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Alexander Romance

(Redirected fromPseudo-Callisthenes)
See also:Alexander the Great in legend

TheAlexander Romanceis an account of the life and exploits ofAlexander the Great.Of uncertain authorship, it has been described as "antiquity's most successful novel".[1]TheRomancedescribes Alexander the Great from his birth, to his succession of the throne of Macedon, his conquests including that of thePersian Empire,and finally his death. Although constructed around an historical core, theromanceis mostly fantastical, including many miraculous tales and encounters with mythical creatures such assirensorcentaurs.[2]In this context, the termRomancerefers not to the meaning of the word in modern times but in the Old French sense of a novel orroman,a "lengthy prose narrative of a complex and fictional character" (although Alexander's historicity did not deter ancient authors from using this term).[3]

Armenian illuminated manuscript of the 14th century

It was widely copied and translated, accruing various legends and fantastical elements at different stages. The original version was composed inAncient Greeksome time before 338 AD, when aLatintranslation was made, although the exact date is unknown. Some manuscriptspseudonymouslyattribute the texts authorship to Alexander's court historianCallisthenes,and so the author is commonly called Pseudo-Callisthenes.

In premodern times, theAlexander Romanceunderwent more than 100 translations, elaborations, and derivations in dozens of languages, including almost all European vernaculars as well as in every language from the Islamicized regions of Asia and Africa, fromMalitoMalaysia.[4]Some of the more notable translations were made intoCoptic,Ge'ez,Middle Persian,Byzantine Greek,Arabic,Persian,Armenian,Syriac,andHebrew.Owing to the great variety of distinct works derived from the original Greek romance, the "Alexander romance" is sometimes treated as aliterary genre,instead of a single work.[5]

Plot

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Nectanebo II,the lastPharaohofEgypt,foresees that his kingdom will fall to the Persians and so flees to theMacedoniancourt under the guise of the identity of a magician. In his time there, he falls in love with the wife of kingPhilip II of Macedon,Olympias.Olympias becomes pregnant by Nectanebo, but his paternity is kept a secret. Philip develops a suspicion of an affair between the two, but Nectanebo allays Philip's suspicions by sending a magic sea-hawk to him in a dream. Alexander is born from this pregnancy, but while he is growing up he kills Nectanebo, who reveals Alexander's paternity as he dies. Alexander begins to be educated byAristotleand competes in theOlympics.[6]

After Philip dies, Alexander begins his campaigns into Asia, although the story is written in a confused manner with respect to the order and location of the campaigns. Once he reaches Egypt, an oracle of the godAmuninstructs him where to go to create the city that will becomeAlexandria.The march into Asia continues and Alexander conquersTyre.He begins exchanging letters with the Persian emperorDarius III,though the story now delves into more campaigns in Greece. The Persian march resumes and eventually Alexander conquers the Persians. He marries Roxane, the daughter of Darius, and writes letters to Olympias describing all he saw and his adventures during his conquests, including his wandering through theLand of Darkness,search for theWater of Life,and more.[6]

Next, he proceeds to conquerIndiafrom which he writes letters to Aristotle, though he also receives an omen about his coming death in this time. He visits the temples of the sun and moon, and makes theAmazonshis subjects. During his return, as he reachesBabylonia,he meets the son ofAntipater(the figure ruling Macedonia in Alexander's stead during the journeys of the latter) who was sent to poison Alexander. The conspiracy succeeds, and Alexander begins to die, though he names the rulers who will control the provinces of his empire after he is gone before ultimately succumbing to the poison.Ptolemy I Soterreceives his body in the Egyptian city ofMemphiswhere the priests order it to be sent to Alexandria, the greatest city he had built during his march. The work concludes by providing a list of all the cities that Alexander founded.[6]

Motifs and themes

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Gates of Alexander

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Main article:Gates of Alexander
TheDarial Gorgebefore 1906

TheRomancelocates the Gates of Alexander between two mountains called the "Breasts of the North" (Greek:Μαζοί Βορρά[7]). The mountains are initially 18 feet apart and the pass is rather wide, but Alexander's prayers toGodcauses the mountains to draw nearer, thus narrowing the pass. There he builds the Caspian Gates out of bronze, coating them with fast-sticking oil. The gates enclosed twenty-two nations and their monarchs, includingGog and Magog(therein called "Goth and Magoth" ). The geographic location of these mountains is rather vague, described as a 50-day march away northwards after Alexander put to flight his Belsyrian enemies (theBebrykes,[8]ofBithyniain modern-day NorthTurkey).[9][10]

Horns of Alexander

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Main article:Horns of Alexander

In the α recension of theAlexander Romance,Alexander's father is an Egyptian priest named Nectanebo who sports a set of ram horns. After his death, Alexander is described as "the horned king"(βασιλέα κερασφόρον) by an oracle instructing Ptolemy, a general of Alexander, on where to bury him. This statement was repeated in the Armenian recension of the Alexander Romance in the 5th century.[11]The use of the horned motif, representing the horns ofZeus Ammonto visualize Alexander stems from much earlier, originally in coinage depicting Alexander by his immediate successorsPtolemy I SoterofEgyptand more prominently the king ofThraceLysimachuswere the earliest produce coinage of Alexander with the rams horns.[12][13]The motif would be carried over into later Alexander legends, such as the Armenian translation of α and theSyriac Alexander Legend.[14]

Fountain of Life

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Main article:Fountain of Life

Traditions about Alexander's search for theFountain of Lifewere influenced by earlier legends about the Mesopotamian heroGilgameshand his search for immortality, such as in theEpic of Gilgamesh.[15]Alexander is travelling along with his company in search of theLand of the Blessed.On the way to the Land, Alexander becomes hungry and asks one of his cooks, Andreas, to get him some meat. Andreas gets some fish and begins to wash it in a fountain. Immediately upon being washed, the fish sprang to life and escaped into the fountain. Realizing the has discovered theFountain of Life,Andreas tells no one else about it and drinks the water for himself. He also stores away some of the water into a silver vessel, hoping to use some of it to seduce Alexander's daughter. Meanwhile, Alexander eventually reaches the Land of the Blessed but is unable to enter it. At the same time, he learns of Andreas losing the fish and questions him over it. Andreas confesses about what happened with the fish, and he is whipped for it, but he denies that he drank any and does not mention that he stored some, and asks Alexander over why he should worry about the past. At a later point, Andreas manages to use the water to seduce Alexander's daughter, who is enticed by the opportunity to drink from it, which she does and becomes immortal. Alexander learns of the miracle and punishes both Andreas and his daughter greatly: for Andreas is turned into adaimōnof the sea and his daughter into adaimōnof the desert.[16]This story was elaborated on in subsequent versions of theRomance,such as in the SyriacSong of Alexanderand in theTalmud.[17][18]

Land of Darkness

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The originalAlexander Romancecontains a few statements that would develop into the fully-fledged myths of episodes in theLand of Darkness,especially in versions of theRomancein Islamicate lands. In a journey that is directed towardsPolaris,the Polar constellation, he is to find the Land of the Blessed at the edge of the world which in "a region where the sun does not shine" (2.39).[19]

The Land of Darkness becomes a prominent feature in subsequent recensions of theAlexander Romance.[20][21]

