Radiation

For other uses, seeRadiation (disambiguation).

Inphysics,radiationis the emission or transmission ofenergyin the form ofwavesorparticlesthrough space or a material medium.This includes:

• electromagnetic radiationconsists ofphotons,such asradio waves,microwaves,infrared,visible light,ultraviolet,x-rays,andgamma radiation (γ)
• particle radiationconsists of particles of non-zerorest energy,such asAlpha radiation(α),beta radiation(β), proton radiation andneutron radiation
• acousticradiation,such asultrasound,sound,andseismic waves,dependent on a physicaltransmission medium
• gravitational radiation,in the form of gravitational waves, ripples inspacetime

Illustration of the relative abilities of three different types ofionizing radiationto penetrate solid matter. Typical Alpha particles (α) are stopped by a sheet of paper, while beta particles (β) are stopped by 3mm aluminum foil. Gamma radiation (γ) is dampened when it penetrates lead. Note caveats in the text about this simplified diagram.

The international symbol for types and levels of ionizing radiation (radioactivity) that are unsafe forunshieldedhumans. Radiation, in general, exists throughout nature, such as in light and sound.

Radiation is often categorized as eitherionizingornon-ionizingdepending on the energy of the radiated particles. Ionizing radiation carries more than 10electron volts (eV),which is enough toionizeatoms and molecules and breakchemical bonds.This is an important distinction due to the large difference in harmfulness to living organisms. A common source of ionizing radiation isradioactive materialsthat emit α, β, orγ radiation,consisting ofhelium nuclei,electronsorpositrons,andphotons,respectively. Other sources includeX-raysfrom medicalradiographyexaminations andmuons,mesons,positrons,neutronsand other particles that constitute the secondarycosmic raysthat are produced after primary cosmic rays interact withEarth's atmosphere.

Gamma rays, X-rays, and the higher energy range of ultraviolet light constitute the ionizing part of theelectromagnetic spectrum.The word "ionize" refers to the breaking of one or more electrons away from an atom, an action that requires the relatively high energies that these electromagnetic waves supply. Further down the spectrum, the non-ionizing lower energies of the lower ultraviolet spectrum cannot ionize atoms, but can disrupt the inter-atomic bonds that form molecules, thereby breaking down molecules rather than atoms; a good example of this is sunburn caused by long-wavelengthsolar ultraviolet. The waves of longer wavelength than UV in visible light, infrared, and microwave frequencies cannot break bonds but can cause vibrations in the bonds which are sensed asheat.Radio wavelengths and below generally are not regarded as harmful to biological systems. These are not sharp delineations of the energies; there is some overlap in the effects of specificfrequencies.

The word "radiation" arises from the phenomenon of wavesradiating(i.e., traveling outward in all directions) from a source. This aspect leads to a system ofmeasurements and physical unitsthat apply to all types of radiation. Because such radiation expands as it passes through space, and as its energy is conserved (in vacuum), the intensity of all types of radiation from apoint sourcefollows aninverse-square lawin relation to the distance from its source. Like any ideal law, the inverse-square law approximates a measured radiation intensity to the extent that the source approximates a geometric point.

Ionizing radiation

Main article:Ionizing radiation

Some kinds ofionizingradiation can be detected in acloud chamber.

Radiation with sufficiently high energy canionizeatoms; that is to say it can knockelectronsoff atoms, creating ions. Ionization occurs when an electron is stripped (or "knocked out" ) from an electron shell of the atom, which leaves the atom with a net positive charge. Because livingcellsand, more importantly, the DNA in those cells can be damaged by this ionization, exposure to ionizing radiation increases the risk ofcancer.Thus "ionizing radiation" is somewhat artificially separated from particle radiation and electromagnetic radiation, simply due to its great potential for biological damage. While an individual cell is made oftrillionsof atoms, only a small fraction of those will be ionized at low to moderate radiation powers. The probability of ionizing radiation causing cancer is dependent upon theabsorbed doseof the radiation and is a function of the damaging tendency of the type of radiation (equivalent dose) and the sensitivity of the irradiated organism or tissue (effective dose).

