Ronald Reagan

"Reagan" redirects here. For other uses, seeRonald Reagan (disambiguation)andReagan (disambiguation).

Ronald Wilson Reagan(February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40thpresident of the United Statesfrom 1981 to 1989. A member of theRepublican Party,he became an important figure in theAmerican conservative movement,andhis presidencyis known as theReagan era.

Ronald Reagan
Official portrait, 1981
40thPresident of the United States
In office January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989
Vice President	George H. W. Bush
Preceded by	Jimmy Carter
Succeeded by	George H. W. Bush
33rdGovernor of California
In office January 2, 1967 – January 6, 1975
Lieutenant	Robert Finch (1967–1969) Edwin Reinecke (1969–1974) John L. Harmer (1974–1975)
Preceded by	Pat Brown
Succeeded by	Jerry Brown
President of theScreen Actors Guild
In office November 16, 1959 – June 7, 1960
Preceded by	Howard Keel
Succeeded by	George Chandler
In office March 10, 1947 – November 10, 1952
Preceded by	Robert Montgomery
Succeeded by	Walter Pidgeon
Personal details
Born	Ronald Wilson Reagan (1911-02-06)February 6, 1911 Tampico, Illinois,U.S.
Died	June 5, 2004(2004-06-05)(aged 93) Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Resting place	Ronald Reagan Presidential Library
Political party	Republican(from 1962)
Other political affiliations	Democratic(until 1962)
Spouses	Jane Wyman ​ ​ (m.1940;div.1949)​ Nancy Davis ​ (m.1952)​
Children	5, includingMaureen,Michael,Patti,andRon
Parents	Jack Reagan Nelle Wilson
Relatives	Neil Reagan(brother)
Education	Eureka College(BA)
Occupation	Actor politician sports broadcaster union leader
Awards	Full list
Signature
Military service
Service	United States Army Reserve Air Forces
Years of service	1937–1942 (reserve) 1942–1945 (regular)
Rank	Captain
Unit	322nd Cavalry Regiment 323rd Cavalry Regiment 18th AAF Base Unit
Wars	World War II
Other offices 1968–1969:Chair of theRepublican Governors Association

Born and raised in Illinois, Reagan graduated fromEureka Collegein 1932 and was hired the next year as a sports broadcaster in Iowa. In 1937, he moved to California where he became a well-known film actor. During his acting career, Reagan was elected president of theScreen Actors Guildtwice, serving from 1947 to 1952 and from 1959 to 1960. In the 1950s, he became the host forGeneral Electric Theaterand also worked as a motivational speaker forGeneral Electric.Subsequently, Reagan's "A Time for Choosing"speech during the1964 U.S. presidential electionlaunched his rise as a leading conservative figure. After beingelected governor of California in 1966,he raised the state taxes, turned the state budget deficit into a surplus and implemented harsh crackdowns on university protests. Following his loss toGerald Fordin the1976 Republican Party presidential primaries,Reagan won the Republican Party's nomination and then a landslide victory over PresidentJimmy Carterin the1980 presidential election.

In his first term as U.S. president, Reagan began implementing "Reaganomics",which involved economic deregulation and cuts in both taxes and government spending duringa period of stagflation.On the world stage, heescalated the arms race,transitioned Cold War policyaway from the policies ofdétentewith theSoviet Union,and ordered the1983 invasion of Grenada.Within the same period, Reagan alsosurvived an assassination attempt,fought public-sector labor unions, expanded thewar on drugs,and wasslow to respond to the growing AIDS epidemic.In the1984 presidential election,he defeated Carter's former vice president,Walter Mondale,in another landslide victory.Foreign affairsdominated Reagan's second term, including the1986 bombing of Libya,thesecret and illegal sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras,and a more conciliatory approach in talks with Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevculminating in theIntermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty.

Reagan left the presidency in 1989 with the American economy having seen a significant reduction of inflation, the unemployment rate having fallen, and the U.S. having entered its then-longest peacetime expansion. At the same time, the national debt had nearly tripled since 1981 as a result of his cuts in taxes and increased military spending, despite cuts to domestic discretionary spending. Reagan's policies also contributed to the end of the Cold War and the end ofSoviet communism.Alzheimer's diseasehindered Reagan post-presidency, and his physical and mental capacities gradually deteriorated, ultimately leading tohis deathin 2004.Historical rankings of U.S. presidentshave typically placed Reagan in the upper tier, andhis post-presidential approval ratings by the general publicare usually high.