Sources

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Two books appear to be the main sources used by the author of theAlexander Romance.One was a collection of Alexander fictions involving pseudepigraphical letters between Alexander and other figures such asAristotleand adversaries of his likeDarius III,as well as dialogues with Indian philosophers among other material. The second was a history written byCleitarchus(c. 300 BC), containing an already mythologized account of Alexander. Historians also suspect the use of Greek-language Egyptian sources underlying traditions about the pharaohsNectanebo IIandSesostris.By contrast, oral tradition did not play an important role.[22]A strikingly close parallel to Alexander's relentless quest, though one limited by the constraints of human and mortal existence, is in theEpic of Gilgamesh.[15]

Commentaries

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The first commentary to theRomancewas a German work titledDer griechische Alexanderroman,published byAdolf Ausfeldin 1907. In 2017, a commentary of the entireAlexander Romancewas published in English by Krzysztof Nawotka.[23]

Editions and translations

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The first modern English translation of theRomancewas produced by E.H. Haight in 1955. The major modern English translation of theRomanceis that of Richard Stoneman in 1991. Significant French translations include those of Tallet-Bonvalot in 1994, and Bounoure & Serret in 2004. An Italian translation was produced by Franco in 2001. In 2010, a Polish translation was published by Krzysztof Nawotka.[24]

In 2007, Richard Stoneman published an Italian edition of theRomancein three volumes, titledIl Romanzo di Alessandro.

Transmission

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Throughoutclassical antiquityand theMiddle Ages,theRomanceexperienced numerous expansions and revisions exhibiting a variability unknown for more formal literary forms. Distinctively, and unlike other texts, none of the recensions (including in Greek) of theRomancecan be considered canonical. Furthermore, translations were not merely so but were also typically variant versions of the text.[25]The legendary Alexander was also widely assimilated into the religion and culture of those who wrote about him: in Christian legends, Alexander became a Christian; in Islamic legends, Alexander became a Muslim; he was an Egyptian for the Egyptian, a Persian for the Persians, and so forth.[26][27]

West

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In Europe, the popularity of theAlexander Romanceresurged whenLeo the Archpriestdiscovered a Greek copy inConstantinoplewhile he was on a diplomatic missions. He produced a translation into Latin titled theNativitas et historia Alexandri Magni regis,which became the basis of the far more successful and expanded version known as theHistoria de Proeliis,which went through three recensions between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries and made Alexander a household name throughout theMiddle Ages,[28]being translated more times in the next three centuries than any other text except for theGospels.[29]Another very popular Latin version was theAlexandreisofWalter of Châtillon.[30]Before Leo, versions of theRomancewere still known: an abridged 9th-century version of the much earlier Latin translation byJulius Valerius Alexander Polemius,theZacher Epitome,achieved some popularity. In addition, in 781,AlcuinsentCharlemagnea copy of a text known asAlexander and Dindimus King of the Brahmans.The principal manuscript ofBeowulfalso contains a translation of Alexander's letter to Aristotle.[31]

Translations from Leo's Latin version and its recension would subsequently be made into all the major languages ofEuropeas versions of the Alexander romance became the most popular form of medieval European literature after theBible,[32]such asOld French(12th century),[33]Middle Scots(The Buik of Alexander,13th century),[34]Italian,[35]Spanish(theLibro de Alexandre),Central German(Lamprecht'sAlexanderlied,and a 15th-century version byJohannes Hartlieb),Slavonic,[36]Romanian,Hungarian,Irish, and more.[32][37]

East

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TheSyriac Alexander Romance,the most important Syriac translation of the GreekRomance,as well as the much shorter and abridged version known in theSyriac Alexander Legend,composed either in ~630 shortly afterHeracliusdefeated the Persians[38]or in the mid-6th century during the reign ofJustinian I,[39]contains additional motifs not found in the earliest Greek version of theRomance,including the apocalypticization of the wall built againstGog and Magog.[40]SubsequentMiddle Easternrecensions of the Alexander legend were generated following the Syriac traditions, including versions inArabic,Persian(Iskandarnameh),Ethiopic,Hebrew (in the first part ofSefer HaAggadah),Ottoman Turkish[41](14th century), andMiddle Mongolian(13th-14th century).[42]Knowledge of Romance tradition enteredChinesetexts by the 12th century,[43]but ancientIndiantexts do not mention Alexander.[44]

TheEpic of Sundiata,anepic poemfor theMandinka people,structures the story of the hero and founder of theMali Empire,Sundiata Keita,in a way that resembles the biography and legends of Alexander.[45][46]

Versions

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Greek

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The Alexander Romance in a 14th century Byzantine manuscript kept in the Church ofSan Giorgio dei Greci,Venice.

The most important Greek recensions of theAlexander Romanceare the α, β, γ and ε recensions. There is also a variant of β called λ, and the now-lost δ was perhaps the most important in the transmission of the text into the non-Greek world as it was the basis of the 10th-century Latin translation produced byLeo the Archpriest.[25]

Alpha (α) recension

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The Recensio α, also known as theHistoria Alexandri Magni,is the oldest and can be dated to the 3rd century AD. It is known from one manuscript, called A. It was subjected to various revisions during theByzantine Empire,some of them recasting it into poetical form inMedieval Greekvernacular. Recensio α is the source of aLatinversion byJulius Valerius Alexander Polemius(4th century), as well as an Armenian version (5th century).[47]

Beta (β) recension

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The β recension was composed between 300 and 550 AD. It rephrases much material in α and also adds new material to it. Compared to α, it lacks the end of Book I and the first six chapters of Book II. However, it contains the end of Book II, which is missing from α.[48]

Other recensions (ε, γ, etc)

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A combination of α and some material from β was used to create the ε recension in the 8th century. Furthermore, the β and ε recensions were combined to generate the much larger γ recension later still.[47]