If the source of the ionizing radiation is a radioactive material or a nuclear process such asfissionorfusion,there isparticle radiationto consider. Particle radiation issubatomic particlesaccelerated torelativistic speedsby nuclear reactions. Because of theirmomenta,they are quite capable of knocking out electrons and ionizing materials, but since most have an electrical charge, they do not have the penetrating power of ionizing radiation. The exception is neutron particles; see below. There are several different kinds of these particles, but the majority areAlpha particles,beta particles,neutrons,andprotons.Roughly speaking, photons and particles with energies above about 10electron volts(eV) are ionizing (some authorities use 33 eV, the ionization energy for water). Particle radiation from radioactive material or cosmic rays almost invariably carries enough energy to be ionizing.

Most ionizing radiation originates from radioactive materials and space (cosmic rays), and as such is naturally present in the environment, since most rocks and soil have small concentrations of radioactive materials. Since this radiation is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses, instruments such asGeiger countersare usually required to detect its presence. In some cases, it may lead to secondary emission of visible light upon its interaction with matter, as in the case ofCherenkov radiationand radio-luminescence.

Graphic showing relationships between radioactivity and detected ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiation has many practical uses in medicine, research, and construction, but presents a health hazard if used improperly. Exposure to radiation causes damage to living tissue; high doses result inAcute radiation syndrome(ARS), with skin burns, hair loss, internal organ failure, and death, while any dose may result in an increased chance of cancer andgenetic damage;a particular form of cancer,thyroid cancer,often occurs when nuclear weapons and reactors are the radiation source because of the biological proclivities of the radioactive iodine fission product,iodine-131.However, calculating the exact risk and chance of cancer forming in cells caused by ionizing radiation is still not well understood, and currently estimates are loosely determined by population-based data from theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasakiand from follow-up of reactor accidents, such as theChernobyl disaster.TheInternational Commission on Radiological Protectionstates that "The Commission is aware of uncertainties and lack of precision of the models and parameter values", "Collective effective dose is not intended as a tool for epidemiological risk assessment, and it is inappropriate to use it in risk projections" and "in particular, the calculation of the number of cancer deaths based on collective effective doses from trivial individual doses should be avoided."

Ultraviolet radiation

Main article:Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet, of wavelengths from 10 nm to 125 nm, ionizes air molecules, causing it to be strongly absorbed by air and by ozone (O₃) in particular. Ionizing UV therefore does not penetrate Earth's atmosphere to a significant degree, and is sometimes referred to asvacuum ultraviolet.Although present in space, this part of the UVA spectrum is not of biological importance, because it does not reach living organisms on Earth.

There is a zone of the atmosphere in which ozone absorbs some 98% of non-ionizing but dangerous UV-C and UV-B. Thisozone layerstarts at about 20 miles (32 km) and extends upward. Some of the ultraviolet spectrum that does reach the ground is non-ionizing, but is still biologically hazardous due to the ability of single photons of this energy to cause electronic excitation in biological molecules, and thus damage them by means of unwanted reactions. An example is the formation ofpyrimidine dimersin DNA, which begins at wavelengths below 365 nm (3.4 eV), which is well below ionization energy. This property gives the ultraviolet spectrum some of the dangers of ionizing radiation in biological systems without actual ionization occurring. In contrast, visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, consists of photons with too little energy to cause damaging molecular excitation, and thus this radiation is far less hazardous per unit of energy.