Early life

Ronald Wilson Reagan was born on February 6, 1911, inan apartment and commercial buildinginTampico, Illinois,as the younger son ofNelle Clyde WilsonandJack Reagan.Nelle was committed to theDisciples of Christ,which believed in theSocial Gospel.She ledprayer meetingsand ran mid-week prayers at her church when the pastor was out of town.Reagan credited her spiritual influenceand he became aChristian.According to American political figureStephen Vaughn,Reagan's values came from his pastor, and the First Christian Church's religious, economic and social positions "coincided with the words, if not the beliefs of the latter-day Reagan".Jack focused on making money to take care of the family,but this was complicated by his alcoholism.Reagan had an older brother,Neil.The family lived in Chicago,Galesburg,andMonmouthbefore returning to Tampico. In 1920, they settled inDixon, Illinois,living ina housenear theH. C. Pitney Variety Store Building.

Reagan attendedDixon High School,where he developed interests in drama andfootball.His first job involved working as alifeguardat theRock River in Lowell Park.In 1928, Reagan began attendingEureka Collegeat Nelle's approval on religious grounds.He was a mediocre studentwho participated in sports, drama, and campus politics. He becamestudent body presidentand joined a student strike that resulted in the college president's resignation.Reagan was initiated as a member ofTau Kappa EpsilonFraternity and served as president of the local chapter.Reagan played at theguardposition for the1930and1931 Eureka Red Devils football teamsand recalled a time when two black football teammates were refused service at asegregatedhotel; he invited them to his parents' home nearby in Dixon and his parents welcomed them. At the time, his parents' stance on racial questions was unusuallyprogressivein Dixon.Reagan himself had grown up with very fewblack Americansthere and was oblivious to racial discrimination.

Entertainment career

Further information:Ronald Reagan filmography

Radio and film

Dark Victory(1939)

The Bad Man(1941)

After obtaining aBachelor of Artsdegree in economics and sociology from Eureka College in 1932,Reagan took a job inDavenport, Iowa,as a sports broadcaster for four football games in theBig Ten Conference.He then worked forWHO radioinDes Moinesas a broadcaster for theChicago Cubs.His specialty was creating play-by-play accounts of games using only basic descriptions that the station received by wire as the games were in progress.Simultaneously, he often expressed his opposition to racism.In 1936, while traveling with the Cubs to their spring training in California, Reagan took a screen test that led to a seven-year contract withWarner Bros.

Reagan arrived atHollywoodin 1937, debuting inLove Is on the Air(1937).Using a simple and direct approach to acting and following his directors' instructions,Reagan made thirty films, mostlyB films,before beginningmilitary servicein April 1942.He broke out of these types of films by portrayingGeorge GippinKnute Rockne, All American(1940), which would be rejuvenated when reporters called Reagan "the Gipper" while he campaigned for president of the United States.Afterward, Reagan starred inKings Row(1942) as a leg amputee, asking, "Where's the rest of me?"His performance was considered his best by many critics.Reagan became a star,withGallup pollsplacing him "in the top 100 stars" from 1941 to 1942.

World War IIinterrupted the movie stardom that Reagan would never be able to achieve againas Warner Bros. became uncertain about his ability to generate ticket sales. Reagan, who had a limited acting range, was dissatisfied with the roles he received. As a result,Lew Wassermanrenegotiated his contract with his studio, allowing him to also make films withUniversal Pictures,Paramount Pictures,andRKO Picturesas a freelancer. With this, Reagan appeared in multiplewestern films,something that had been denied to him while working at Warner Bros.In 1952, he ended his relationship with Warner Bros.,but went on to appear in a total of 53 films,his last beingThe Killers(1964).

