Wikipedia

Looting

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"Plunder" redirects here. For other uses, seePlunder (disambiguation).

Lootingis the act of stealing, or the taking of goods by force, typically in the midst of a military, political, or other social crisis, such aswar,[1]natural disasters(where law and civil enforcement are temporarily ineffective),[2]orrioting.[3]The proceeds of all these activities can be described asbooty,loot,plunder,spoils,orpillage.[4][5]

The plundering of theFrankfurter Judengasse,22 August 1614

During modern-dayarmed conflicts,looting is prohibited byinternational law,and constitutes awar crime.[6][7]

After disasters

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During a disaster,policeandmilitaryforces are sometimes unable to prevent looting when they are overwhelmed by humanitarian or combat concerns, or they cannot be summoned because of damaged communications infrastructure. Especially during natural disasters, many civilians may find themselves forced to take what does not belong to them in order to survive.[8]How to respond to that and where the line between unnecessary "looting" and necessary "scavenging"lies are often dilemmas for governments.[9][10]In other cases, looting may be tolerated or even encouraged by governments for political or other reasons, including religious, social or economic ones.

History

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In armed conflict

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Thesacking and looting of Mechelen by Spanish troopsled by theDuke of Alba,2 October 1572

Looting by a victorious army during war has been a common practice throughout recorded history.[11]Foot soldiers viewed plunder as a way to supplement an often-meagre income[12]and transferred wealth became part of the celebration of victory. In the wake of theNapoleonic Warsand particularly afterWorld War II,norms against wartime plunder became widely accepted.[11]

In the upper ranks, the proud exhibition of the loot plundered formed an integral part of the typicalRoman triumph,andGenghis Khanwas not unusual in proclaiming that the greatest happiness was "to vanquish your enemies... to rob them of their wealth".[13]

In ancient times, looting was sometimes prohibited due to religious concerns. For example,King Clovis Iof the Franks, forbade his soldiers to loot when they campaigned nearSt Martin's shrine in Tours, for fear of offending the saint.[14]Moses, Joshua and Samuel at various points ordered the Israelites not to take loot from their enemies due to God's commandment.

In warfare in ancient times, the spoils of war included the defeated populations, which were oftenenslaved.Women and children might become absorbed into the victorious country's population, asconcubines,eunuchsand slaves.[15][16]In other pre-modern societies, objects made of precious metals were the preferred target of war looting, largely because of their ease of portability. In many cases, looting offered an opportunity to obtaintreasures and works of artthat otherwise would not have been obtainable. Beginning in theearly modern periodand reaching its peak in theNew Imperialismera,European colonial powersfrequently looted areas they captured during military campaigns against non-European states.[17]In the 1930s, and even more so during theSecond World War,Nazi Germanyengaged in large-scale and organizedlooting of art and property,particularlyin Nazi-occupied Poland.[18][19]

Looting, combined with poormilitary discipline,has occasionally been an army's downfall[citation needed]since troops who have dispersed to ransack an area may become vulnerable to counter-attack, a good example being during the 1967First Invasion of Onitsha,where the victoriousNigerian troopswere encircled and annihilated while looting. In other cases, for example, theWahhabi sack of Karbalain 1801 or 1802, loot has contributed to further victories for an army.[20]Not all looters in wartime are conquerors; the looting ofVistula Landby the retreatingImperial Russian Armyin 1915[21]was among the factors sapping the loyalty ofPoles to Russia.Local civilians can also take advantage of a breakdown of order to loot public and private property, as took place at theIraq Museumin the course of theIraq Warin 2003.[22]Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy's novelWar and Peacedescribes widespread looting byMoscow's citizens beforeNapoleon's troopsentered the cityin 1812, along with looting byFrench troopselsewhere.

In 1990 and 1991, during theGulf War,Saddam Hussein's soldiers caused significant damage to both Kuwaiti and Saudi infrastructure. They also stole from private companies and homes.[23][24]In April 2003, looters broke into the National Museum of Iraq, and thousands of artefacts remain missing.[25][26]

Syrian conservation sites and museums werelooted during the Syrian Civil War,with items being sold on the internationalblack market.[27][28]Reports from 2012 suggested that the antiquities were being traded forweaponsby the various combatants.[29][30]

Prohibited under international law

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Bothcustomary international lawand internationaltreatiesprohibit pillage inarmed conflict.[6]TheLieber Code,the Brussels Declaration (1874), and theOxford Manualhave recognized the prohibition against pillage.[6]TheHague Conventions of 1899 and 1907(modified in 1954) obliges military forces not only to avoid the destruction of enemy property but also to provide for its protection.[31]Article 8 of theStatute of the International Criminal Courtprovides that in international warfare, "pillaging a town or place, even when taken by assault", is awar crime.[6]In the aftermath ofWorld War II,a number of war criminals were prosecuted for pillage. TheInternational Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(1993–2017) brought several prosecutions for pillage.[6]

TheFourth Geneva Conventionof 1949 explicitly prohibits the looting of civilian property during wartime.[6][32]

Theoretically, to prevent such looting, unclaimed property is moved to the custody of theCustodian of Enemy Property,to be handled until returned to its owners.