X-rays

Main article:X-ray

X-rays are electromagnetic waves with a wavelength less than about 10⁻⁹m (greater than 3x10¹⁷Hz and 1,240 eV). A smaller wavelength corresponds to a higher energy according to the equationE=hc/λ.( "E" is Energy; "h" is Planck's constant; "c" is the speed of light; "λ" is wavelength.) When an X-ray photon collides with an atom, the atom may absorb the energy of the photon and boost an electron to a higher orbital level or if the photon is extremely energetic, it may knock an electron from the atom altogether, causing the atom to ionize. Generally, larger atoms are more likely to absorb an X-ray photon since they have greater energy differences between orbital electrons. The soft tissue in the human body is composed of smaller atoms than the calcium atoms that make up bone, so there is a contrast in the absorption of X-rays. X-ray machines are specifically designed to take advantage of the absorption difference between bone and soft tissue, allowing physicians to examine structure in the human body.

X-rays are also totally absorbed by the thickness of the earth's atmosphere, resulting in the prevention of the X-ray output of the sun, smaller in quantity than that of UV but nonetheless powerful, from reaching the surface.

Gamma radiation

Main article:Gamma ray

Gamma radiation detected in anisopropanolcloud chamber.

Gamma (γ) radiation consists of photons with a wavelength less than 3x10⁻¹¹meters (greater than 10¹⁹Hz and 41.4 keV).Gamma radiation emission is a nuclear process that occurs to rid an unstablenucleusof excess energy after most nuclear reactions. Both Alpha and beta particles have an electric charge and mass, and thus are quite likely to interact with other atoms in their path. Gamma radiation, however, is composed of photons, which have neither mass nor electric charge and, as a result, penetrates much further through matter than either Alpha or beta radiation.

Gamma rays can be stopped by a sufficiently thick or dense layer of material, where the stopping power of the material per given area depends mostly (but not entirely) on the total mass along the path of the radiation, regardless of whether the material is of high or low density. However, as is the case with X-rays, materials with a high atomic number such as lead ordepleted uraniumadd a modest (typically 20% to 30%) amount of stopping power over an equal mass of less dense and lower atomic weight materials (such as water or concrete). The atmosphere absorbs all gamma rays approaching Earth from space. Even air is capable of absorbing gamma rays, halving the energy of such waves by passing through, on the average, 500 ft (150 m).

Alpha radiation

Main article:Alpha decay

Alpha particledetected in anisopropanolcloud chamber

Alpha particles arehelium-4nuclei(two protons and two neutrons). They interact with matter strongly due to their charges and combined mass, and at their usual velocities only penetrate a few centimeters of air, or a few millimeters of low density material (such as the thin mica material which is specially placed in some Geiger counter tubes to allow Alpha particles in). This means that Alpha particles from ordinaryAlpha decaydo not penetrate the outer layers of dead skin cells and cause no damage to the live tissues below. Some very high energy Alpha particles compose about 10% ofcosmic rays,and these are capable of penetrating the body and even thin metal plates. However, they are of danger only to astronauts, since they are deflected by the Earth's magnetic field and then stopped by its atmosphere.

Alpha radiation is dangerous when Alpha -emittingradioisotopesare ingested or inhaled (breathed or swallowed). This brings the radioisotope close enough to sensitive live tissue for the Alpha radiation to damage cells. Per unit of energy, Alpha particles are at least 20 times more effective at cell-damage as gamma rays and X-rays. Seerelative biological effectivenessfor a discussion of this. Examples of highly poisonous Alpha -emitters are all isotopes ofradium,radon,andpolonium,due to the amount of decay that occur in these short half-life materials.

Beta radiation

Main article:Beta decay

Electrons(beta radiation) detected in anisopropanolcloud chamber

Beta-minus (β⁻) radiation consists of an energetic electron. It is more penetrating than Alpha radiation but less than gamma. Beta radiation fromradioactive decaycan be stopped with a few centimeters of plastic or a few millimeters of metal. It occurs when a neutron decays into a proton in a nucleus, releasing the beta particle and anantineutrino.Beta radiation fromlinacaccelerators is far more energetic and penetrating than natural beta radiation. It is sometimes used therapeutically inradiotherapyto treat superficial tumors.