Military service

Reagan atFort Roach,between 1943 and 1944

In April 1937, Reagan enlisted in theUnited States Army Reserve.He was assigned as aprivatein Des Moines'322nd Cavalry Regimentand reassigned tosecond lieutenantin the Officers Reserve Corps.He later became a part of the323rd Cavalry Regimentin California.As relations between the United States andJapanworsened, Reagan was ordered for active duty while he was filmingKings Row.Wasserman and Warner Bros. lawyers successfully sent draft deferments to complete the film in October 1941. However, to avoid accusations of Reagan being adraft dodger,the studio let him go in April 1942.

Reagan reported for duty with severenear-sightedness.His first assignment was atFort Masonas aliaison officer,a role that allowed him to transfer to theUnited States Army Air Forces(AAF). Reagan became an AAFpublic relations officerand was subsequently assigned to the18th AAF Base UnitinCulver Citywhere he felt that it was "impossible to remove an incompetent or lazy worker" due to what he felt was "the incompetence, the delays, and inefficiencies" of the federalbureaucracy.Despite this, Reagan participated in the Provisional Task Force Show Unit inBurbankand continued to make theatrical films.He was also ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in thesixth War Loan Drivebefore being reassigned toFort MacArthuruntil his discharge on December 9, 1945, as acaptain.Throughout his military service, Reagan produced over 400training films.

Screen Actors Guild presidency

WhenRobert Montgomeryresigned as president of theScreen Actors Guild(SAG) on March 10, 1947, Reagan was elected to that position in a special election.Reagan's first tenure saw various labor–management disputes,theHollywood blacklist,and theTaft–Hartley Act's implementation.On April 10, theFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI) interviewed Reagan and he provided them with the names of actors whom he believed to becommunist sympathizers.During aHouse Un-American Activities Committeehearing, Reagan testified that some guild members were associated with theCommunist Partyand that he was well-informed about a "jurisdictional strike".When asked if he was aware of communist efforts within theScreen Writers Guild,he called information about the efforts "hearsay".Reagan resigned as SAG president November 10, 1952, but remained on the board;Walter Pidgeonsucceeded him as president.

The SAG fought with film producers for the right to receiveresidual payments,and on November 16, 1959, the board elected Reagan SAG president for the second time;he replacedHoward Keel,who had resigned. During this second stint, Reagan managed to secure payments for actors whose theatrical films had been released between 1948 and 1959 and subsequently televised. The producers were initially required to pay the actors fees, but they ultimately settled instead for providing pensions and paying residuals for films made after 1959. Reagan resigned from the SAG presidency on June 7, 1960, and also left the board;George Chandlersucceeded him as SAG president.

Marriages and children

Reagan and Jane Wyman, 1942

Ronald and Nancy Reagan, 1952

In January 1940, Reagan marriedJane Wyman,his co-star in the 1938 filmBrother Rat.Together, they had two biological daughters:Maureenin 1941,and Christine in 1947 (born prematurely and died the following day).They adopted one son,Michael,in 1945.Wyman filed to divorce Reagan in June 1948. She was uninterested in politics, and occasionally recriminated, reconciled andseparatedwith him. Although Reagan was unprepared,the divorce was finalized in July 1949. Reagan would also remain close to his children.Later that year, Reagan metNancy Davisafter she contacted him in his capacity as the SAG president about her name appearing on acommunistblacklist in Hollywood;she had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis.They married in March 1952,and had two children,Pattiin October 1952, andRonin May 1958.Reagan has three grandchildren.

Television

Reagan became the host ofMCA Inc.television productionGeneral Electric Theaterat Wasserman's recommendation. It featured multiple guest stars,and Ronald and Nancy Reagan, continuing to use her stage name Nancy Davis, acted together in three episodes.When asked how Reagan was able to recruit such stars to appear on the show during television's infancy, he replied, "Good stories, top direction, production quality".However, the viewership declined in the 1960s and the show was canceled in 1962.In 1965, Reagan became the hostof another MCA production,Death Valley Days.

Early political activities

ReagancampaigningwithBarry Goldwater,1964

Reagan began his political career as aDemocrat,viewingFranklin D. Rooseveltas "a true hero".He joined theAmerican Veterans CommitteeandHollywood Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions(HICCASP), worked with theAFL–CIOto fightright-to-work laws,and continued to speak out against racism when he was in Hollywood.In 1945, Reagan planned to lead an HICCASP anti-nuclear rally, but Warner Bros. prevented him from going.In 1946, he appeared in a radio program calledOperation Terrorto speak out against risingKu Klux Klanactivity in the country, citing the attacks as a "capably organized systematic campaign of fascist violence and intimidation and horror".Reagan also supportedHarry S. Trumanin the1948 presidential election,andHelen Gahagan Douglasfor theU.S. Senate in 1950.It was Reagan's belief that communism was a powerful backstage influence in Hollywood that led him to rally his friends against them.