Modern conflicts

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Vandalizedand lootedAldiStore during theGeorge Floyd protests in Minneapolis,May 28 2020.

Despite international prohibitions against the practice of looting, the ease with which it can be done means that it remains relatively common, particularly during outbreaks ofcivil unrestduring which rules of war may not yet apply. The2011 Egyptian Revolution,for example, caused a significant increase in the looting ofantiquitiesfrom archaeological sites in Egypt, as the government lost the ability to protect the sites.[33]Other acts of modern looting, such as the looting and destruction of artifacts from theNational Museum of IraqbyIslamic Statemilitants, can be used as an easy way to express contempt for the concept of rules of war altogether.[34]

In the case of a sudden change in a country or region's government, it can be difficult to determine what constitutes looting as opposed to a new government taking custody of the property in question. This can be especially difficult if the new government is only partially recognized at the time the property is moved, as was the case during the2021 Taliban offensive,during which a number of artifacts and a large amount of property of former government officials who had fled the country fell into the hands of theTalibanbefore they were recognized as the legitimate government ofAfghanistanby other countries. Further looting and burning of civilian homes and villages has been defended by the Taliban as within their right as the legitimate government of Afghanistan.[35]

Looting can also be common in cases wherecivil unrestis contained largely within the borders of a country or during peacetime. Riots in the wake of the2020 George Floyd protestsin numerous American cities led to increased amounts of looting, as looters took advantage of the delicate political situation and civil unrest surrounding the riots themselves.[36][37][38]Up to 175Targetstores closed Nationwide during the disturbances.[39][40]

During the ongoingKashmir conflict,looting ofKashmiristrapped between theIndianandPakistanimilitarized zones is common and widespread.[41]

In 2022, international observers accusedRussiaof engaging in large scale looting during theRusso-Ukrainian War,reporting the widespread looting of everything from food to industrial equipment.[42]Despite the publication of numerous photos and videos by Ukrainian journalists and civilians, numerous Russian commanders have denied these claims. International observers have theorized that this looting is either the result of direct orders, despite to Russia's claims to the contrary, or due to Russian soldiers not being issued with adequate food and other resources by their commanders.[43]

Archaeological removals

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Further information:Grave robbery

The term "looting" is also sometimes used to refer toantiquitiesbeing removed from countries by unauthorized people, either domestic people breaking the law seeking monetary gain or foreign nations, which are usually more interested in prestige or previously, "scientific discovery". An example might be the removal of the contents of Egyptian tombs that were transported to museums across theWest.[44]

Looting of industry

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As part ofWorld War II reparations,Soviet forces systematically plundered theSoviet occupation zoneof Germany, including theRecovered Territories,which later transferred to Poland. The Soviets sent valuable industrial equipment, infrastructure and whole factories to the Soviet Union.[45][46]

Many factories in therebels' zone ofAleppoduring theSyrian Civil Warwere reported as being plundered and their assets transferred abroad.[47][48]Agricultural production and electronic power plants were also seized, to be sold elsewhere.[49][50]