Beta-plus (β⁺) radiation is the emission ofpositrons,which are theantimatterform of electrons. When a positron slows to speeds similar to those of electrons in the material, the positron will annihilate an electron, releasing two gamma photons of 511 keV in the process. Those two gamma photons will be traveling in (approximately) opposite direction. The gamma radiation from positron annihilation consists of high energy photons, and is also ionizing.

Neutron radiation

Main articles:Neutron radiationandNeutron temperature

Neutrons are categorized according to their speed/energy. Neutron radiation consists offree neutrons.These neutrons may be emitted during either spontaneous or induced nuclear fission. Neutrons are rare radiation particles; they are produced in large numbers only wherechain reactionfission or fusion reactions are active; this happens for about 10 microseconds in a thermonuclear explosion, or continuously inside an operating nuclear reactor; production of the neutrons stops almost immediately in the reactor when it goes non-critical.

Neutrons can make other objects, or material, radioactive. This process, calledneutron activation,is the primary method used to produce radioactive sources for use in medical, academic, and industrial applications. Even comparatively low speedthermal neutronscause neutron activation (in fact, they cause it more efficiently). Neutrons do not ionize atoms in the same way that charged particles such as protons and electrons do (by the excitation of an electron), because neutrons have no charge. It is through their absorption by nuclei which then become unstable that they cause ionization. Hence, neutrons are said to be "indirectly ionizing." Even neutrons without significant kinetic energy are indirectly ionizing, and are thus a significant radiation hazard. Not all materials are capable of neutron activation; in water, for example, the most common isotopes of both types atoms present (hydrogen and oxygen) capture neutrons and become heavier but remain stable forms of those atoms. Only the absorption of more than one neutron, a statistically rare occurrence, can activate a hydrogen atom, while oxygen requires two additional absorptions. Thus water is only very weakly capable of activation. The sodium in salt (as in sea water), on the other hand, need only absorb a single neutron to become Na-24, a very intense source of beta decay, with half-life of 15 hours.

In addition, high-energy (high-speed) neutrons have the ability to directly ionize atoms. One mechanism by which high energy neutrons ionize atoms is to strike the nucleus of an atom and knock the atom out of a molecule, leaving one or more electrons behind as thechemical bondis broken. This leads to production of chemicalfree radicals.In addition, very high energy neutrons can cause ionizing radiation by "neutron spallation" or knockout, wherein neutrons cause emission of high-energy protons from atomic nuclei (especially hydrogen nuclei) on impact. The last process imparts most of the neutron's energy to the proton, much like onebilliard ballstriking another. The charged protons and other products from such reactions are directly ionizing.

High-energy neutrons are very penetrating and can travel great distances in air (hundreds or even thousands of meters) and moderate distances (several meters) in common solids. They typically require hydrogen rich shielding, such as concrete or water, to block them within distances of less than a meter. A common source of neutron radiation occurs inside anuclear reactor,where a meters-thick water layer is used as effective shielding.

Cosmic radiation

Main article:Cosmic rays

There are two sources of high energy particles entering the Earth's atmosphere from outer space: the sun and deep space. The sun continuously emits particles, primarily free protons, in the solar wind, and occasionally augments the flow hugely withcoronal mass ejections(CME).

The particles from deep space (inter- and extra-galactic) are much less frequent, but of much higher energies. These particles are also mostly protons, with much of the remainder consisting of helions ( Alpha particles). A few completely ionized nuclei of heavier elements are present. The origin of these galactic cosmic rays is not yet well understood, but they seem to be remnants ofsupernovaeand especiallygamma-ray bursts(GRB), which feature magnetic fields capable of the huge accelerations measured from these particles. They may also be generated byquasars,which are galaxy-wide jet phenomena similar to GRBs but known for their much larger size, and which seem to be a violent part of the universe's early history.