Recension manuscripts

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  • Recensio α sive Recensio vetusta:Wilhelm Kroll,Historia Alexandri Magni,vol. 1. Berlin: Weidmann, 1926
  • Recensio β:
    • L. Bergson,Der griechische Alexanderroman.Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1965
    • e cod. Leidensi Vulc. 93. L. Bergson,Der griechische Alexanderroman.Rezension β. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1965
    • e cod. Paris. gr. 1685 et cod. Messinensi 62): L. Bergson,Der griechische Alexanderroman.Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1965
  • Recension γ:
    • lib. 1: U. von Lauenstein,Der griechische Alexanderroman.[Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie 4. Meisenheim am Glan: Hain, 1962]
    • lib. 2: H. Engelmann,Der griechische Alexanderroman.[Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie 12. Meisenheim am Glan: Hain, 1963]
    • lib. 3: F. Parthe,Der griechische Alexanderroman.[Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie 33. Meisenheim am Glan: Hain, 1969]
  • Recensio δ:
    • e cod. Vat. gr. 1700, 88v‑89r: G. Ballaira, "Frammenti inediti della perduta recensione δ del romanzo di Alessandro in un codice Vaticano",Bollettino del comitato per la preparazione dell'edizione nazionale dei classici greci e latini 13(1965)
  • Recensio ε:Jürgen Trumpf,Anonymi Byzantini vita Alexandri regis Macedonum.Stuttgart: Teubner, 1974
  • Recensio λ:
    • lib. 3:Helmut van Thiel,Die Rezension λ des Pseudo-Kallisthenes.Bonn: Habelt 1959
    • Pseudo-Methodiusredactio 1: H. van Thiel,Die Rezension λ des Pseudo-Callisthenes.Bonn: Habelt 1959
    • Pseudo-Methodius redactio 2: H. van Thiel,Die Rezension λ des Pseudo-Kallisthenes.Bonn: Habelt 1959
  • Recensio F (cod. Flor. Laurentianus Ashburn 1444), vernacular: V.L. Konstantinopulos and A.C. Lolos,Ps.-Kallisthenes ‑ Zwei mittelgriechische Prosa-Fassungen des Alexanderromans,2 vols [Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie 141 & 150, Meisenheim am Glan: Hain 1983]
  • Recensio φ: G. Veloudis,Ἡ φυλλάδα τοῦ Μεγαλέξαντρου. Διήγησις Ἀλεξάνδρου τοῦ Μακεδόνος[Νέα Ἑλληνικὴ Βιβλιοθήκη39. Athens: Hermes, 1977]
  • Recensio Byzantina poetica (cod. Marcianus 408): S. Reichmann,Das byzantinische Alexandergedicht nach dem codex Marcianus 408 herausgegeben[Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie 13. Meisenheim am Glan: Hain, 1963]
  • Recensio E (cod. Eton College 163), vernacular: V.L. Konstantinopulos and A.C. Lolos, Ps.-Kallisthenes,Zwei mittelgriechische Prosa. Fassungen des Alexanderromans,2 vols [Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie 141 & 150‑ Meisenheim am Glan: Hain 1983]
  • Recensio V (cod. Vind. theol. gr. 244): K. Mitsakis,Der byzantinische Alexanderroman nach dem Codex Vind. Theol. gr. 244[Miscellanea Byzantina Monacensia 7. Munich: Institut für Byzantinistik und neugriechische Philologie der Universität, 1967]
  • Recensio K (cod. 236 Kutlumussiu,Athos), vernacular: K. Mitsakis, "Διήγησις περὶ τοῦ Ἀλεξάνδρου καὶ τῶν μεγάλων πολέμων",Byzantinisch-neugriechische Jahrbücher 20 (1970)
  • Recensio poetica (recensio R), vernacular: D. Holton,Διήγησις τοῦ Ἀλεξάνδρου.The Tale of Alexander. The Rhymed Version[Βυζαντινὴ καὶ Νεοελληνικὴ βιβλιοθήκη.Thessalonica, 1974]

Latin

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Romance languages

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French

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There are severalOldandMiddle Frenchand oneAnglo-NormanAlexander romances. The following list of works is taken from the one provided by Donald Maddox and Sara Sturm-Maddox 2002.[53]

Italian

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Italian versions of theAlexander Romanceinclude:[55]

Romanian

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The RomanianAlexander Romance,entitled theAlexandria,was derived from a Greek and Serbian variant and became the most widely-read literary text inRomaniabetween the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.[58]In 1833, the Romanian legend was translated into Bulgarian in a copy of an earlier work,Paisiy Hilendarski'sSlavic-Bulgarian History(1762).[59]

Spanish

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The two most important Spanish versions of theAlexander Romanceare:[60]

  • TheLibro de Alexandre.This was a famous anonymous poem of theAlexander Romancefrom Christian Spain.
  • TheHistoria novelada de Alejandro Magno.This is an obscure Spanish version, only having been discovered an edition of Part 4 ofAlfonso X'sGeneral Estoriain a recently printed edition.

Germanic languages

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English and Scots

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In medievalEngland,theAlexander Romanceexperienced remarkable popularity. It is even referred to inChaucer'sCanterbury Tales,where the monk apologizes to the pilgrimage group for treating a material so well known. There are five major romances inMiddle Englishthat survive, though most only in fragments. There are also two versions fromScotland,one sometimes ascribed to theEarly ScotspoetJohn Barbour,which exists only in a sixteenth-century printing; and aMiddle Scotsversion from 1499:

  • King Alisaunderfromc.1275.[61]
  • TheRomance of Alisaunder(orAlexander of Macedon), sometimes referred to asAlexander A,is a fragment of 1247 lines written inalliterative verse.It was probably written between 1340 and 1370, soon before the beginning of theAlliterative Revival,of which it is believed to be one of the oldest remaining poems. It has been preserved in a school notebook dating from 1600. Alexander A deals with the begetting of Alexander byNectanebo II(Nectanebus), his birth, and his early years, and ends with the midst of the account of Philip's siege ofByzantium.It is likely that the source for this fragment has been the I²-recension of theHistoria de Preliis.Beside that it has been expanded with additional material taken fromPaulus Orosius'sHistoriae adversum paganos,the adverse remarks, which are typical of Orosius, however have been omitted by the poet, whose main concern is Alexander's heroic conduct.
  • Alexander and Dindimus,sometimes referred to asAlexander B,is also written in alliterative verse. This fragment is found in theMS Bodley 264[it]and consists of five letters which are passed between Alexander and Dindimus, who is the king of theBrahmins,a people of philosophers who shun all worldly lusts, ambitions and entertainments. In this respect their way of life resembles the ideal of an aescetic life, which was also preached by medieval monastic orders, such as the Franciscans. The source of Alexander B again is the I²-recension of theHistoria de Preliis.
  • TheWars of Alexander,sometimes referred to asAlexander C,is the longest of the alliterative versions of the Middle English Alexander Romances. It goes back to the I³-recension of theHistoria de Preliisand can be found in the MS Ashmole 44 and in the Dublin Trinity College MS 213. Although both manuscripts are incomplete they supplement each other fairly well. In this version much space is given to letters and prophecies, which often bear a moralizing and philosophical tenor. The letters are an integral part of the Pseudo-Callisthenes tradition. The dominant theme is pride, which inevitably results in the downfall of kings. InThe Wars of Alexanderthe hero is endowed with superhuman qualities, which shows in the romance insofar as his enemies fall to him by the dozens and he is always at the center of action.
  • TheProse Life of Alexandercopied byRobert Thornton,c.1440.

Middle Scots versions include:

German

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  • The GermanSong of AlexanderbyLamprecht,composed around 1150 as an adaptation of a poem byAlbéric of Pisançonsome fifty years earlier. It does not directly survive but in a version of it, close to the original, produced by Vorau.[63]
  • Alexanderof Strasbourg.[63]
  • Alexanderof Basel.[63]

Norse

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Slavic

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17th-century manuscript of an Alexandrine novel (Russia): Alexander exploring the depths of sea.

There were two translations of theAlexander RomanceintoOld Church Slavonic/Old Bulgarian.

  • TheAlexandria,full title being "The Kingdom of Alexander from Macedon" produced in tenth-centuryBulgaria.It became part of theChronograph(or theChronograph-Alexandria). TheChronographandAlexandriawere never separated out into independent books.[36]
  • TheSerbian Alexandria,completed in the fourteenth century. It is known from eleven Serbian and Bulgarian manuscripts, the first extant one dating to the fifteenth century, and follows the Greek λ recension of theRomance.[36]
  • The γ recension of the GreekAlexander Romancewas the ultimate source of theOld Serbian Alexander Romance.[67][68]In the 13th century, a translation from an Alexander legend either in Latin or Italian was made to produce the firstAlexander Romancein the Cyrillic script. A redaction of this text in the 14th century inDalmatiais what has come down as theOld Serbian Alexander Romance.and it went on to become the basis for adaptations of Alexander legends throughout theBalkans.By the 17th century, it was circulating in both Bulgarian and Romanian translations.[68]The RussianAlexander Romanceis also a translation of the Serbian one.[69]
  • TheAlexander Romancespread into Russia from the fifteenth century onwards, translated from the earlier Serbian version.[69]

Irish

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TheIrish Alexander Romance,also known as theImthusa Alexandair,was composed around 1100, representing the first complete vernacular version of the Romance in a European vernacular.[70]It includes episodes such as Alexander's visit to Jerusalem, talking trees, encounters with Dindimus, and more. Two sources the author identified for his work wereOrosiusandJosephus.[71]