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See also

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References

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  1. ^"Baghdad protests over looting".BBC News.BBC. 2003-04-12.Retrieved2010-10-22.
  2. ^"World: Americas Looting frenzy in quake city".BBC News.1999-01-28.Retrieved2010-10-22.
  3. ^"Argentine president resigns".BBC News.2001-12-21.Retrieved2010-10-22.
  4. ^"the definition of looting".Dictionary.Retrieved2016-12-12.
  5. ^"Booty – Define Booty at Dictionary".
  6. ^abcdefRule 52. Pillage is prohibited.,Customary IHL Database,International Committee of the Red Cross(ICRC)/Cambridge University Press.
  7. ^Hague Convention on the Law and Customs of War on Land(Hague II),article 28.
  8. ^Sawer, Philip Sherwell and Patrick (2010-01-16)."Haiti earthquake: looting and gun-fights break out".The Daily Telegraph.ISSN0307-1235.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-12.Retrieved2020-07-13.
  9. ^"Indonesian food minister tolerates looting".BBC News.July 21, 1998.RetrievedMay 11,2010.
  10. ^Jacob, Binu; Mawson, Anthony R.; Payton, Marinelle; Guignard, John C. (2008)."Disaster Mythology and Fact: Hurricane Katrina and Social Attachment".Public Health Reports.123(5): 555–566.doi:10.1177/003335490812300505.ISSN0033-3549.PMC2496928.PMID18828410.
  11. ^abSandholtz, Wayne (2008)."Dynamics of International Norm Change: Rules against Wartime Plunder".European Journal of International Relations.14(1): 101–131.doi:10.1177/1354066107087766.ISSN1354-0661.S2CID143721778.
  12. ^Hsi-sheng Chi,Warlord politics in China, 1916–1928,Stanford University Press, 1976,ISBN0804708940,str. 93
  13. ^Henry Hoyle HoworthHistory of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: Part 1 the Mongols Proper and the Kalmyks,Cosimo Inc. 2008.
  14. ^A History of the Franks, Gregory of Tours. Pantianos classics, 1916
  15. ^John K. Thorton,African Background in American Colonization,inThe Cambridge economic history of the United States,Stanley L. Engerman, Robert E. Gallman (ed.), Cambridge University Press, 1996,ISBN0521394422,p. 87. "African states waged war to acquire slaves [...] raids that appear to have been more concerned with obtaining loot (including slaves) than other objectives."
  16. ^Sir John Bagot Glubb,The Empire of the Arabs,Hodder and Stoughton, 1963, p. 283. "...thousand Christian captives formed part of the loot and were subsequently sold as slaves in the markets of Syria".
  17. ^Cuno, James(2002).Whose Culture?: The Promise of Museums and the Debate over Antiquities.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0691154435.
  18. ^(in Polish)J. R. Kudelski,Tajemnice nazistowskiej grabieży polskich zbiorów sztuki,Warszawa 2004.
  19. ^"Nazi loot claim 'compelling'".BBC News.October 2, 2002.RetrievedMay 11,2010.
  20. ^Wayne H. Bowen,The History of Saudi Arabia,Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 73.ISBN0313340129
  21. ^(in Polish)Andrzej Garlicki,Z dziejów Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej,Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1986,ISBN8302022454,p. 147
  22. ^Myers, Steven Lee,Iraq Museum Reopens Six Years After Looting,New York Times, February 23, 2009
  23. ^Kelly, Michael (1991-03-24)."The Rape and Rescue of Kuwaiti City".The New Republic.ISSN0028-6583.Retrieved2020-06-10.
  24. ^"Oil Fires in Iraq".earthobservatory.nasa.gov.2016-09-02.Retrieved2020-06-10.
  25. ^Barker, Craig."Fifteen years after looting, thousands of artefacts are still missing from Iraq's national museum".The Conversation.Retrieved2020-07-13.
  26. ^Samuel, Sigal (2018-03-19)."It's Disturbingly Easy to Buy Iraq's Archeological Treasures".The Atlantic.Retrieved2020-07-13.
  27. ^Swann, Steve (2019-05-02)."'Loot-to-order' antiquities sold on Facebook ".BBC News.Retrieved2020-07-10.
  28. ^Harkin, James."The Race to Save Syria's Archaeological Treasures".Smithsonian.Retrieved2020-07-10.
  29. ^Baker, Aryn (2012-09-12)."Syria's Looted Past: How Ancient Artifacts Are Being Traded for Guns".Time.ISSN0040-781X.Retrieved2020-07-10.
  30. ^Jaber, Hala; Arbuthnott, George."Syrians loot Roman treasures to buy guns".The Times.ISSN0140-0460.Retrieved2020-07-10.
  31. ^Barbara T. Hoffman,Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy, and Practice,Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 57.ISBN0521857643
  32. ^E. Lauterpacht, C. J. Greenwood, Marc Weller,The Kuwait Crisis: Basic Documents,Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 154.ISBN0521463084
  33. ^Gannon, Megan.""Space Archaeologists" Show Spike in Looting at Egypt's Ancient Sites ".Scientific American.Retrieved2022-09-20.
  34. ^"'Cultural War': Iraq Mourns Relics Destroyed by ISIS ".NBC News.29 June 2015.Retrieved2022-09-20.
  35. ^"Taliban looted, torched Afghan homes after evicting residents -Human Rights Watch".Reuters.2021-07-07.Retrieved2022-09-20.
  36. ^Wagner, Dennis (2020-06-15)."'Peaceful protests got hijacked': Some criminals used George Floyd protests as cover for looting, police say ".USA Today.Retrieved2022-09-20.
  37. ^Tingston, Nhx (June 6, 2020)."Looter from BLM and George Floyd Protest Bragged About Theft on Facebook While Offering Stolen Goods for Sale".Techtimes.RetrievedMarch 5,2024.
  38. ^"List: Austin businesses looted during protests".kvue.2020-06-01.Retrieved2024-03-05.
  39. ^Voytko, Lisette (2020-05-31)."Target Closes 175 Stores Nationwide In Wake Of George Floyd Protests, Looting".Forbes.Retrieved2024-03-05.
  40. ^"VIDEO: People loot Minneapolis Target in wake of George Floyd protests".KRON4.2020-05-28.Retrieved2024-03-05.
  41. ^"Two arrested for beating, looting homeless man in Srinagar: Police".The Kashmir Walla.2022-09-12. Archived from the original on September 12, 2022.Retrieved2022-09-20.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  42. ^Fylyppov, Olexsandr; Lister, Tim (May 2, 2022)."Russians plunder $5M farm vehicles from Ukraine – to find they've been remotely disabled".CNN.Retrieved21 June2022.
  43. ^"'Hungry' Russian Soldiers Loot Ukrainian Shops ".rferl.Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty. 2 March 2022.Retrieved21 June2022.
  44. ^"Egypt's Antiquities Chief Combines Passion, Clout to Protect Artifacts".National Geographic News. October 24, 2006. Archived fromthe originalon November 6, 2006.
  45. ^"Między Modernizacja a Marnotrawstwem"(in Polish).Institute of National Remembrance.Archived fromthe originalon 2005-03-21.See alsoother copy onlineArchived2007-04-26 at theWayback Machine
  46. ^"Armia Czerwona na Dolnym Śląski"(in Polish).Institute of National Remembrance.Archived fromthe originalon 2005-03-21.
  47. ^"Turkey looted Syria factory: Damascus – World News".Hürriyet Daily News.10 January 2013.Retrieved2020-07-10.
  48. ^Webel, Charles; Tomass, Mark (2017).Assessing the War on Terror: Western and Middle Eastern Perspectives.Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-1315469164.
  49. ^Aljaleel, Alaa; Darke, Diana (2019).The Last Sanctuary in Aleppo: A remarkable true story of courage, hope and survival.Headline.ISBN978-1472260550.
  50. ^Badcock, James (2019-01-14)."Turkey accused of plundering olive oil from Syria to sell in the EU".The Telegraph.ISSN0307-1235.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-12.Retrieved2020-07-13.