Non-ionizing radiation

Main articles:Non-ionizing radiationandElectromagnetic radiation

Theelectromagnetic spectrum

The kinetic energy of particles of non-ionizing radiation is too small to produce charged ions when passing through matter. For non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation (see types below), the associated particles (photons) have only sufficient energy to change the rotational, vibrational or electronic valence configurations of molecules and atoms. The effect of non-ionizing forms of radiation on living tissue has only recently been studied. Nevertheless, different biological effects are observed for different types of non-ionizing radiation.

Even "non-ionizing" radiation is capable of causing thermal-ionization if it deposits enough heat to raise temperatures to ionization energies. These reactions occur at far higher energies than with ionization radiation, which requires only single particles to cause ionization. A familiar example of thermal ionization is the flame-ionization of a common fire, and thebrowningreactions in common food items induced by infrared radiation, during broiling-type cooking.

Theelectromagnetic spectrumis the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation frequencies.The electromagnetic spectrum (usually just spectrum) of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted by, or absorbed by, that particular object.

The non-ionizing portion of electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves that (as individual quanta or particles, seephoton) are not energetic enough to detach electrons from atoms or molecules and hence cause their ionization. These include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, and (sometimes) visible light. The lower frequencies of ultraviolet light may cause chemical changes and molecular damage similar to ionization, but is technically not ionizing. The highest frequencies of ultraviolet light, as well as all X-rays and gamma-rays are ionizing.

The occurrence of ionization depends on the energy of the individual particles or waves, and not on their number. An intense flood of particles or waves will not cause ionization if these particles or waves do not carry enough energy to be ionizing, unless they raise the temperature of a body to a point high enough to ionize small fractions of atoms or molecules by the process of thermal-ionization (this, however, requires relatively extreme radiation intensities).

Ultraviolet light

Main article:Ultraviolet

As noted above, the lower part of the spectrum of ultraviolet, called soft UV, from 3 eV to about 10 eV, is non-ionizing. However, the effects of non-ionizing ultraviolet on chemistry and the damage to biological systems exposed to it (including oxidation, mutation, and cancer) are such that even this part of ultraviolet is often compared with ionizing radiation.

Visible light

Main article:Light

Light, or visible light, is a very narrow range of electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye, or 380–750 nm which equates to a frequency range of 790 to 400 THz respectively.More broadly, physicists use the term "light" to mean electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths, whether visible or not.

Infrared

Main article:Infrared

Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.7 and 300 micrometers, which corresponds to a frequency range between 430 and 1 THz respectively. IR wavelengths are longer than that of visible light, but shorter than that of microwaves. Infrared may be detected at a distance from the radiating objects by "feel."Infrared sensing snakescan detect and focus infrared by use of a pinhole lens in their heads, called "pits". Bright sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level. Of this energy, 53% is infrared radiation, 44% is visible light, and 3% is ultraviolet radiation.

Microwave

Main article:Microwave

In electromagnetic radiation (such as microwaves from an antenna, shown here) the term "radiation" applies only to the parts of theelectromagnetic fieldthat radiate into infinite space and decrease in intensity by aninverse-square lawof power so that the total radiation energy that crosses through an imaginary spherical surface is the same, no matter how far away from the antenna the spherical surface is drawn.Electromagnetic radiationincludes thefar fieldpart of the electromagnetic field around a transmitter. A part of the "near-field" close to the transmitter, is part of the changing electromagnetic field, but does not count as electromagnetic radiation.

Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from as short as one millimeter to as long as one meter, which equates to a frequency range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz. This broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter waves), but various sources use different other limits.In all cases, microwaves include the entire super high frequency band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum, with RF engineering often putting the lower boundary at 1 GHz (30 cm), and the upper around 100 GHz (3mm).

Radio waves

Main article:Radio waves

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light. Naturally occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by certain astronomical objects. Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio communication, broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, satellite communication, computer networks and innumerable other applications. In addition, almost any wire carrying alternating current will radiate some of the energy away as radio waves; these are mostly termed interference. Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's atmosphere; long waves may bend at the rate of the curvature of the Earth and may cover a part of the Earth very consistently, shorter waves travel around the world by multiple reflections off the ionosphere and the Earth. Much shorter wavelengths bend or reflect very little and travel along the line of sight.