Semitic languages

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Arabic

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Main article:Alexander the Great in Arabic tradition
  • The story ofDhu al-Qarnayn( "The Two-Horned One" ) in theQuranis generally seen in tradition and among contemporary historians to represent an allusive synopsis of theAlexander Romancein the tradition of itsSyriac recension.[72][73][21][74]The names Alexander and Dhu al-Qarnayn were widely merged in subsequent Muslim literature when describing the legends and accomplishments of the former.[75]
  • TheQissat al-Iskandar(fully theQiṣṣat al-Iskandar wa-mā fīhā min al-amr al-ʿadjīb,or "The story of Alexander and the wonderful things it contains" ) is a late eighth or early ninth-century recension of theSyriac Alexander Legendcomposed by ‘Umara ibn Zayd (767-815).[76]
  • TheQissat Dhulqarnayn(Qissat Dhulqarnayn,"Story of Dhulqarnayn" ) is aHispano-Arabiclegend ofAlexander the Greatpreserved in two fourteenth-century manuscripts inMadridand likely dates as a ninth-century Arabic translation of theSyriac Alexander Legendproduced inAl-Andalus.[77]
  • A secondQissat Dhulqarnayncontaining a synopsis of theAlexander Romanceis known from the eleventh-centuryAra'is al-majalis fi Qisas al-anbiya'(Book of Prophets) ofal-Tha'labi(d. 1036).[78][79]
  • A thirdQissat Dhulqarnaynknown from one 18th-century manuscript from Timbuktu, whose manuscript was recently edited and published in an Arabic edition and French translation by Bohas and Sinno.[80]
  • TheHadith Dhulqarnayn,like theQissat Dhulqarnayn,is another Hispano-Arabic version of the Alexander legend. It dates to the 15th century.
  • TheSīrat al-Iskandaris a 15th centuryArabicpopularromanceaboutAlexander the Great.It belongs to thesīra shaʿbiyyagenre.
  • TheTārīkh al-Iskandar al-Makdūni(History of Alexander of Macedon), translated into Arabic by the Melkite bishop Yuwāsif ibn Suwaydān (c. 1669) from the Byzantine ζ-recension of Pseudo-Callisthenes.[81]
  • TheSirat al-malek Eskandar Dhu’ l-Qarneyn,known from one 17th century manuscript copied by Yusof Ebn-Atiye (or Qozmân).[82]
  • TheKitāb Qiṣṣat Dhīʾl-Qarnaynfrom Mali.[83]

Ethiopic

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AnEthiopicversion of theAlexander Romancewas first composed in theGeʽezlanguage between the 14th and 16th centuries was produced as a translation of an intermediary 9th-century Arabic text of what ultimately goes back to the Syriac recension.[84]The Ethiopic version also integrates motifs from theSyriac Alexander Legendwithin theRomancenarrative.[84]There are seven known Ethiopian Alexander Romances:[85]

Hebrew

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For earlier Jewish legends not derived from Pseudo-Callisthenes, seeAlexander the Great in legend § Jewish legends.

There are three or fourmedieval Hebrewversions of theAlexander Romance:

  • TheJosippon,a 10th-century text into which a version of theAlexander Romancewas interpolated into in later times.
  • A literal and slightly abridged translation from the original Greek is found in the manuscript Parma,Bibliotheca I. B. de Rossi,MS Heb. 1087. This version was also partially interpolated into theSefer Yosipponin the 10th century.[86]
  • In the 12th or 13th century, an anonymous translator or translators translated alostArabic translation of the LatinHistoria de Preliisinto Hebrew. This is found in the manuscript Paris,Bibliothèque nationale de France,MS Héb. 671.5 and London,Jews' College Library,MS 145. These may represent a single translation in different versions or else two translations, with the Paris version having been used to complete the London. The translator (or one of them) may have beenSamuel ibn Tibbon,who made other translations from Arabic.[86]
  • In the 14th centuryImmanuel Bonfilstranslated theHistoria de Preliisdirectly from Latin into Hebrew. This is found today only in the manuscript Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, MS Héb. 750.3, but an illuminated copy once resided in theRoyal Library of Turin(c.1880) before being destroyed in a fire.[86]

Syriac

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There are four texts in the tradition of theAlexander Romancein Syriac, and they have been often mistaken with one another.[87]All four were translated in the same 1889 volume byE. A. Wallis Budge,though some of them have appeared in newer editions since then.[88]

  • TheSyriac Alexander Romance(Tašʿītā d̄ʾAleksandrōs), A Syriac translation of theAlexander Romanceof Pseudo-Callisthenes and the most influential of the Syriac versions of the Alexander legends.[87]
  • The proseSyriac Alexander Legend(Neṣḥānā d-Aleksandrōs), which may be completely independent of Pseudo-Callisthenes. The text is commonly attributed in its provenance to north Mesopotamia around 629-630 AD, shortly afterHeracliusdefeated the Persians,[38]though more recent suggestions place it in the mid-6th century underJustinian I.[39]TheSyriac Legendcontains additional motifs not found in the earliest GreekRomance,including the episode where Alexander builds a wall againstGog and Magog.[40]
  • TheSong of Alexander,a poem spuriously attributed toJacob of Serughand is slightly later than theLegend.Its author is sometimes referred to as Pseudo-Jacob.[89]
  • Another prose version though shorter than theLegend.[89]

Armenian

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  • TheArmenian Alexander Romance,derived from the α recension of theAlexander Romance,is typically dated to the fifth century.[90][91]In 1969, a translation of the Armenian recension was published by Albert Mugrdich Woloho gian.[92]
  • A second Armenian version of theAlexander Romanceproduced between the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries. The earliest manuscript is called San Lazzaro MS 424 (see[1]).[93]

Coptic

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ACoptictranslation of theRomancefrom the Greek was already being revised in the sixth century. A fragmentary manuscript, originally 220 pages long, in theSahidicdialect was discovered in theWhite Monastery.[94]It draws on olderDemotic Egyptiantraditions, which existed in written form perhaps as early as 275 BC.[95]It has been edited and published by Oscar von Lemm.[96]Several fragments of it have been collected and translated.[97]

Georgian

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Though Georgian versions of theAlexander Romancehave not survived, that they existed is known; it is thought that two versions existed. The earlier came into existence between the fourth and seventh centuries and its influence is detectable in extant Georgian texts such asThe Conversion of Kartlichronicles and inThe Life of Kings.The second was produced sometime between the ninth to twelfth centuries, and fragments of it were kept by the chronicler ofDavid the Builderand by aMongolian-era Georgian chronicler. Legends of Alexander would continue to influence varieties of Georgian literature from the twelfth to fourteenth centuries. Later, in the eighteenth century, the 18th-century kingArchil of Imeretiwould produce a translation of a Serbian or RussianAlexander Romanceinto Georgian, and this one has survived.[98]

