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Reusable launch vehicle

(Redirected fromReusable launch system)

Areusable launch vehiclehas parts that can be recovered and reflown, while carryingpayloadsfrom the surface toouter space.Rocket stagesare the most commonlaunch vehicleparts aimed for reuse. Smaller parts such asrocket enginesandboosterscan also be reused, thoughreusable spacecraftmay be launched on top of an expendable launch vehicle. Reusable launch vehicles do not need to make these parts for each launch, therefore reducing itslaunch costsignificantly. However, these benefits are diminished by the cost of recovery and refurbishment.

Booster hooked up on a crane
Recovery ofFalcon 9first-stage booster after itsfirst landing

Reusable launch vehicles may contain additionalavionicsandpropellant,making them heavier than their expendable counterparts. Reused parts may need toenter the atmosphereand navigate through it, so they are often equipped withheat shields,grid fins,and otherflight control surfaces.By modifying their shape,spaceplanescan leverageaviationmechanics to aid in its recovery, such asglidingorlift.In the atmosphere,parachutesorretrorocketsmay also be needed to slow it down further. Reusable parts may also need specialized recovery facilities such asrunwaysorautonomous spaceport drone ships.Some concepts rely on ground infrastructures such asmass driversto accelerate the launch vehicle beforehand.

Since at least in the early 20th century,single-stage-to-orbitreusable launch vehicles have existed inscience fiction.In the 1970s, the first reusable launch vehicle, theSpace Shuttle,was developed. However, in the 1990s, due to the program's failure to meet expectations, reusable launch vehicle concepts were reduced to prototype testing. The rise ofprivate spaceflightcompanies in the 2000s and 2010s lead to a resurgence of their development, such as inSpaceShipOne,New Shepard,Electron,Falcon 9,andFalcon Heavy.Many launch vehicles are now expected to debut with reusability in the 2020s, such asStarship,New Glenn,Neutron,Soyuz-7,Ariane Next,Long March,Terran R,and the Dawn Mk-II Aurora.[1]

The impact of reusability in launch vehicles has been foundational in the space flight industry. So much so that in 2024, theCape Canaveral Space Force Stationinitiated a 50 year forward looking plan for the Cape that involved major infrastructure upgrades (including toPort Canaveral) to support a higher anticipated launch cadence and landing sites for the new generation of vehicles.[2]

Configurations

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Reusable launch systems may be either fully or partially reusable.

Fully reusable launch vehicle

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Several companies are currently developing fully reusable launch vehicles as of March 2024. Each of them is working on atwo-stage-to-orbitsystem.SpaceXis testingStarship,which has been in development since 2016 and has madean initial test flightin April 2023[3]and 5 more flights as of November 2024.Blue Origin,withProject Jarvis,began development work by early 2021, but has announced no date for testing and have not discussed the project publicly.[4]Stoke Spaceis also developing a rocket which is planned to be reusable.[5][6]

As of October 2024,Starship is the onlylaunch vehicleintended to be fully reusable that has been fully built and tested. The most recent test flight was on October 13, 2024, in which the vehicle completed a suborbital launch and landed both stages for the second time. TheSuper Heavybooster was caught successfully by the "chopstick system" on Orbital Pad A for the first time. The Ship completed its second successful reentry and returned for a controlled splashdown in the Indian Ocean. The test marked the second instance that could be considered meeting all requirements to be fully reusable.[7][failed verification–see discussion]

Partially reusable launch systems

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Partial reusable launch systems, in the form of multiple stage to orbit systems have been so far the only reusable configurations in use.

Specific component reuse

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The historicSpace Shuttlereused itsSolid Rocket Boosters,itsRS-25engines and theSpace Shuttle orbiterthat acted as an orbital insertion stage, but it did not reuse theExternal Tankthat fed the RS-25 engines. This is an example of a reusable launch system which reuses specific components of rockets.ULA’sVulcan Centaurwas originally designed to reuse the first stage engines, while the tank is expended. The engines would splashdown on an inflatableaeroshell,then be recovered. On 23 February 2024, one of the nine Merlin engines a powering aFalcon 9launched for the 22nd time, making it the most reused liquid fuel engine used in an operational manner, having already surpassedSpace Shuttle Main Enginenumber 2019's record of 19 flights.

