,400 21,000[14] 2,400
2014[14][failed verification] 4,500
2018 6,700[14]

Clans

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Main article:Anishinaabe clan system

La Chauvignerie(1736) and Morgan (1877) mention among the Potawatomidoodems(clans) being:

Ethnobotany

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They regardEpigaea repensas their tribal flower and consider it to have come directly from their divinity.[15]Allium tricoccumis consumed in traditional Potawatomi cuisine.[16]They mix aninfusionof the root ofUvularia grandiflorawith lard and use it as salve to massage sore muscles and tendons.[17]They useSymphyotrichum novae-angliaeas a fumigating reviver.[18]Vaccinium myrtilloidesis part of their traditional cuisine, and is eaten fresh, dried, and canned.[19]They also use the root bark of the plant for an unspecified ailment.[20]

Location

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Trail of Deathmarker inWarren County, Indiana.

The Potawatomi first lived in Lower Michigan, then moved to northern Wisconsin and eventually settled into northern Indiana and central Illinois. In the early 19th century, major portions of Potawatomi lands were seized by the US government. Following theTreaty of Chicagoin 1833, by which the tribe ceded its lands in Illinois, most of the Potawatomi people were removed to Indian Territory, west of the Mississippi River. Many perished en route to new lands in the west on their journey throughIowa,Kansas, and Indian Territory, following what became known as the "Trail of Death".

Year or Century Location[21]
1615 East of Michilimackinac, MI
Islands of Door Peninsula, WI (1st Fr)
1640 (until) with Hochunk (Winnebago) west of Green Bay, WI
1641 Sault Ste. Marie, MI
1670 Mouth of Green Bay, WI/MI
17th century Milwaukee River, WI
1780s on St. Joseph River, MI/IN

Language

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Main article:Potawatomi language

Potawatomi (also spelled Pottawatomie; in PotawatomiBodéwadmimwenorBodéwadmi ZheshmowenorNeshnabémwen) is aCentralAlgonquian languageand is spoken around theGreat Lakesin Michigan and Wisconsin. It is also spoken by Potawatomi inKansas,Oklahoma, and in southernOntario.[22]As of 2001, there were fewer than 1,300 people who speak Potawatomi as a first language, most of them elderly.[23]The people are working torevitalize the language,as evidenced by recent efforts such as the onlinePotawatomi languageDictionarycreated by theCitizen Potawatomi Nation[24]or the various resources available through thePokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians.[25]

The Potawatomi language is most similar to theOdawa language;it also has borrowed a considerable amount of vocabulary fromSauk.Like the Odawa language, or the Ottawa dialect of theAnishinaabe language,the Potawatomi language exhibits a great amount of vowelsyncope.

Many places in theMidwesthave names derived from the Potawatomi language, includingWaukegan,Muskegon,Oconomowoc,Pottawattamie County,Kalamazoo,andSkokie.

Potawatomi people

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See also

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References

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  1. ^"Potawatomi".Oxford English Dictionary(Online ed.).Oxford University Press.(Subscription orparticipating institution membershiprequired.)
  2. ^Clifton, James A. (1978). "Potawatomi." InNortheast,ed. Bruce G. Trigger. Vol. 15 ofHandbook of North American Indians,ed. William C. Sturtevant. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pg. 725
  3. ^"Three Fires Council – CPN Cultural Heritage Center".Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-29.Retrieved2023-10-23.
  4. ^Humphries, Maria; Verbos, Amy Klemm (2014-08-01). "A Native American Relational Ethic: An Indigenous Perspective on Teaching Human Responsibility".Journal of Business Ethics.123(1): 1–9.doi:10.1007/s10551-013-1790-3.S2CID143379265.
  5. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxEdmunds, R. David (1988).The Potawatomis: Keepers of the Fire.Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press (Civilization of the American Indian Series);ISBN0-8061-2069-X
  6. ^"Aptakisic".Lake County, Illinois History.25 March 2011.
  7. ^abcdefghijkMcPherson, Alan (1993).Indian Names in Indiana.
  8. ^Petit, Benjamin (1941).The trail of death; letters of Benjamin Marie Petit(in English and French). Indianapolis, IN: Indiana Historical Society.Retrieved22 June2018.
  9. ^Dunn, Jacob Piatt (28 March 2018)."True Indian stories: with glossary of Indiana Indian names".Sentinel.Archivedfrom the original on 23 October 2023.Retrieved19 November2020– via Google Books.
  10. ^abcdSultzman, Lee (18 December 1998)."Potawatomi History".Archived fromthe originalon 11 June 2008.Retrieved5 July2019.
  11. ^abcdefghiHodge, Frederick Webb, ed. (1910).Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico: N-Z.Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. p.291.
  12. ^Powell, John Wesley(1891).Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico.Washington. p. 50.Archivedfrom the original on 2018-12-13.Retrieved2019-07-05.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. ^"Potawatomi".Ethnologue.Archivedfrom the original on 18 May 2024.Retrieved5 July2019.
  14. ^abcd"Nishnabek Potawatomi Portal Websites".First Nation Seekers.n.d.Archivedfrom the original on 9 January 2006.Retrieved9 December2024.
  15. ^Smith,p. 118
  16. ^Smith,p. 104
  17. ^Smith,pp. 56, 57 64
  18. ^Smith,p. 50.
  19. ^Smith,p. 99
  20. ^Smith,p. 57
  21. ^Kubiak, William J. (1970).Great Lakes Indians: A Pictorial Guide.Baker Book House Company.
  22. ^Moseley, Christopher (2007).Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages,p. 74. Routledge.ISBN0-7007-1197-X.
  23. ^Hinton, Leanne and Hale, Kenneth (2001).The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice,p. 342. Emerald Group Publishing.ISBN0-12-349353-6.
  24. ^"Potawatomi Language Dictionary".potawatomidictionary.Retrieved2024-06-22.
  25. ^"Learning the Language – Pokagon Band of Potawatomi".Retrieved2024-06-22.

Cited sources

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  • Smith, Huron H. (1933). "Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians".Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee.7:1–230.
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