Malay

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Mongolian

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Persian

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Turkish

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See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^Dowden 2019,p. 757.
  2. ^Pseudo-Callisthenes; Stoneman, Richard (1991).The Greek Alexander romance.Penguin classics. London, England; New York, NY, USA: Penguin Books. pp. 11–23.ISBN978-0-14-044560-2.
  3. ^Djurslev, Christine Thrue (2024). "TheAlexander Romance".In Ogden, Daniel (ed.).The Cambridge Companion to Alexander the Great.Cambridge University Press. p. 452.
  4. ^Doufikar-Aerts, Faustina (2020). "The ArabicAlexander Romance:Mirror of a Bold, Clever, and Devout Prince ". In Seigneurie, Ken (ed.).A Companion to World Literature.Wiley. pp. 1–11.doi:10.1002/9781118635193.ctwl0072.ISBN978-1-118-99318-7.
  5. ^"Alexander romance | Ancient Greek Epic, Legends & Mythology | Britannica".britannica.Retrieved2024-03-11.
  6. ^abcPseudo-Callisthenes; Stoneman, Richard (1991).The Greek Alexander romance.Penguin classics. London, England; New York, NY, USA: Penguin Books. pp. 5–7.ISBN978-0-14-044560-2.
  7. ^Anderson 1932,p. 37.
  8. ^Anderson 1932,p. 35.
  9. ^Stoneman, Richard (tr.), ed. (1991),The Greek Alexander Romance,Penguin, pp. 185–187,ISBN9780141907116
  10. ^Anderson (1932),p. 11.
  11. ^Tesei, Tommaso (2023). "Alexander's Horns".The Syriac Legend of Alexander's Gate.Oxford University Press. pp. 137–146.
  12. ^Bowden, Hugh (2023), Ogden, Daniel (ed.), "Religion",The Cambridge Companion to Alexander the Great,Cambridge University Press, pp. 237–242,ISBN978-1-108-88834-9
  13. ^Anderson, Andrew Runni (1927)."Alexander's Horns".Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association.58:102–103.doi:10.2307/282906.ISSN0065-9711.JSTOR282906.
  14. ^Tesei, Tommaso (2023). "Alexander's Horns".The Syriac Legend of Alexander's Gate.Oxford University Press. pp. 137–155.
  15. ^abTesei, Tommaso (2010)."Survival and Christianization of the Gilgamesh Quest for Immortality in the Tale of Alexander and the Fountain of Life".Rivista degli studi orientali.83(1/4): 417–440.ISSN0392-4866.JSTOR43927088.
  16. ^Crone, Patricia (2016).Islam, the Ancient Near East and Varieties of Godlessness: Collected Studies in Three Volumes, Volume 3.Brill. p. 66.ISBN978-90-04-31931-8.
  17. ^Crone, Patricia (2016).Islam, the Ancient Near East and Varieties of Godlessness: Collected Studies in Three Volumes, Volume 3.Brill. pp. 67–68.ISBN978-90-04-31931-8.
  18. ^Reynolds, Gabriel Said (2018).The Qur'an and the Bible: text and commentary.New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp. 463–465.ISBN978-0-300-18132-6.
  19. ^Casari, Mario (2012). "The King Explorer: A Cosmographic Approach to the Persian Alexander". In Stoneman, Richard; Erickson, Kyle; Netton, Ian Richard (eds.).The Alexander romance in Persia and the East.Ancient Narrative. Supplementum. Groningen: Barkhuis Publishing & Groningen University Library. p. 179.ISBN978-94-91431-04-3.OCLC794706981.
  20. ^Casari, Mario (2011-04-15), "Nizāmī's Cosmographic Vision and Alexander in Search of the Fountain of Life",A Key to the Treasure of the Hakim,Leiden University Press, pp. 95–106,doi:10.1515/9789400600140-006,ISBN978-94-006-0014-0
  21. ^abChism, Christine (2016-02-04),"Facing The Land Of Darkness: Alexander, Islam, And The Quest For The Secrets Of God",Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages,University of Toronto Press, pp. 51–75,doi:10.3138/9781442661301-007,ISBN978-1-4426-6130-1,retrieved2024-01-17
  22. ^Dowden 2019,p. 757–758.
  23. ^Nawotka, Krzysztof (2017).The Alexander romance by Ps.-Callisthenes: a historical commentary.Brill.ISBN978-90-04-33521-9.
  24. ^Nawotka, Krzysztof (2017).The Alexander romance by Ps.-Callisthenes: a historical commentary.Brill. pp. ix, 273.ISBN978-90-04-33521-9.
  25. ^abNawotka, Krzysztof (2017).The Alexander romance by Ps.-Callisthenes: a historical commentary.Mnemosyne. Supplements; volume 399. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp. 30–33.ISBN978-90-04-33521-9.
  26. ^E. A. Wallis Budge.The History of Alexander the Great, being the Syriac version of the Pseudo-Callisthenes.pp. xxxvi.
  27. ^Kotar, Peter Christos (2011). "The Ethiopic Alexander Romance". In Zuwiyya, Z. David (ed.).A companion to Alexander literature in the Middle Ages.Brill's companions to the Christian tradition. Leiden; Boston: Brill. p. 167.ISBN978-90-04-18345-2.
  28. ^abcStoneman, Richard (2022). "Introduction: Formation and Diffusion of the Alexander Legend". In Stoneman, Richard (ed.).A history of Alexander the Great in world culture.Cambridge, United Kingdom; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–8.ISBN978-1-107-16769-8.
  29. ^Hofmann, Heinz, ed. (2004).Latin fiction: the Latin novel in context.London: Routledge. p. 140.ISBN978-0-415-14722-4.
  30. ^abTownsend, David (1996).The Alexandreis of Walter of Châtillon: a twelfth-century epic: a verse translation.The Middle Ages series. Philadelphia, Pa: University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN978-0-8122-3347-6.
  31. ^Dowden 2019,p. 761.
  32. ^abMínguez Cornelles, Víctor; Rodríguez Moya, Inmaculada (2024).The visual legacy of Alexander the Great from the Renaissance to the age of revolution.Routledge research in art history. New York London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 22.ISBN978-1-032-54990-3.
  33. ^Damian-Grint, Peter (1999).The new historians of the twelfth-century Renaissance: inventing vernacular authority.Rochester, N.Y: Boydell Press. pp. 2–3.ISBN978-0-85115-760-3.
  34. ^abcMainer, Sergi (2010-01-01),"The Alexander and Charlemagne Romances",The Scottish Romance Tradition c. 1375–c. 1550,Brill, pp. 223–255,doi:10.1163/9789042029767_009,ISBN978-90-420-2976-7,retrieved2024-03-11
  35. ^Morosini, Roberta (2011-01-01),"The Alexander Romance In Italy",A Companion to Alexander Literature in the Middle Ages,Brill, pp. 329–364,doi:10.1163/ej.9789004183452.i-410.109,ISBN978-90-04-21193-3,retrieved2024-03-11
  36. ^abcMinaéva, Oxana; Holmquist Olausson, Lena (2015).Scandinavia and the Balkans: cultural interactions with Byzantium and Eastern Europe in the first Millennium AD.Newcastle upon Tyne (GB): Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 107–108.ISBN978-1-4438-7761-9.
  37. ^Pseudo-Callisthenes; Stoneman, Richard (1991).The Greek Alexander romance.Penguin classics. London, England; New York, NY, USA: Penguin Books. pp. 7–8.ISBN978-0-14-044560-2.
  38. ^abCiancaglini, Claudia A. (2001). "The Syriac Version of the Alexander Romance".Le Muséon.114(1–2): 121–140.doi:10.2143/MUS.114.1.302.
  39. ^abTesei, Tommaso (2023-10-19).The Syriac Legend of Alexander's Gate.Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/oso/9780197646878.001.0001.ISBN978-0-19-764687-8.
  40. ^abDonzel, Emeri J. van; Schmidt, Andrea Barbara (2010).Gog and Magog in Early Eastern Christian and Islamic Sources: Sallam's Quest for Alexander's Wall.Brill. p. 17.ISBN978-90-04-17416-0.The episode of Alexander's building a wall against Gog and Magog, however, is not found in the oldest Greek, Latin, Armenian and Syriac versions of theRomance.Though the Alexander Romance was decisive for the spreading of the new and supernatural image of Alexander the king in East and West, the barrier episode has not its origin in this text. The fusion of the motif of Alexander's barrier with the Biblical tradition of the apocalyptic peoples Gog and Magog appears in fact for the first time in the so calledSyriac Alexander Legend.This text is a short appendix attached to the Syriac manuscripts of theAlexander Romance.
  41. ^"Ahmedi, Taceddin".universalium.academic.ru.Retrieved19 December2011.