Very low frequency

Very low frequency (VLF) refers to a frequency range of 30 Hz to 3 kHz which corresponds to wavelengths of 100,000 to 10,000 meters respectively. Since there is not much bandwidth in this range of the radio spectrum, only the very simplest signals can be transmitted, such as for radio navigation. Also known as themyriameterband or myriameter wave as the wavelengths range from ten to one myriameter (an obsolete metric unit equal to 10 kilometers).

Extremely low frequency

Main article:Extremely low frequency

Extremely low frequency (ELF) is radiation frequencies from 3 to 30 Hz (10⁸to 10⁷meters respectively). In atmosphere science, an alternative definition is usually given, from 3 Hz to 3 kHz.In the related magnetosphere science, the lower frequency electromagnetic oscillations (pulsations occurring below ~3 Hz) are considered to lie in the ULF range, which is thus also defined differently from the ITU Radio Bands. A massive military ELF antenna in Michigan radiates very slow messages to otherwise unreachable receivers, such as submerged submarines.

Thermal radiation (heat)

Main article:Thermal radiation

Thermal radiation is a common synonym for infrared radiation emitted by objects at temperatures often encountered on Earth. Thermal radiation refers not only to the radiation itself, but also the process by which the surface of an object radiates itsthermal energyin the form of black-body radiation. Infrared or red radiation from a common household radiator or electric heater is an example of thermal radiation, as is the heat emitted by an operating incandescent light bulb. Thermal radiation is generated when energy from the movement of charged particles within atoms is converted to electromagnetic radiation.

As noted above, even low-frequency thermal radiation may cause temperature-ionization whenever it deposits sufficient thermal energy to raise temperatures to a high enough level. Common examples of this are the ionization (plasma) seen in common flames, and the molecular changes caused by the "browning"during food-cooking, which is a chemical process that begins with a large component of ionization.

Black-body radiation

Main article:Black-body radiation

Black-bodyradiationis an idealized spectrum of radiation emitted by a body that is at a uniform temperature. The shape of the spectrum and the total amount of energy emitted by the body is a function of the absolute temperature of that body. The radiation emitted covers the entire electromagnetic spectrum and the intensity of the radiation (power/unit-area) at a given frequency is described byPlanck's lawof radiation. For a given temperature of a black-body there is a particular frequency at which the radiation emitted is at its maximum intensity. That maximum radiation frequency moves toward higher frequencies as the temperature of the body increases. The frequency at which the black-body radiation is at maximum is given byWien's displacement lawand is a function of the body's absolute temperature. A black-body is one that emits at any temperature the maximum possible amount of radiation at any given wavelength. A black-body will also absorb the maximum possible incident radiation at any given wavelength. A black-body with a temperature at or below room temperature would thus appear absolutely black, as it would not reflect any incident light nor would it emit enough radiation at visible wavelengths for our eyes to detect. Theoretically, a black-body emits electromagnetic radiation over the entire spectrum from very low frequency radio waves to x-rays, creating a continuum of radiation.

The color of a radiating black-body tells the temperature of its radiating surface. It is responsible for the color ofstars,which vary from infrared through red (2,500K), to yellow (5,800K), to white and to blue-white (15,000K) as the peak radiance passes through those points in the visible spectrum. When the peak is below the visible spectrum the body is black, while when it is above the body is blue-white, since all the visible colors are represented from blue decreasing to red.

Discovery

Further information:Electromagnetic radiation § History of discovery

Electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths other than visible light were discovered in the early 19th century. The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed toWilliam Herschel,theastronomer.Herschel published his results in 1800 before theRoyal Society of London.Herschel, like Ritter, used aprismtorefractlight from theSunand detected the infrared (beyond theredpart of the spectrum), through an increase in the temperature recorded by athermometer.