Liftoff stages

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As of 2024,Falcon 9andFalcon Heavyare the only orbital rockets to reuse their boosters, although multiple other systems are in development. All aircraft-launched rockets reuse the aircraft.

Other than that a range ofnon-rocket liftoff systemshave been proposed and explored over time as reusable systems for liftoff, from balloons[8][relevant?]tospace elevators.Existing examples are systems which employ winged horizontal jet-engine powered liftoff. Such aircraft canair launchexpendable rockets and can because of that be considered partially reusable systems if the aircraft is thought of as the first stage of the launch vehicle. An example of this configuration is theOrbital Sciences Pegasus.For suborbital flight theSpaceShipTwouses for liftoff a carrier plane, itsmothershiptheScaled Composites White Knight Two.Rocket Lab is working onNeutron,and theEuropean Space Agencyis working onThemis.Both vehicles are planned to recover the first stage.[9][10]

Orbital insertion stages

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So far, most launch systems achieveorbital insertionwith at least partially expendedmultistaged rockets,particularly with the second and third stages. Only theSpace Shuttlehas achieved a reuse of the orbital insertion stage, by using the engines and fuel tank ofits orbiter.TheBuran spaceplaneandStarship spacecraftare two other reusable spacecraft that were designed to be able to act as orbital insertion stages and have been produced, however the former only made one uncrewed test flight before the project was cancelled, and the latter is not yet operational, having completedfour orbital test flights,as of June 2024, which achieved all of its mission objectives at the fourth flight.

Reusable spacecraft

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Main article:Reusable spacecraft

Launch systems can be combined with reusable spaceplanes or capsules. TheSpace Shuttle orbiter,SpaceShipTwo,Dawn Mk-II Aurora, and the under-development IndianRLV-TDare examples for a reusable space vehicle (aspaceplane) as well as a part of its launch system.

More contemporarily theFalcon 9launch system has carried reusable vehicles such as theDragon 2andX-37,transporting two reusable vehicles at the same time.

Contemporary reusable orbital vehicles include the X-37, theDream Chaser,the Dragon 2, the Indian RLV-TD and the upcoming EuropeanSpace Rider(successor to theIXV).

As with launch vehicles, all pure spacecraft during the early decades of human capacity to achieve spaceflight were designed to be single-use items. This was true both forsatellitesandspace probesintended to be left in space for a long time, as well as any object designed to return to Earth such ashuman-carryingspace capsulesor the sample return canisters of space matter collection missions likeStardust(1999–2006)[11]orHayabusa(2005–2010).[12][13]Exceptions to the general rule for space vehicles were the USGemini SC-2,theSoviet UnionspacecraftVozvraschaemyi Apparat (VA),the USSpace Shuttle orbiter(mid-1970s-2011, with 135 flights between 1981 and 2011) and the SovietBuran(1980-1988, with just one uncrewed test flight in 1988). Both of these spaceships were also an integral part of the launch system (providing launch acceleration) as well as operating as medium-duration spaceships inspace.This began to change in the mid-2010s.

In the 2010s, thespace transport cargo capsulefrom one of the suppliers resupplying theInternational Space Stationwas designed for reuse, and after 2017,[14]NASA began to allow the reuse of the SpaceXDragon cargo spacecrafton these NASA-contracted transport routes. This was the beginning of design and operation of areusable space vehicle.

TheBoeing Starlinercapsules also reduce their fall speed with parachutes and deploy an airbag shortly before touchdown on the ground, in order to retrieve and reuse the vehicle.

As of 2021,SpaceX is building and testing theStarshipspaceship to be capable of surviving multiplehypersonicreentries through the atmosphereso that they become truly reusable long-duration spaceships; no Starship operational flights have yet occurred.

Entry systems

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Main article:Atmospheric entry
See also:Air brake (aeronautics),Aerobraking,Aeroshell,Gravity turn,andOrbital injection

Heat shield

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See also:Atmospheric entry § Thermal protection systems

With possible inflatableheat shields,as developed by the US (Low Earth Orbit Flight Test Inflatable Decelerator - LOFTID)[15]and China,[16]single-use rockets like theSpace Launch Systemare considered to be retrofitted with such heat shields to salvage the expensive engines, possibly reducing the costs of launches significantly.[17]Heat shields allow an orbiting spacecraft to land safely without expending very much fuel. They need not take the form of inflatable heat shields, they may simply take the form of heat-resistant tiles that preventheat conduction.Heat shields are also proposed for use in combination with retrograde thrust to allow for full reusability as seen inStarship.

