ThePythonidae,commonly known asPython s,are afamilyofnonvenomoussnakesfound in Africa, Asia, and Australia. Among its members are some of the largest snakes in the world. Tengeneraand 39speciesare currently recognized. Being naturally non-venomous, Python s must constrict their prey to induce cardiac arrest prior to consumption. Pythons will typically strike at and bite their prey of choice to gain hold of it; they then must use physical strength to constrict their prey, by coiling their muscular bodies around the animal, effectively suffocating it before swallowing whole. This is in stark contrast to venomous snakes such as therattlesnake,for example, which delivers a swift, venomous bite but releases, waiting as the prey succumbs toenvenomationbefore being consumed. Collectively, the Python s are well-documented and studied as constrictors, much like other non-venomous snakes, including theboasand evenkingsnakesof the New World.[2]
| Pythonidae | |
|---|---|
| |
| Indian Python(Python molurus) | |
Scientific classification
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Reptilia |
| Order: | Squamata |
| Suborder: | Serpentes |
| Superfamily: | Pythonoidea |
| Family: | Pythonidae Fitzinger,1826 |
| Synonyms | |
| |
This articleneeds additional citations forverification.(November 2022) |
Pythons are found in regions like sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and Australia, with invasive populations of Burmese Python s inEverglades National Park,Florida and reticulated Python s in Puerto Rico. They are ambush predators that primarily kill prey by constriction, causing cardiac arrest. Pythons are oviparous, laying eggs that females incubate until they hatch. They possess premaxillary teeth, with the exception of adults in the Australian genusAspidites.[3][4]While many species are available in the exotic pet trade, caution is needed with larger species due to potential danger. The taxonomy of Python s has evolved, and they are now more closely related to sunbeam snakes and the Mexican burrowing Python.
Pythons are poached for their meat and skin, leading to a billion-dollar global trade. They can carry diseases, such as salmonella and leptospirosis, which can be transmitted to humans. Pythons are also used in African traditional medicine to treat ailments like rheumatism and mental illnesses. Their body parts, including blood and organs, are believed to have various healing properties. In some African cultures, Python s have significant roles in folklore and mythology, often symbolizing strength or having sacred status.
Distribution and habitat
editPythons are found insub-Saharan Africa,Nepal,India,Sri Lanka,Bangladesh,Southeast Asia,southeasternPakistan,southernChina,thePhilippinesandAustralia.[1]
Two known populations of invasive Python s exist in the Western Hemisphere. In the United States, an introduced population ofBurmese Python s(Python bivittatus) has existed as aninvasive speciesinEverglades National Parksince the late 1990s. As of January 2023, estimates place the Floridian Burmese Python population at around half a million. Local bounties are awarded and scientists study dead Burmese Python s to better understand breeding cycles and trends associated with rapid population explosion. The Python s readily prey on native North American fauna in Florida, including (but not limited to)American alligators,birds,bobcats,American bullfrogs,opossums,raccoons,river otters,white-tailed deer,and occasionally domestic pets and livestock. They are also known to prey on other invasive and introduced animals to Florida, such as thegreen iguanaandnutria(coypu), though not at a rate as to lower their numbers rapidly or effectively.[5]
InPuerto Rico,a population ofreticulated Python s(Malayo Python reticulatus) are known to be currently established, with a remarkably high rate ofalbinism,suggesting establishment from domesticated pet stock. Records of reticulated Python s date back to as early as 2009, and the population was recognized as established by 2017.[6]
Conservation
editThis sectionneeds expansion.You can help byadding to it.(November 2022) |
Many species have been hunted aggressively, which has greatly reduced the population of some, such as theIndian Python(Python molurus) and theBall Python(Python regius).[citation needed]
Behavior
edit
(Aspidites melanocephalus)
This sectionneeds expansion.You can help byadding to it.(November 2022) |
Most members of this family areambush predators,in that they typically remain motionless in a camouflaged position, and then strike suddenly at passing prey. Attacks on humans, although known to occur, are extremely rare.[7][8]
Feeding
editPythons use their sharp, backward-curving teeth, four rows in the upper jaw, two in the lower, to grasp prey which is then killed byconstriction;after an animal has been grasped to restrain it, the Python quickly wraps a number of coils around it.[9][10]Death occurs primarily bycardiac arrest.[9][10]Even the larger species, such as thereticulated Python(Malayo Python reticulatus), do not crush their prey to death.[11]
Larger specimens usually eat animals about the size of a domestic cat, but larger food items are known; some large Asian species have been known to take down adultdeer,and theCentral African rock Python(Python sebae) has been known to eatantelope.Thereticulated Pythonis the only Python species known to sometimes eat humans in its natural habitat in Sulawesi, Indonesia.[12]All prey is swallowed whole, and may take several days or even weeks to fully digest.