In 1801, the German physicistJohann Wilhelm Rittermade the discovery of ultraviolet by noting that the rays from a prism darkenedsilver chloridepreparations more quickly than violet light. Ritter's experiments were an early precursor to what would become photography. Ritter noted that the UV rays were capable of causing chemical reactions.

The first radio waves detected were not from a natural source, but were produced deliberately and artificially by the German scientistHeinrich Hertzin 1887, using electrical circuits calculated to produce oscillations in the radio frequency range, following formulas suggested by the equations ofJames Clerk Maxwell.

Wilhelm Röntgendiscovered and namedX-rays.While experimenting with high voltages applied to an evacuated tube on 8 November 1895, he noticed a fluorescence on a nearby plate of coated glass. Within a month, he discovered the main properties of X-rays that we understand to this day.

In 1896,Henri Becquerelfound that rays emanating from certain minerals penetrated black paper and caused fogging of an unexposed photographic plate. His doctoral studentMarie Curiediscovered that only certain chemical elements gave off these rays of energy. She named this behaviorradioactivity.

Alpha rays ( Alpha particles) and beta rays (beta particles) were differentiated byErnest Rutherfordthrough simple experimentation in 1899. Rutherford used a generic pitchblende radioactive source and determined that the rays produced by the source had differing penetrations in materials. One type had short penetration (it was stopped by paper) and a positive charge, which Rutherford namedAlpha rays.The other was more penetrating (able to expose film through paper but not metal) and had a negative charge, and this type Rutherford namedbeta.This was the radiation that had been first detected by Becquerel from uranium salts. In 1900, the French scientistPaul Villarddiscovered a third neutrally charged and especially penetrating type of radiation from radium, and after he described it, Rutherford realized it must be yet a third type of radiation, which in 1903 Rutherford namedgamma rays.

Henri Becquerel himself proved that beta rays are fast electrons, while Rutherford andThomas Roydsproved in 1909 that Alpha particles are ionized helium. Rutherford andEdward Andradeproved in 1914 that gamma rays are like X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths.

Cosmic ray radiations striking the Earth from outer space were finally definitively recognized and proven to exist in 1912, as the scientistVictor Hesscarried anelectrometerto various altitudes in a free balloon flight. The nature of these radiations was only gradually understood in later years.

TheNeutronandneutron radiationwere discovered byJames Chadwickin 1932. A number of other high energy particulate radiations such aspositrons,muons,andpionswere discovered by cloud chamber examination of cosmic ray reactions shortly thereafter, and others types of particle radiation were produced artificially inparticle accelerators,through the last half of the twentieth century.

Applications

Medicine

Main articles:Medical radiographyandMedical radiation scientist

Radiation and radioactive substances are used for diagnosis, treatment, and research. X-rays, for example, pass through muscles and other soft tissue but are stopped by dense materials. This property of X-rays enables doctors to find broken bones and to locate cancers that might be growing in the body.Doctors also find certain diseases by injecting a radioactive substance and monitoring the radiation given off as the substance moves through the body.Radiation used for cancer treatment is called ionizing radiation because it forms ions in the cells of the tissues it passes through as it dislodges electrons from atoms. This can kill cells or change genes so the cells cannot grow. Other forms of radiation such as radio waves, microwaves, and light waves are called non-ionizing. They do not have as much energy so they are not able to ionize cells.

Communication

All modern communication systems use forms of electromagnetic radiation. Variations in the intensity of the radiation represent changes in the sound, pictures, or other information being transmitted. For example, a human voice can be sent as a radio wave or microwave by making the wave vary to corresponding variations in the voice. Musicians have also experimented with gamma rays sonification, or using nuclear radiation, to produce sound and music.