Retrograde thrust

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Main articles:RetrorocketandThrust reversal

Reusable launch system stages such as theFalcon 9and theNew Shepardemploy retrograde burns for re-entry, and landing.[citation needed]

Landing systems

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Reusable systems can come insingleor multiple (twoorthree) stages to orbit configurations. For some or all stages the following landing system types can be employed.

Types

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Parachutes and airbags

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Main articles:Splashdown,Airbag § Spacecraft airbag landing systems,andParachute
See also:Water landing

These are landing systems that employ parachutes and bolstered hard landings, like in asplashdownat sea or a touchdown at land. The latter may require an engine burn just before landing as parachutes alone cannot slow the craft down enough to prevent injury to astronauts. This can be seen in the Soyuz capsule.

Though such systems have been in use since the beginning ofastronauticsto recover space vehicles, only later have the vehicles been reused.

E.g.:

Horizontal (winged)

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Main article:Spaceplane

Single or main stages, as well asfly-back boosterscan employ a horizontal landing system. These vehicles land on earth much like a plane does, but they usually do not use propellant during landing.

Examples are:

A variant is an in-air-capture tow back system, advocated by a company called EMBENTION with its FALCon project.[18]

Vehicles that land horizontally on a runway require wings and undercarriage. These typically consume about 9-12% of the landing vehicle mass,[citation needed]which either reduces the payload or increases the size of the vehicle. Concepts such aslifting bodiesoffer some reduction in wing mass,[citation needed]as does thedelta wingshape of theSpace Shuttle.

Vertical (retrograde)

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Main articles:VTVL,Retrorocket,andThrust reversal

Systems like theMcDonnell Douglas DC-X (Delta Clipper)and those bySpaceXare examples of a retrograde system. The boosters ofFalcon 9andFalcon Heavyland using one of their nine engines. TheFalcon 9rocket is the first orbital rocket to vertically land its first stage on the ground. The first stage ofStarshipis planned to land vertically, while the second is to be caught by arms after performing most of the typical steps of a retrograde landing.Blue Origin'sNew Shepardsuborbital rocket also lands vertically back at the launch site.

Retrograde landing typically requires about 10% of the total first stage propellant, reducing the payload that can be carried due to therocket equation.[19]

Landing using aerostatic force

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There is also the concept of a launch vehicle with an inflatable, reusable first stage. The shape of this structure will be supported by excess internal pressure (using light gases). It is assumed that the bulk density of the first stage (without propellant) is less than the bulk density of air. Upon returning from flight, such a first stage remains floating in the air (without touching the surface of the Earth). This will ensure that the first stage is retained for reuse. Increasing the size of the first stage increases aerodynamic losses. This results in a slight decrease in payload. This reduction in payload is compensated for by the reuse of the first stage.[20]

Constraints

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Extra weight

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Reusable stages weigh more than equivalentexpendable stages.This is unavoidable due to the supplementary systems, landing gear and/or surplus propellant needed to land a stage. The actual mass penalty depends on the vehicle and the return mode chosen.[21]

Refurbishment

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After the launcher lands, it may need to be refurbished to prepare it for its next flight. This process may be lengthy and expensive. The launcher may not be able to be recertified as human-rated after refurbishment, although SpaceX has flown reused Falcon 9 boosters for human missions. There is eventually a limit on how many times a launcher can be refurbished before it has to be retired, but how often a launcher can be reused differs significantly between the various launch system designs.

History

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With the development ofrocket propulsionin the first half of the twentieth century,space travelbecame a technical possibility.

Early ideas of a single-stage reusablespaceplaneproved unrealistic and although even the first practical rocket vehicles (V-2) could reach the fringes of space, reusable technology was too heavy. In addition, many early rockets were developed to deliver weapons, making reuse impossible by design. The problem of mass efficiency was overcome by using multiple expendable stages in a vertical launchmultistage rocket.USAF and NACA had been studying orbital reusable spaceplanes since 1958, e.g.Dyna-Soar,but the first reusable stages did not fly until the advent of the USSpace Shuttlein 1981.