Sources

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  • Abudu, Margaret, et al., "Black Ghetto Violence: A Case Study Inquiry into the Spatial Pattern of Four Los Angeles Riot Event-Types", 44Social Problems483 (1997)
  • Curvin, Robert and Bruce Porter (1979),Blackout Looting
  • Dynes, Russell & Enrico L. Quarantelli, "What Looting in Civil Disturbances Really Means", inModern Criminals177 (James F. Short Jr., ed., 1970)
  • Green, Stuart P.,"Looting, Law, and Lawlessness",81Tulane Law Review1129 (2007)
  • Mac Ginty, Roger, "Looting in the Context of Violent Conflict: A Conceptualisation and Typology", 25Third World Quarterly857 (2004).JSTOR3993697.
  • Stewart, James,"Corporate War Crimes: Prosecuting Pillage of Natural Resources", 2010
  • Kończal, Kornelia (2017),Politics of Plunder. Post-German Property and the Reconstruction of East Central Europe after the Second World War.EUI Florence.
  • Kończal, Kornelia (2014),Das Schreiben und das Schweigen über die Plünderung des deutschen Eigentums. Die identitätsstiftende Figur des szabrownik im Nachkriegspolen,in: Włodzimierz Bialik, Czesław Karolak und Maria Wojtczak (ed.): Ungeduld der Erkenntnis. Eine klischeewidrige Festschrift für Hubert Orłowski, Peter Lang, Frankfurt a. M., p. 155–170.
  • Kończal, Kornelia (2017),The Quest for German Property in East Central Europe after 1945: The Semantics of Plunder and the Sense of Reconstruction,in: Yvonne Kleinmann among others (ed.): Imaginations and Configurations of Polish Society. From the Middle Ages through the Twentieth Century, Göttingen: Wallstein, p. 291–312.
  • Kończal, Kornelia (2021),German Property and the Reconstruction of East Central Europe after 1945: Politics, Practices and Pitfalls of Confiscation,in: European Review of History. Revue européenne d’histoire 28 (2), p. 278–300.
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  • Media related toLootingat Wikimedia Commons
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