Science

Researchers use radioactive atoms to determine the age of materials that were once part of a living organism. The age of such materials can be estimated by measuring the amount of radioactive carbon they contain in a process calledradiocarbon dating.Similarly, using other radioactive elements, the age of rocks and other geological features (even some man-made objects) can be determined; this is calledRadiometric dating.Environmental scientists use radioactive atoms, known astracer atoms,to identify the pathways taken by pollutants through the environment.

Radiation is used to determine the composition of materials in a process calledneutron activation analysis.In this process, scientists bombard a sample of a substance with particles called neutrons. Some of the atoms in the sample absorb neutrons and become radioactive. The scientists can identify the elements in the sample by studying the emitted radiation.

Possible damage to health and environment from certain types of radiation

See also:Electromagnetic radiation and health

Radiation is not always dangerous, and not all types of radiation are equally dangerous, contrary to several common medical myths.For example, althoughbananascontain naturally occurringradioactive isotopes,particularlypotassium-40(⁴⁰K), which emit ionizing radiation when undergoing radioactive decay, the levels of such radiation are far too low to induceradiation poisoning,andbananas are not a radiation hazard.It would not be physically possible to eat enough bananas to cause radiation poisoning, asthe radiation dose from bananas is non-cumulative.Radiation is ubiquitous on Earth, and humans are adapted to survive at the normal low-to-moderate levels of radiation found on Earth's surface.The relationship between dose and toxicity is often non-linear,and many substances that are toxic at very high doses actually have neutral or positive health effects, or are biologically essential, at moderate or low doses. There is some evidence to suggest that this is true for ionizing radiation: normal levels of ionizing radiation may serve to stimulate and regulate the activity ofDNA repair mechanisms.High enough levelsof any kind of radiation will eventually become lethal, however.

Ionizing radiation in certain conditions can damage living organisms, causing cancer or genetic damage.

Non-ionizing radiation in certain conditions also can cause damage to living organisms, such asburns.In 2011, theInternational Agency for Research on Cancer(IARC) of theWorld Health Organization(WHO) released a statement adding radio frequency electromagnetic fields (including microwave and millimeter waves) to their list of things which are possibly carcinogenic to humans.

RWTH Aachen University's EMF-Portal web site presents one of the biggest database about the effects ofElectromagnetic radiation.As of 12 July 2019 it has 28,547 publications and 6,369 summaries of individual scientific studies on the effects of electromagnetic fields.

Environmental radioactivity

Main article:Environmental radioactivity

AGM2015: A wordlwide v̄_eflux map combining geoneutrinos from natural 238U and 232Th decay in the Earth’s crust and mantle as well as manmade reactor-v̄_eemitted by power reactors worldwide.

On Earth there are different sources of radiation, natural as well as artificial. Natural radiation can come from the Sun, Earth itself or fromcosmic radiation.

See also

• Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA)
• Background radiation,which actually refers to background ionizing radiation
• Cherenkov radiation
• Cosmic microwave background radiation,3Kblackbody radiationthat fills theUniverse
• Electromagnetic spectrum
• FASTRAD
• Hawking radiation
• Ionizing radiation
• Non-ionizing radiation
• Radiant energy,radiation by a source into the surrounding environment.
• Radiation damage– adverse effects of ionizing radiation on materials and devices
• Radiation hardening– making electronics resistant to failure in high ionizing radiation environments
• Radiation hormesis– ionizing radiation dosage threshold damage theory
• Radiation poisoning– adverse effects of ionizing radiation on life forms
• Radiation properties
• Radiation Protection Convention, 1960– byInternational Labour Organization
• Radioactive contamination
• Radioactive decay

External links

• RadiationonIn Our Timeat theBBC
• Health Physics Society Public Education Website
• Ionizing Radiation and Radonfrom World Health Organization
• Q&A: Health effects of radiation exposure,BBC News,21 July 2011.
• John Tyndall(1865),On Radiation: the "Rede" Lecture delivered in the Senate-House before the University of Cambridge on Tuesday, May 16, 1865,Rede Lecture(1st ed.), London:Longman,LCCN05005356,OCLC4920745,WikidataQ19086230