Reproduction
editPythons areoviparous.This sets them apart from the familyBoidae(boas), most of which bear live young (ovoviviparous). After they lay their eggs, females typically incubate them until they hatch. This is achieved by causing the muscles to "shiver", which raises the temperature of the body to a certain degree, and thus that of the eggs. Keeping the eggs at a constant temperature is essential for healthy embryo development. During the incubation period, females do not eat and leave only to bask to raise their body temperature.
Captivity
editMost species in this family are available in the exotic pet trade. However, caution must be exercised with the larger species, as they can be dangerous; rare cases of large specimens killing their owners have been documented.[13][14]
Taxonomy
editObsolete classification schemes—such as that ofBoulenger(1890)—place Python s in Pythoninae, asubfamilyof the boa family,Boidae.[1]However, despite a superficialK-means clusteringresemblance to boas, Python s are more closely related to the sunbeam snakes (Xenopeltis) and the Mexican burrowing Python (Loxocemus).[15][16]
Genera
edit| Genus[2] | Taxon author[2] | Species[2] | Subsp.[a][2] | Common name | Geographic range[1] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antaresia | Wells & Wellington,1984 | 4 | 2 | Children's Python s | Australia in arid and tropical regions |
| Apodora[17] | Kluge,1993 | 1 | 0 | Papuan Python | Papua New Guinea |
| Aspidites | W. Peters,1877 | 2 | 0 | pitless Python s | Australia, except in the southern parts of the country |
| Bothrochilus | Fitzinger,1843 | 1 | 0 | Bismarck ringed Python | the Bismarck Archipelago |
| Leio Python | Hubrecht,1879 | 3 | 0 | white-lipped Python s | Papua New Guinea |
| Liasis | Gray,1842 | 3 | 5 | water Python s | Indonesiain theLesser Sunda Islands,east through New Guinea and northern and western Australia |
| Malayo Python | Reynolds,2014 | 2 | 3 | reticulated and Timor Python s | from India to Timor |
| Morelia | Gray, 1842 | 6 | 7 | tree Python s | from Indonesia in theMaluku Islands,east through New Guinea, including the Bismarck Archipelago, and Australia |
| Nyctophilo Python | Gow,1977 | 1 | 0 | Oenpelli Python | the Northern Territory, Australia |
| Python[b] | Daudin,1803 | 10 | 1 | true Python s | Africa in the tropics south of theSahara Desert(not including southern and extreme southwesternMadagascar),Bangladesh,Pakistan, India,Sri Lanka,theNicobar Islands,Burma,Indochina,southern China,Hong Kong,Hainan,the Malayan region ofIndonesiaand thePhilippines |
| Simalia | Gray, 1849 | 6 | 0 | amethystine Python species complex | found in Indonesia (Including the islands ofHalmahera,Ambon,Seram,Maluku), theNorthern Territory,northeasternQueenslandinto theTorres Strait,andPapua New Guinea |
Relationship with humans
editPoaching Python s
editPoachingof Python s is a lucrative business with the global Python skin trade being an estimated US$1 billion as of 2012.[18]Pythons are poached for their meat, mostly consumed locally asbushmeatand their skin, which is sent to Europe and North America for manufacture of accessories like bags, belts and shoes.[19]The demand for poaching is increased because Python farming is very expensive.[20]
InCameroonbushmeat markets, theCentral African rock Pythonis commonly sold for meat and is very expensive at US$175.[19]The poaching of the Python s is illegal inCameroonunder their wildlife law, but there is little to no enforcement. InKenya,there has been an increase in snake farms to address the demand forsnakeskininternationally, but there are health concerns for the workers, and danger due to poachers coming to the farms to hunt the snakes.[21]
Pythons and human health
editWhile Python s are not venomous, they do carry a host of potential health issues for humans. Pythons are disease vectors for multiple illnesses, includingSalmonella,Chlamydia,Leptospirosis,Aeromoniasis,Campylobacteriosis,andZygomycosis.These diseases may be transmitted to humans through excreted waste, open wounds, and contaminated water.[22][23]A 2013 study found that Reptile-Associated Salmonella (RAS) is most common in young children who had been in contact with invasive Python s, with symptoms including "sepsis,meningitis,and bone and joint infection ".[24]