20th century

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McDonnell Douglas DC-Xused vertical takeoff and vertical landing

Perhaps the first reusable launch vehicles were the ones conceptualized and studied byWernher von Braunfrom 1948 until 1956. TheVon Braun Ferry Rocketunderwent two revisions: once in 1952 and again in 1956. They would have landed using parachutes.[22][23]

TheGeneral Dynamics Nexuswas proposed in the 1960s as a fully reusable successor to the Saturn V rocket, having the capacity of transporting up to 450–910 t (990,000–2,000,000 lb) to orbit.[24][25]See alsoSea Dragon,andDouglas SASSTO.

TheBAC Mustardwas studied starting in 1964. It would have comprised three identical spaceplanes strapped together and arranged in two stages. During ascent the two outer spaceplanes, which formed the first stage, would detach and glide back individually to earth. It was canceled after the last study of the design in 1967 due to a lack of funds for development.[26]

NASA started theSpace Shuttle design processin 1968, with the vision of creating a fully reusablespaceplaneusing a crewedfly-back booster.This concept proved expensive and complex, therefore the design was scaled back to reusablesolid rocketboosters and an expendableexternal tank.[27][28]Space ShuttleColumbialaunched and landed 27 times and was lost with all crew on the 28th landing attempt;Challengerlaunched and landed 9 times and was lost with all crew on the 10th launch attempt;Discoverylaunched and landed 39 times;Atlantislaunched and landed 33 times;Endeavourlaunched and landed 25 times.

In 1986 PresidentRonald Reagancalled for an air-breathingscramjetNational Aerospace Plane(NASP)/X-30.The project failed due to technical issues and was canceled in 1993.[29]

In the late 1980s a fully reusable version of theEnergiarocket, the Energia II, was proposed. Its boosters and core would have had the capability of landing separately on a runway.[30]

In the 1990s theMcDonnell DouglasDelta ClipperVTOL SSTO proposal progressed to the testing phase. TheDC-Xprototype demonstrated rapid turnaround time and automatic computer control.

In mid-1990s, British research evolved an earlierHOTOLdesign into the far more promisingSkylondesign, which remains in development.

From the late 1990s to the 2000s, theEuropean Space Agencystudied the recovery of theAriane 5solid rocketboosters.[31]The last recovery attempt took place in 2009.[32]

The commercial ventures,Rocketplane KistlerandRotary Rocket,attempted to build reusable privately developed rockets before going bankrupt.[citation needed]

NASA proposed reusable concepts to replace the Shuttle technology, to be demonstrated under theX-33andX-34programs, which were both cancelled in the early 2000s due to rising costs and technical issues.


21st century

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Scaled Composites SpaceShipOneused horizontal landing after being launched from a carrier airplane
Falcon Heavyside boosters landing during 2018demonstration mission.

TheAnsari X Prizecontest was intended to develop private suborbital reusable vehicles. Many private companies competed, with the winner,Scaled Composites,reaching theKármán linetwice in a two-week period with their reusableSpaceShipOne.

In 2012,SpaceXstarted a flight test program withexperimental vehicles.These subsequently led to the development of theFalcon 9reusable rocket launcher.[33]

On 23 November 2015 theNew Shepardrocket became the firstVertical Take-off, Vertical Landing(VTVL) sub-orbital rocket to reach space by passing theKármán line(100 km or 62 mi), reaching 329,839 ft (100,535 m) before returning for a propulsive landing.[34][35]

SpaceX achieved the first vertical soft landing of a reusable orbital rocket stage on December 21, 2015, after delivering 11Orbcomm OG-2commercial satellites intolow Earth orbit.[36]

The first reuse of a Falcon 9 first stage occurred on 30 March 2017.[37]SpaceX now routinely recovers and reusestheir first stages, as well as reusing fairings.[38]

In 2019Rocket Labannounced plans to recover and reuse the first stage of theirElectronlaunch vehicle, intending to useparachutesandmid-air retrieval.[39]On 20 November 2020, Rocket Lab successfully returned an Electron first stage from an orbital launch, the stage softly splashing down in the Pacific Ocean.[40]

China is researching the reusability of theLong March 8system.[41]

As of May 2020,the only operational reusable orbital-class launch systems are the Falcon 9 andFalcon Heavy,the latter of which is based upon the Falcon 9. SpaceX is also developing the fully reusableStarshiplaunch system.[42]Blue Originis developing its ownNew Glennpartially reusable orbital rocket, as it is intending to recover and reuse only the first stage.