  42. ^abCleaves, Francis Woodman (1959)."An Early Mongolian Version of The Alexander Romance".Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies.22:1–99.doi:10.2307/2718540.ISSN0073-0548.JSTOR2718540.
  43. ^abFariello, Francesca (2024-08-06), Piccioni, Francesca; Poddighe, Elisabetta; Pontillo, Tiziana (eds.),"Alexander the Great: Homo Mirabilis within Chinese and Mongolian Sources. The Transmission of Legendary Narratives from West to East",La ricezione dell’ultimo Alessandro: Mirabilia e violenza al di qua e al di là dell’Indo,De Gruyter, pp. 273–293,doi:10.1515/9783111427614-013
  44. ^Bronkhorst, Johannes (2024-08-06), Piccioni, Francesca; Poddighe, Elisabetta; Pontillo, Tiziana (eds.),"Alexander's Impact on Indian Religions",La ricezione dell’ultimo Alessandro: Mirabilia e violenza al di qua e al di là dell’Indo,De Gruyter, pp. 191–206,doi:10.1515/9783111427614-010
  45. ^Tronson, Adrian (1982)."The 'Life of Alexander' and West Africa".History Today.Retrieved2024-03-20.
  46. ^Tronson, Adrian (2014)."From Jerusalem to Timbuktu: the appropriation of Alexander the Great by national narratives".Acta Classica: Proceedings of the Classical Association of South Africa.
  47. ^abStoneman, Richard (2010). "Alexander Romance". In Gagarin, Michael (ed.).The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome: Volume 1.Oxford University Press. pp. 62–64.
  48. ^Stoneman, Richard (2018-02-26),"Alexander Romance",Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics,Oxford University Press,doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8245,ISBN978-0-19-938113-5,retrieved2024-10-29
  49. ^abStone, Charles Russell (2019).The Roman de toute chevalerie: reading Alexander romance in late medieval England.Toronto; Buffalo; London: University of Toronto Press. p. 16.ISBN978-1-4875-0189-1.OCLC1089840999.
  50. ^Wulfram, Hartmut (2018). "Intertextuality through translation: the foundation of Alexandria and Virgil in Julius Valerius'Alexander Romance".The Alexander Romance: history and literature.Ancient narrative. Groningen: Barkhuis & Groningen University Library. pp. 169–188.ISBN978-94-92444-71-4.
  51. ^Ibn Tibbon, Shmuel (1992). Bekkum, Wouter J. van (ed.).A Hebrew Alexander romance according to MS London, Jews' College no. 145.Leuven: Peeters. p. 15.ISBN978-90-6831-395-6.
  52. ^Hofmann, Heinz, ed. (2004).Latin fiction: the Latin novel in context.London: Routledge. p. 239.ISBN978-0-415-14722-4.
  53. ^Maddox, Donald; Sturm-Maddox, Sara (2002). "Introduction: Alexander the Great in the French Middle Ages". In Maddox, Donald; Sturm-Maddox, Sara (eds.).The Medieval French Alexander.Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 18–19.ISBN978-0-7914-5443-5.
  54. ^Stone, Charles Russell (2019).The Roman de toute chevalerie: reading Alexander romance in late medieval England.Toronto; Buffalo; London: University of Toronto Press.ISBN978-1-4875-0189-1.OCLC1089840999.
  55. ^Morosini, Roberta; Vitti, Franceso (2011). "The Alexander Romance in Italy". In Zuwiyya, Z. David (ed.).A companion to Alexander literature in the Middle Ages.Brill's companions to the Christian tradition. Brill. pp. 329–364.ISBN978-90-04-18345-2.
  56. ^Morosini, Roberta; Vitti, Franceso (2011). "The Alexander Romance in Italy". In Zuwiyya, Z. David (ed.).A companion to Alexander literature in the Middle Ages.Brill's companions to the Christian tradition. Brill. pp. 341–349.ISBN978-90-04-18345-2.
  57. ^Morosini, Roberta; Vitti, Franceso (2011). "The Alexander Romance in Italy". In Zuwiyya, Z. David (ed.).A companion to Alexander literature in the Middle Ages.Brill's companions to the Christian tradition. Brill. pp. 352–355.ISBN978-90-04-18345-2.
  58. ^Boia, Lucian; Selous, Trista; Boia, Lucian (2004).Forever young: a cultural history of longevity(1. publ. in English ed.). London: Reaktion Books. pp. 50–51.ISBN978-1-86189-154-9.
  59. ^Daskalov, Rumen; Marinov, Tchavdar, eds. (2013).Entangled histories of the Balkans.Balkan studies library. Leiden; Boston: Brill. p. 282.ISBN978-90-04-25075-8.
  60. ^Zuwiyya, Z. David (2011). "The Alexander Tradition in Spain". In Zuwiyya, Z. David (ed.).A companion to Alexander literature in the Middle Ages.Brill's companions to the Christian tradition. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp. 231–254.ISBN978-90-04-18345-2.
  61. ^In medieval orthography, "king" could be "kyng" and "Alisaunder" could be "Alysaunder".
  62. ^Caughey, Anna (2010). "'A1s for the worthyness of be romance': Exploitation of Genre in the Buik of Kyng Alexander the Conquerour ". In Ashe, Laura; Djordjević, Ivana; Weiss, Judith (eds.).The exploitations of medieval romance.Studies in medieval romance. Cambridge, UK; Rochester, NY: D.S. Brewer. pp. 139–158.ISBN978-1-84384-212-5.OCLC426810057.
  63. ^abcBuschinger, Danielle (2011). "German Alexander Romances". In Zuwiyya, Z. David (ed.).A companion to Alexander literature in the Middle Ages.Brill's companions to the Christian tradition. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp. 291–314.ISBN978-90-04-18345-2.
  64. ^Wolf, Kirsten (1993). "Alexanders saga". In Pulsiano, Phillip; Wolf, Kirsten (eds.).Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia.New York: Garland. pp. 7–8.ISBN0824047877.
  65. ^Wolf, Kirsten (1988). "Gydinga Saga, Alexanders Saga, and Bishop Brande Jónsson".Scandinavian Studies.60(3): 371–400.ISSN0036-5637.JSTOR40918962.
  66. ^abcAshurst, David; Vitti, Franceso (2011). "Alexander Literature in Scandinavia". In Zuwiyya, Z. David (ed.).A companion to Alexander literature in the Middle Ages.Brill's companions to the Christian tradition. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp. 315–328.ISBN978-90-04-18345-2.
  67. ^Stoneman, Richard (2011). "Primary sources from the classical and early medieval periods". In Zuwiyya, Z. David (ed.).A companion to Alexander literature in the Middle Ages.Brill's companions to the Christian tradition. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp. 7–10.ISBN978-90-04-18345-2.
  68. ^abUsakiewicz, Krzysztof (2013)."The Greek Phyllada and the Old Serbian Alexander Romance".Colloquia Humanistica(2): 257–289.doi:10.11649/ch.2013.012.ISSN2392-2419.
  69. ^abGogoladze, Andro (2018)."THE MYTH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN MEDIEVAL GEORGIAN CHRONICLES".Études Balkaniques(2): 291.ISSN0324-1645.
  70. ^Peters, Erik (1967). "Die irische Alexandersage' Zeitschrift für".Celtische Philologie.30:71–264.
  71. ^Hofmann, Heinz, ed. (2004).Latin fiction: the Latin novel in context.London: Routledge. p. 240.ISBN978-0-415-14722-4.
  72. ^Watt 1960–2007:"It is generally agreed both by Muslim commentators and modéra [sic] occidental scholars that Dhu ’l-Ḳarnayn [...] is to be identified with Alexander the Great."Cook 2013:"[...]Dhū al-Qarnayn(usually identified with Alexander the Great) [...] ".
  73. ^Griffith, Sidney (2022-03-15)."Narratives of" the Companions of the Cave, "Moses and His Servant, and Dhū 'l-Qarnayn in Sūrat al-Kahf".Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association.6(1): 146–147.doi:10.5913/jiqsa.6.2021.a005.ISSN2474-8420.S2CID251486595.
  74. ^Daneshgar, Majid (2020).Studying the Qur'ān in the Muslim Academy.AAR reflection and theory in the study of religion. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press. p. 77.ISBN978-0-19-006754-0.
  75. ^C.W. Doufikar-Aerts, Faustina (2016). "A Hero Without Borders: 2 Alexander the Great in the Syriac and Arabic Tradition". In Cupane, Carolina; Krönung, Bettina (eds.).Fictional storytelling in the medieval Eastern Mediterranean and beyond.Brill's companions to the Byzantine world. Leiden Boston: Brill. p. 202.ISBN978-90-04-28999-4.