Reagan began shifting to the right when he supported the presidential campaigns ofDwight D. Eisenhowerin 1952 andRichard Nixonin 1960.When Reagan was contracted byGeneral Electric(GE), he gave speeches to their employees. His speeches had a positive take onfree markets.Under GE vice presidentLemuel Boulware,a staunch anti-communist,employees were encouraged to vote for business-friendly politicians.

In 1961, Reagan adapted his speeches intoanother speechto criticizeMedicare.In his view, its legislation would have meant "the end ofindividual freedomin the United States ".In 1962, Reagan was dropped by GE,and he formally registered as aRepublican.

In the1964 U.S. presidential election,Reagan gave a speech for presidential contenderBarry Goldwaterthat was eventually referred to as "A Time for Choosing".Reagan argued that theFounding Fathers"knew that governments don't control things. And they knew when a government sets out to do that, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose"and that "We've been told increasingly that we must choose between left or right".Even though the speech was not enough to turn around the falteringGoldwater campaign,it increased Reagan's profile among conservatives.David S. BroderandStephen H. Hesscalled it "the most successful national political debut sinceWilliam Jennings Bryanelectrified the1896 Democratic conventionwith his famous'Cross of Gold' address".

1966 California gubernatorial election

Further information:1966 California gubernatorial election

Ronald and Nancy Reagan celebrating his gubernatorial election victory, November 1966

In January 1966, Reagan announced his candidacy for theCalifornia governorship,repeating his stances on individual freedom andbig government.When he met with black Republicans in March,he was criticized for opposing theCivil Rights Act of 1964.Reagan responded that bigotry was not in his natureand later argued that certain provisions of the act infringed upon the rights of property owners.After theSupreme Court of Californiaruled that the initiative that repealed theRumford Actwas unconstitutional in May, he voiced his support for the act's repeal,but later preferred amending it.In the Republican primary, Reagan defeatedGeorge Christopher,a moderate RepublicanwhoWilliam F. Buckley Jr.thought had painted Reagan as extreme.

Reagan's general election opponent, incumbent governorPat Brown,attempted to label Reagan as an extremist and tout his own accomplishments.Reagan portrayed himself as a political outsider,and charged Brown as responsible for theWatts riotsand lenient on crime.In numerous speeches, Reagan "hit the Brown administration about high taxes, uncontrolled spending, the radicals at theUniversity of California, Berkeley,and the need foraccountabilityin government ".Meanwhile, many in the press perceived Reagan as "monumentally ignorant of state issues", thoughLou Cannonsaid that Reagan benefited from an appearance he and Brown made onMeet the Pressin September.Ultimately, Reagan won the governorship with 57 percent of the vote compared to Brown's 42 percent.

California governorship (1967–1975)

Main article:Governorship of Ronald Reagan

The Reagans in 1972

Brown had spent much of California's funds on new programs, prompting them to useaccrual accountingto avoid raising taxes. Consequently, it generated a larger deficit,and Reagan would call for reduced government spending and tax hikes tobalance the budget.He worked withJesse M. Unruhon securing tax increases and promising future property tax cuts. This caused some conservatives to accuse Reagan of betraying his principles.As a result, taxes on sales, banks, corporate profits, inheritances, liquor, and cigarettes jumped.Kevin Starrstates, Reagan "gave Californians the biggest tax hike in their history—and got away with it".Inthe 1970 gubernatorial election,Unruh used Reagan's tax policy against him, saying it disproportionally favored the wealthy. Reagan countered that he was still committed to reducing property taxes.By 1973, the budget had a surplus, which Reagan preferred "to give back to the people".