Pythons are also integrated into some aspects of African health and belief use, often with the added risk of contacting zoonotic diseases. Python bodies and blood are used for African traditional medicines and other belief uses as well, one in-depth study of all animals used by the Yorubas of Nigeria for traditional medicine found that the African Python is used to cure rheumatism, snake poison, appeasing witches, and accident prevention.[25]
Python habitats, diets, and invasion into new areas also impact human health and prosperity. A University of Florida Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences study found that theBurmese Python,as an invasive species, enters new habitats and eats an increasing number of mammals, leaving limited species for mosquitoes to bite, forcing them to bite disease-carryinghispid cotton ratsand then infect humans with theEverglades virus,a dangerous infection that is carried by very few animals.[26]While direct human- Python interactions can be potentially dangerous, the risk of zoonotic diseases is always a concern, whether considering medical and belief use in Nigeria or when addressing invasive species impacts in Florida. In 2022, a woman who lived near a lake area in south-easternNew South Walesstate,Australia,was found to be infested with theOphidascaris robertsiroundworm which is common incarpet Python s- non-venomous snakes found across much of Australia.[27]
Traditional use
editSkin
editPython skin has traditionally been used as the attire of choice for medicine men and healers.[28]Typically,South AfricanZulutraditional healers will use Python skin in ceremonial regalia.[28]Pythons are viewed by the Zulu tradition to be a sign of power. This is likely why the skin is worn by traditional healers. Healers are seen as all-powerful since they have a wealth of knowledge, as well as accessibility to the ancestors.[28]
Fat
editTypically, species are attributed to healing various ailments based on their likeliness to a specific bodily attribute. For example, in many cultures, the Python is seen as a strong and powerful creature. As a result, Python s are often prescribed as a method of increasing strength.[28]It is very common for the body fat of Python s to be used to treat a large variation of issues such asjoint pain,rheumatic pain,toothacheandeye sight.[29]Additionally, Python fat has been used to treat those suffering from mental illnesses likepsychosis.[30]Their calm nature is thought to be of use to treat combative patients. The fat of the Python is rubbed onto the body part that is in pain. To improve mental illnesses, it is often rubbed on the temple.[29]The existence of evidence for genuine anti inflammatory and anti-microbial properties of the refined 'snake oil' ironic with respect to the expression "snake oil salesman".[31]
Blood
editPython blood plays another important role intraditional medicine.Many believe that Python blood prevents the accumulation offatty acids,triglyceridesandlipidsfrom reaching critically high levels.[29]Additionally, their blood has been used as a source of iron for people who are anemic, which helps reduce fatigue.[29][The sources were not specific on the way this blood is administered; however, due to the use of snake blood in traditional treatments in other parts of the world for similar causes, it is likely that the patient drinks the blood in order to feel the effects.[32]
Feces
editThe Sukuma tribe ofTanzaniahave been known to use Pythonfecesin order to treat back pain. The feces are frequently mixed with a little water, placed on the back, and left for two to three days.[33]
Organs
editIn Nigeria, thegallbladderandliverof a Python are used to treat poison or bites from other snakes.[25]The Python head has been used to "appease witches". Many traditional African cultures believe that they can be cursed by witches. In order to reverse spells and bad luck, traditional doctors will prescribe Python heads.[25]
Folklore
editIn northwesternGhana,people see Python s as a savior and have taboos to prevent the snake from being harmed or eaten. Their folklore states that this is because a Python once helped them flee from their enemies by transforming into a log to allow them to cross a river.[34]
InBotswana,Sanritual practices surrounding Python s date back 70,000 years. In San mythology the Python is a sacred creature that is highly respected.[35]They believe that mankind was made by a Python that moved in between hills to create stream beds.