  76. ^Donzel, Emeri Johannes van; Schmidt, Andrea Barbara; Ott, Claudia (2009).Gog and Magog in early syriac and islamic sources: Sallam's quest for Alexander's wall.Brill's Inner Asian Library. Leiden: Brill. pp. 176–178.ISBN978-90-04-17416-0.
  77. ^Zuwiyya, Zachary D., ed. (2001).Islamic legends concerning Alexander the Great: taken from two medieval Arabic manuscripts in Madrid.Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press.ISBN978-1-58684-132-4.
  78. ^Dabiri, Ghazzal (2023-11-08),"Modelling Prophets: Alexander the Great as a Proto-Sufi Saint-King in Thaʿlabi's Lives of the Prophets",Narrative, Imagination and Concepts of Fiction in Late Antique Hagiography,Brill, pp. 253–282,doi:10.1163/9789004685758_013,ISBN978-90-04-68575-8,retrieved2024-03-13
  79. ^Chism, Christine (2016). "Facing The Land Of Darkness: Alexander, Islam, And The Quest For The Secrets Of God". In Stock, Markus (ed.).Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: transcultural perspectives.Toronto Buffalo London: University of Toronto Press. p. 62.ISBN978-1-4426-4466-3.
  80. ^Doufikar-Aerts, Faustina (2020-07-20), "Gog and Magog Crossing Borders: Biblical, Christian and Islamic Imaginings",Cultures of Eschatology,De Gruyter Oldenbourg, pp. 394–395,doi:10.1515/9783110597745-021,ISBN978-3-11-059774-5
  81. ^Gaullier-Bougassas, Catherine; Doufikar-Aerts, Faustina (2022). "Alexander the Great in Medieval Literature".Literature: A World History, Volumes 1-4.Wiley. p. 535.
  82. ^Casari 2023,p. 398.
  83. ^Gaullier-Bougassas, Catherine; Doufikar-Aerts, Faustina (2022). "Alexander the Great in Medieval Literature".Literature: A World History, Volumes 1-4.Wiley. p. 534.
  84. ^abDoufikar-Aerts, Faustina C.W. (2003). "Alexander the Flexible Friend: Some Reflections on the Representation of Alexander the Great in the Arabic Alexander Romance".Journal of Eastern Christian Studies.55(3–4): 196, 204.doi:10.2143/JECS.55.3.504417.Moreover, the integration of the Gog and Magog episode based on the Christian Syriac Alexander Legend, the allusions to the principle of Trinity, and many other signs determine the text as a Christianized revision of the Romance.
  85. ^Asirvatham, Sulochana (2014)."TheAlexander romancetradition from Egypt to Ethiopia ".Acta Classica.
  86. ^abcWout van Bekkum(1986), "Alexander the Great in Medieval Hebrew Literature",Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes49,pp. 218–226, at 223–225.doi:10.2307/751298
  87. ^abMonferrer-Sala, Juan Pedro (2011-01-01),"Chapter Three. Alexander The Great In The Syriac Literary Tradition",A Companion to Alexander Literature in the Middle Ages,Brill, pp. 41–72,doi:10.1163/ej.9789004183452.i-410.24,ISBN978-90-04-21193-3,retrieved2024-03-22
  88. ^E. A. Wallis Budge.The History of Alexander the Great, being the Syriac version of the Pseudo-Callisthenes.
  89. ^abTesei, Tommaso (2023-10-19).The Syriac Legend of Alexander's Gate.Oxford University Press. pp. 1, 22.doi:10.1093/oso/9780197646878.001.0001.ISBN978-0-19-764687-8.
  90. ^MacFarlane, Alex (2019-10-14),"'This Shocking Lobster': Understanding the Fantastic Creatures of the Armenian Alexander Romance ",Transmitting and Circulating the Late Antique and Byzantine Worlds,Brill, pp. 125–148,doi:10.1163/9789004409460_007,ISBN978-90-04-40946-0,retrieved2024-03-11
  91. ^Stoneman, Richard (2011). "Primary sources from the classical and early medieval periods". In Zuwiyya, Z. David (ed.).A companion to Alexander literature in the Middle Ages.Brill's companions to the Christian tradition. Leiden; Boston: Brill. p. 6.ISBN978-90-04-18345-2.
  92. ^Woloho gian, Albert Mugrdich (1969).The Romance of Alexander the Great by Pseudo-Callisthenes(PDF).Columbia University Press.
  93. ^Donzel, Emeri Johannes van; Schmidt, Andrea Barbara; Ott, Claudia (2009).Gog and Magog in early syriac and islamic sources: Sallam's quest for Alexander's wall.Brill's Inner Asian Library. Leiden: Brill. pp. 37, also n. 62.ISBN978-90-04-17416-0.
  94. ^Müller, Detlef (1991)."Romances".InAtiya, Aziz Suryal(ed.).The Coptic Encyclopedia.Vol. 7. New York: Macmillan Publishers. cols. 2059b–2061a.
  95. ^Selden, Daniel L. (2011), "The Coptic Alexander Romance",A Companion to Alexander Literature in the Middle Ages,Brill, pp. 133–156,doi:10.1163/ej.9789004183452.i-410.62,ISBN978-90-04-21193-3
  96. ^Oscar von Lemm (ed.),Der Alexanderroman bei den Kopten(St. Petersburg, 1903).
  97. ^Maspero, Sir Gaston (2004).Popular Stories of Ancient Egypt.Oxford University Press.
  98. ^Gogoladze, Andro (2018)."THE MYTH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN MEDIEVAL GEORGIAN CHRONICLES".Études Balkaniques(2): 285–313.ISSN0324-1645.
  99. ^Zuwiyya, Zachary D., ed. (2001).Islamic legends concerning Alexander the Great: taken from two medieval Arabic manuscripts in Madrid.Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press. p. 84.ISBN978-1-58684-132-4.
  100. ^Daneshgar, Majid (2019). "Dhu l-Qarnayn in Modern Malay Qurʾānic Commentaries and Other Literature on Qurʾānic Themes". In Daneshgar, Majid; Riddell, Peter G.; Rippin, Andrew (eds.).The Qurʼan in the Malay-Indonesian world: context and interpretation.Routledge studies in the Quran (First issued in paperback ed.). London New York: Routledge. pp. 212–228.ISBN978-0-367-28109-0.
  101. ^Doufikar-Aerts, Faustina (2003)."Sīrat Al-Iskandar: An Arabic Popular Romance of Alexander".Oriente Moderno.22 (83) (2): 505–520.doi:10.1163/22138617-08302016.ISSN0030-5472.JSTOR25817892.
  102. ^Wieringa, E. (2011-09-30), "Juja-Makjuja as the Antichrist in a Javanese End-of-Time Narrative",Embodiments of Evil: Gog and Magog,Amsterdam University Press, pp. 123–152,doi:10.1515/9789400600119-009,ISBN978-94-006-0011-9
  103. ^Darvishi, Dariush,The Alexander Romance,page 153-170, Tehran, Negah-e Moaser, 2022]
  104. ^Nawotka, Krzysztof (2018-04-26),"Syriac and Persian Versions of the Alexander Romance",Brill's Companion to the Reception of Alexander the Great,Brill, pp. 525–542,doi:10.1163/9789004359932_022,ISBN978-90-04-35993-2,retrieved2024-03-25
  105. ^Casari 2023,p. 443–461.
  106. ^Evangelos Venetis,The Persian Alexander: The First Complete English Translation of the Iskandarnama,Bloomsbury 2017.
  107. ^De Blois, François."ESKANDAR-NĀMA OF NEẒĀMĪ".Encyclopedia Iranica.
  108. ^abcdeGaullier-Bougassas, Catherine; Doufikar-Aerts, Faustina (2022). "Alexander the Great in Medieval Literature".Literature: A World History, Volumes 1-4.Wiley. p. 538.
  109. ^Casari 2023,p. 525–531.
  110. ^Casari 2023,p. 491–504.
  111. ^Casari 2023,p. 491, 504–510.
  112. ^Hanaway, William L. (1998)."ESKANDAR-NĀMA".Encyclopedia Iranica.Retrieved2024-03-08.
  113. ^Casari 2023,p. 513–514.
  114. ^abVasunia, Phiroze (2013).The classics and colonial India.Classical presences. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 107.ISBN978-0-19-920323-9.OCLC847943593.
  115. ^Casari 2023,p. 516–517.
  116. ^Casari 2023,p. 517–518.
  117. ^Casari 2023,p. 521–534.
  118. ^Casari 2023,p. 518–519.
  119. ^Kastritsis, Dimitris J. (2007).The sons of Bayezid: empire building and representation in the Ottoman civil war of 1402-1413.The Ottoman empire and its heritage. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp. 33–37.ISBN978-90-04-15836-8.
  120. ^Mengüç, Murat Cem (2019-11-06),"Bringing the Past Together: Ahmedi's Narrative of Ottoman History and Two Later Texts",Studies in Islamic Historiography,Brill, pp. 125–144,doi:10.1163/9789004415294_006,ISBN978-90-04-41529-4,retrieved2024-03-19
  121. ^Schimmel, Annemarie (1992).A two-colored brocade: the imagery of Persian poetry.Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 116.ISBN978-0-8078-2050-6.
  122. ^Casari 2023,p. 510.
  123. ^Stoneman, Richard; Erickson, Kyle; Netton, Ian Richard, eds. (2012).The Alexander romance in Persia and the East.Barkhuis Publishing & Groningen University Library. pp. 117–126.ISBN978-94-91431-04-3.OCLC794706981.