5 October 2020, Roscosmos signed a development contract forAmura new launcher with a reusable first stage.[43]

In December 2020, ESA signed contracts to start developingTHEMIS,a prototype reusable first stage launcher.[44]

Return to launch site

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After 1980, but before the 2010s, two orbital launch vehicles developed the capability toreturn to the launch site(RTLS). Both the USSpace Shuttle—with one of itsabort modes[45][46]—and the SovietBuran[47] had a designed-in capability to return a part of the launch vehicle to the launch site via the mechanism ofhorizontal-landingof thespaceplaneportion of the launch vehicle. In both cases, the main vehicle thrust structure and the large propellant tank wereexpendable,as had been the standard procedure for all orbital launch vehicles flown prior to that time. Both were subsequently demonstrated on actual orbital nominal flights, although both also had an abort mode during launch that could conceivably allow the crew to land the spaceplane following an off-nominal launch.

In the 2000s, bothSpaceXandBlue Originhaveprivately developeda set of technologies to supportvertical landingof the booster stage of a launch vehicle. After 2010, SpaceX undertook adevelopment programto acquire the ability to bring back andvertically landa part of theFalcon 9orbitallaunch vehicle: thefirst stage.The first successful landing was done in December 2015,[48]since then several additional rocket stages landed either at alanding padadjacent to the launch site or on alanding platformat sea, some distance away from the launch site.[49]TheFalcon Heavyis similarly designed to reuse the three cores comprising its first stage. On itsfirst flightin February 2018, the two outer cores successfully returned to the launch site landing pads while the center core targeted the landing platform at sea but did not successfully land on it.[50]

Blue Origindeveloped similar technologies for bringing back and landing theirsuborbitalNew Shepard,and successfully demonstrated return in 2015, and successfully reused the same booster on a second suborbital flight in January 2016.[51]By October 2016, Blue had reflown, and landed successfully, that same launch vehicle a total of five times.[52]It must however be noted that the launch trajectories of both vehicles are very different, with New Shepard going straight up and down without achieving orbital flight, whereas Falcon 9 has to cancel substantial horizontal velocity and return from a significant distance downrange, while delivering the payload to orbit with the second stage.

Both Blue Origin and SpaceX also have additional reusable launch vehicles under development. Blue is developing the first stage of the orbitalNew GlennLV to be reusable, with first flight planned for no earlier than 2024. SpaceX has a new super-heavy launch vehicle under development for missions tointerplanetary space.TheSpaceX Starshipis designed to support RTLS, vertical-landing and full reuse ofboththe booster stage and the integrated second-stage/large-spacecraft that are designed for use with Starship.[53]Itsfirst launch attempttook place in April 2023; however, both stages were lost during ascent. On thefourth launch attempthowever, both the booster and the ship achieved a soft landing in theGulf of Mexicoand theIndian Ocean,respectively.