InBenin,Vodun practitioners believe that Python s symbolize strength and the spirit of Dagbe [ "to do good" inYoruba]. Annually, people sacrifice animals and proclaim their sins to Python s that are kept inside temples.[36]
See also
editReferences
editNotes
edit- ^Not including thenominate subspecies.
- ^Type genus.[1]
Citations
edit- ^abcdeMcDiarmid, Roy W.; Campbell, Jonathan A.; Touré, T'Shaka A. (1999).Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference.Vol. 1. Herpetologists' League.ISBN978-1-893777-01-9.
- ^abcde"Pythonidae".Integrated Taxonomic Information System.Retrieved9 December2019.
- ^"Constrictores Oppel, 1811 – the available name for the taxonomic group uniting boas and Python s"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 2020-12-12.Retrieved2020-12-12.
- ^Palci, A.; Lee, M. S.; Hutchinson, M. N. (2016)."Patterns of postnatal ontogeny of the skull and lower jaw of snakes as revealed by micro-CT scan data and three-dimensional geometric morphometrics".Journal of Anatomy.229(6): 723–754.doi:10.1111/joa.12509.PMC5108151.PMID27329823.
- ^"Huge, Freed Pet Pythons Invade Florida Everglades".National Geographic News.Archived fromthe originalon June 11, 2004.Retrieved16 September2007.
- ^"Malayo Python reticulatus has colonized Puerto Rico".Serpent Research.7 August 2022.
- ^Wang AB (29 March 2017)."An Indonesian man disappeared. Villagers found his body inside a 23-foot-long Python".Washington Post.Retrieved17 June2018.
- ^Selk A (16 June 2018)."A woman went to check her corn — and was swallowed by a Python".Washington Post.Retrieved17 June2018.
- ^abHardy DL (1994). "A re-evaluation of suffocation as the cause of death during constriction by snakes".Herpetological Review.25(22): 45–47.
- ^abBoback SM, McCann KJ, Wood KA, McNeal PM, Blankenship EL, Zwemer CF (July 2015)."Snake constriction rapidly induces circulatory arrest in rats".The Journal of Experimental Biology.218(Pt 14): 2279–88.doi:10.1242/jeb.121384.PMID26202779.
- ^Rossman, Sean."Pythons can kill a human in minutes and swallow them in an hour".USA TODAY.Retrieved2024-08-17.
- ^AFP (16 August 2024)."Woman dies in Python attack after being swallowed up to her shoulders, Indonesia officials say".CBS News– via cbsnews.
- ^"The Keeping of Large Pythons".Anapsid.Retrieved16 September2007.
- ^"Large Constrictor Snake Attacks"(PDF).The Humane Society of The United States.July 2012. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2015-09-22.Retrieved2018-05-13.
- ^Pyron RA, Burbrink FT, Wiens JJ (April 2013)."A phylogeny and revised classification of Squamata, including 4161 species of lizards and snakes".BMC Evolutionary Biology.13(1): 93.Bibcode:2013BMCEE..13...93P.doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-93.PMC3682911.PMID23627680.
- ^Graham Reynolds R, Niemiller ML, Revell LJ (February 2014)."Toward a Tree-of-Life for the boas and Python s: multilocus species-level phylogeny with unprecedented taxon sampling"(PDF).Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.71:201–13.Bibcode:2014MolPE..71..201G.doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2013.11.011.PMID24315866.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2015-12-02.Retrieved2018-05-13.
- ^Kluge AG(1993)."Aspiditesand the phylogeny of Python ine snakes "(PDF).Records of the Australian Museum, Supplement.19:77.doi:10.3853/j.0812-7387.19.1993.52.ISBN0-7310-1164-3.
- ^McGrath M (2012-11-28)."Concerns raised over Python trade".Retrieved2019-03-14.
- ^abJensen TJ (5 September 2017)."Large snakes are on the menu at Cameroon's Nkoldongo bushmeat market".National Geographic Society Newsroom.Archived fromthe originalon January 8, 2018.Retrieved2019-03-14.