Sources

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Translations

edit
  • Bürgel, J. Christoph,Nizami. Das Alexanderbuch,Munich: Manesse, 1991.
  • Favager, D.J. (translator) The Romance of Alexander of Alexandre de Paris (abbreviated translation) Kindle (2021)
  • Harf-Lancner, Laurence (translator and commentator, edited by Armstrong and al.).Le roman d'Alexandre,Livre de poche, 1994.ISBN2-253-06655-9.
  • Southgate, Minoo (translator).Iskandarnamah: a Persian medieval Alexander-romance.New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1978.ISBN0-231-04416-X.
  • Stoneman, Richard (editor and translator).The Greek Alexander Romance.New York: Penguin, 1991.ISBN0-14-044560-9.
  • Woloho gian, A. H.The Romance of Alexander the Great by Pseudo-Callisthenes(from the Armenian). Columbia University Press, 1969.
  • Budge, Sir Ernest Alfred Wallis,ed. (1889).The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version.Vol. II. Cambridge University Press.

Further reading

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  • Aerts, W. J., et al.,Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages,Nijmegen, 1978.
  • Boyle, J. A., "The Alexander Romance In The East And West",Bulletin Of The John Rylands University Library Of Manchester60 (1977), pp. 19–20.
  • Chasseur, M.,Oriental Elements in Surat al Kahf.Annali di Scienze Religiose 1, Brepols Publishers 2008, ISSN 2031-5929, p. 255-289 (Brepols Journals Online)
  • Gero, S., "The Legend Of Alexander The Great In The Christian Orient",Bulletin Of The John Rylands University Library Of Manchester,1993, Volume 75.
  • Gosman, Martin, "Le roman de toute chevalerie et le public visé: la légende au service de la royauté". InNeophilologus72 (1988), 335–343.
  • Gosman, Martin, "Le roman d'Alexandre et les" juvenes ": une approche socio-historique". InNeophilologus66 (1982), 328–339.
  • Gosman, Martin, "La légende d'Alexandre le Grand dans la littérature française du douzième siècle", Rodopi, 1997.ISBN90-420-0213-1.
  • Kotar, Peter,Der syrische Alexanderroman,Hamburg, 2013.
  • Merkelbach, Reinhold,Die Quellen des griechischen Alexanderromans(Munich, 1977). Cf. his and Stanley Burstein's discussions of the epigraphical fragmentSEG33.802 in the journalZeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik,Vol. 77 (1989), 275-280.
  • Selden, Daniel, "Text Networks," Ancient Narrative 8 (2009), 1–23.
  • Stoneman, Richard,Alexander the Great: A Life in Legend,Yale University Press, 2008.ISBN978-0-300-11203-0
  • Stoneman, Richard and Kyle Erickson, eds.The Alexander Romance in Persia and the East,Barkhuis: 2012l.
  • Zuwiyya, David,A Companion to Alexander Literature in the Middle Ages,Brill: Leiden, 2011.
  • Nawotka, Krzysztof (2018). "Syriac and Persian Versions of the Alexander Romance".Brill's Companion to the Reception of Alexander the Great.Brill. pp. 525–542.ISBN978-90-04-35993-2.
  • Doufikar-Aerts, Faustina (2010).Alexander Magnus Arabicus: A Survey of the Alexander Tradition Through Seven Centuries: from Pseudo-Callisthenes to Ṣūrī.Isd.ISBN978-90-429-2183-2.
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