List of reusable launch vehicles

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Company Vehicle Reusable Component Launched Recovered Relaunched Payload to LEO First Launch Status
NASA Space Shuttle Orbiter 135 133 130 27,500 kg 1981 Retired (2011)
Side booster 270 266 N/A[a]
NASA Ares I First stage 1 1 0 25,400 kg 2009 Retired (2010)
SpaceX Falcon 9 First stage 400 355 328 17,500 kg (reusable)[54]
22,800 kg (expended) 		2010 Active
Fairing half >486[b] >300(Falcon 9 and Heavy)[b]
Rocket Lab Electron First stage 53 9 0[c] 325 kg (expended) 2017 Active, relaunch planned
SpaceX Falcon Heavy Side booster 22 18 14 ~33,000 kg (all cores reusable)
63,800 kg (expended) 		2018 Active
Center core 11 0[d] 0
Fairing half >18[b] >300(Falcon 9 and Heavy)[b]
SpaceX Starship First stage 6 1 0 150,000 kg (reusable)
250,000 kg (expended) 		2023 Active, relaunch planned
Second stage 6 0 0
United Launch Alliance Vulcan Centaur First stage engine module 2 0 0 27,200 kg 2024 Active, recovery planned
Space Pioneer Tianlong-3 First stage 0 0 0 17,000 kg 2024 Planned
Blue Origin New Glenn First stage, fairing 0 0 0 45,000 kg 2024 Planned
Galactic Energy Pallas-1 First stage 0 0 0 5,000 kg 2024 Planned
Deep Blue Aerospace Nebula 1 First stage 0 0 0 2,000 kg 2024 Planned
Perigee Aerospace Blue Whale 1 First stage 0 0 0 170 kg 2024 Planned
Rocket Lab Neutron First stage (includes fairing) 0 0 0 13,000 kg (reusable)
15,000 kg (expended) 		2025 Planned
Stoke Space Nova Fully reusable 0 0 0 3,000 kg (reusable)
5,000 kg (stage 2 expended)
7,000 kg (fully expended) 		2025 Planned
CAS Space Kinetica-2 First stage 0 0 0 12,000 kg 2025 Planned
I-space Hyperbola-3 First stage 0 0 0 8,300 kg (reusable)
13,400 kg (expended) 		2025 Planned
LandSpace Zhuque-3 First stage 0 0 0 18,300 kg (reusable)
21,300 kg (expended) 		2025 Planned
CALT Long March 12B First Stage 0 0 0 2025 Planned
Deep Blue Aerospace Nebula 2 First stage 0 0 0 20,000 kg 2025 Planned
Orienspace Gravity-2 First stage 0 0 0 17,400 kg (reusable)
21,500 kg(expended) 		2025 Planned
Roscosmos Amur First stage 0 0 0 10,500 kg 2026 Planned
Relativity Space Terran R First stage 0 0 0 23,500 kg (reusable)
33,500 kg (expended) 		2026 Planned
PLD Space Miura 5 First stage 0 0 0 900 kg 2026 Planned
Space Pioneer Tianlong-3H Side booster 0 0 0 68,000 kg (expended) 2026 Planned
Center core 0 0 0
Orienspace Gravity-3 First stage, fairing 0 0 0 30,600 kg 2027 Planned
CALT Long March 10A First Stage 0 0 0 14,000 kg (reusable)
18,000 kg (expended) 		2027 Planned
CALT Long March 9 First Stage 0 0 0 100,000 kg 2033 Planned
Second Stage 0 0 0
  1. ^An exact figure for reused SRBs is not possible because the boosters were broken up for parts at the end of recovery and not kept as complete sets of parts.
  2. ^abcdAs of 12 January 2024. A presentation slide at the company's all-hands meeting stated that fairing halves of the Falcon 9 and Heavy rockets had been recovered and reflown "more than 300 times".[55]
  3. ^Rocket Lab announced in 2024 that it will be reusing a recovered first stage.[56]
  4. ^The center booster used forArabsat-6Awas landed but not recovered.

List of reusable spacecraft

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Main article:Reusable spacecraft § List of reusable spacecraft
Company Spacecraft Launch Vehicle Launched Recovered Relaunched Launch Mass First Launch Status
NASA Space Shuttle orbiter Space Shuttle 135 133 130 110,000 kg 1981 Retired (2011)
NPO-Energia Buran Energia 1 1 0 92,000 kg 1988 Retired (1988)
Boeing X-37 Atlas V,Falcon9,Falcon Heavy 7 6 5 5,000 kg 2010 Active
SpaceX Dragon Falcon 9 46 44 24 12,519 kg 2010 Active
NASA Orion Space Launch System 2 2 0 10,400 kg (excluding service module and abort system) 2014 Active, relaunch planned
Boeing Starliner Atlas V 3 3 1 13,000 kg 2019 Active
CASC Shenlong (spacecraft) Long March 2F 3 2 unknown unknown 2020 Active, reusability unknown
Sierra Space Dream Chaser Vulcan Centaur 0 0 0 9,000 kg 2024 Planned
CAST Mengzhou Long March 10A 0 0 0 14,000 kg 2027 Planned

List of reusable suborbital vehicles

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Company Vehicle First Launch Recovered Relaunched Notes
Blue Origin New Shepard 2015 20 17 Fully reusable.
Virgin Galactic SpaceShipTwo(VSS Unity) 2018 5 4 Fully reusable.

See also

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References

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Bibliography

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  • Heribert Kuczera, et al.:Reusable space transportation systems.Springer, Berlin 2011,ISBN978-3-540-89180-2.
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