- ^Turk V (2014-04-02)."Snake Farms Could Tackle the Billion Dollar Black Market for Python Skin".Motherboard.Retrieved2019-03-14.
- ^Njeru G (2017-01-19)."The rising popularity of snake farms".Retrieved2019-03-14.
- ^"Potential Zoonoses/Hazards Associated with Reptiles"(PDF).Cornell Center for Animal Resources and Education.
- ^Ebani VV (August 2017)."Domestic reptiles as source of zoonotic bacteria: A mini review".Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine.10(8): 723–728.doi:10.1016/j.apjtm.2017.07.020.hdl:11568/880208.PMID28942820.
- ^Meyer Sauteur PM, Relly C, Hug M, Wittenbrink MM, Berger C (June 2013)."Risk factors for invasive reptile-associated salmonellosis in children"(PDF).Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases.13(6): 419–21.doi:10.1089/vbz.2012.1133.PMID23473215.S2CID1311418.
- ^abcSoewu DA (June 2008)."Wild animals in ethnozoological practices among the Yorubas of southwestern Nigeria and the implications for biodiversity conservation".African Journal of Agricultural Research.3(6): 421–7.
- ^Hoyer IJ, Blosser EM, Acevedo C, Thompson AC, Reeves LE, Burkett-Cadena ND (October 2017)."Mammal decline, linked to invasive Burmese Python, shifts host use of vector mosquito towards reservoir hosts of a zoonotic disease".Biology Letters.13(10): 20170353.doi:10.1098/rsbl.2017.0353.PMC5665769.PMID28978755.
- ^"Live worm found in Australian woman's brain in world first".BBC News.2023-08-29.Retrieved2023-09-26.
- ^abcdAlexander, Graham J.; Moshoeu, Thibedi J.; Williams, Vivienne L. (2016)."Reptiles sold as traditional medicine in Xipamanine and Xiquelene Markets (Maputo, Mozambique)".South African Journal of Science.112(7/8): 9.doi:10.17159/sajs.2016/20150416.ISSN0038-2353.
- ^abcdDasgupta SC, Gomes A, Mukherjee S (2017)."Zoo Therapeutic uses of Snake Body Parts in Folk & Traditional Medicine".Journal of Zoological Research.1(1): 1–9.doi:10.22259/2637-5575.0101001.
- ^Kajawu, Lazarus; Chingarande, Sunungurai D.; Jack, Helen; Ward, Catherine; Taylor, Tonya (2015)."What do African traditional medical practitioners do in the treatment of mental disorders in Zimbabwe?".International Journal of Culture and Mental Health.9(1): 44–55.doi:10.1080/17542863.2015.1106568.ISSN1754-2863.S2CID57728277.
- ^Falodun, A.; Owolabi, O. J.; Osahon, O. (2008)."Physicochemical, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory evaluation of fixed oil from Boa constrictor".Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica.65(4): 477–480.PMID19051590.
- ^Fita DS, Costa Neto EM, Schiavetti A (March 2010)."'Offensive' snakes: cultural beliefs and practices related to snakebites in a Brazilian rural settlement ".Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine.6:13.doi:10.1186/1746-4269-6-13.PMC2853519.PMID20346120.
- ^Vats R, Thomas S (May 2015)."A study on use of animals as traditional medicine by Sukuma Tribe of Busega District in North-western Tanzania".Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine.11(1): 38.doi:10.1186/s13002-015-0001-y.PMC4472419.PMID25947365.
- ^Diawuo F, Issifu AK (December 2015)."Exploring the African traditional belief systems in natural resource conservation and management in Ghana"(PDF).The Journal of Pan African Studies.8(9): 115–31.
- ^Vogt Y."World's oldest ritual discovered. Worshipped the Python 70,000 years ago".Apollon.University of Oslo.Retrieved2019-03-14.
- ^Fihlani, Pumza (2017-09-01)."Has voodoo been misjudged?".Retrieved2019-05-19.
External links
edit
- Pythonidaeat theReptarium.cz Reptile Database.Accessed 3 November 2008.