In 1967, Reagan reacted to theBlack Panther Party's strategy ofcopwatchingby signing theMulford Actto prohibit the public carrying of firearms. The act was California's most restrictive piece ofgun control legislation,with critics saying that it was "overreacting to the political activism of organizations such as the Black Panthers".The act marked the beginning of both modern legislation andpublic attitude studieson gun control.Reagan also signed the 1967 Therapeutic Abortion Act that allowed abortions in the cases of rape and incest when a doctor determined the birth would impair the physical or mental health of the mother. He later expressed regret over signing it, saying that he was unaware of the mental health provision. He believed that doctors were interpreting the provision loosely and more abortions were resulting.

After Reagan won the 1966 election, he and his advisors planned a run in the1968 Republican presidential primaries.He ran as an unofficial candidate to cut into Nixon's southern support and be a compromise candidate if there were to be abrokered convention.He won California's delegates,but Nixon secured enough delegates forthe nomination.

Reagan had previously been critical of former governor Brown and university administrators for tolerating student demonstrations in the city ofBerkeley,making it a major theme in his campaigning. On February 5, 1969, Reagan declared a state of emergency in response toongoing protestsand acts of violence at the University of California, Berkeley, and sent in theCalifornia Highway Patrol.In May 1969, these officers, along with local officers from Berkeley and Alameda county,clashed with protestorsover a site known as thePeople's Park.One student was shot and killed while many police officers and two reporters were injured. Reagan then commanded thestate National Guard troopsto occupy Berkeley for seventeen days to subdue the protesters, allowing other students to attend class safely. In February 1970, violent protests broke out near theUniversity of California, Santa Barbara,where he once again deployed the National Guard. On April 7, Reagan defended his policies regarding campus protests, saying, "If it takes a bloodbath, let's get it over with. No more appeasement".

Governor Reagan meetsDictator Francoduring his visit to Spain, 11 July 1972

During his victorious reelection campaign in 1970, Reagan, remaining critical of government, promised to prioritizewelfare reform.He was concerned that the programs were disincentivizing work and that the growing welfare rolls would lead to both an unbalanced budget and another big tax hike in 1972.At the same time, theFederal Reserveincreased interest rates to combat inflation, putting the American economy ina mild recession.Reagan worked withBob Morettito tighten up the eligibility requirements so that the financially needy could continue receiving payments. This was only accomplished after Reagan softened his criticism of Nixon'sFamily Assistance Plan.Nixon then lifted regulations to shepherd California's experiment.In 1976, theEmployment Development Departmentpublished a report suggesting that the experiment that ran from 1971 to 1974 was unsuccessful.

Reagan declined to run for the governorshipin 1974and it was won by Pat Brown's son,Jerry.Reagan's governorship, as professor Gary K. Clabaugh writes, saw public schools deteriorate due to his opposition to additional basic education funding.As for higher education, journalist William Trombley believed that the budget cuts Reagan enacted damaged Berkeley's student-faculty ratio and research.Additionally, the homicide rate doubled and armed robbery rates rose by even more during Reagan's eight years, even with the many laws Reagan signed to try toughening criminal sentencing and reforming the criminal justice system.Reagan strongly supported capital punishment, but his efforts to enforce it were thwarted byPeople v. Andersonin 1972.According to his son, Michael, Reagan said that he regretted signing the Family Law Act that grantedno-fault divorces.

Seeking the presidency (1975–1981)

1976 Republican primaries

Main articles:Ronald Reagan 1976 presidential campaignand1976 Republican Party presidential primaries

Reagan and Gerald Ford shaking hands on the podium after Reagan narrowly lost the nomination at the1976 Republican National Convention

Insufficiently conservative to Reaganand many other Republicans,PresidentGerald Fordsuffered from multiple political and economic woes. Ford, running for president, was disappointed to hear him also run.Reagan was strongly critical ofdétenteand Ford's policy ofdétentewith the Soviet Union.He repeated "A Time for Choosing" around the countrybefore announcing his campaign on November 20, 1975, when he discussed economic and social problems, and to a lesser extent, foreign affairs.Both candidates were determined to knock each other out early in the primaries,but Reagan would devastatingly lose the first five primaries beginning with New Hampshire,where he popularized thewelfare queennarrative aboutLinda Taylor,exaggerating her misuse of welfare benefits and igniting voter resentment for welfare reform,but never overtly mentioning her name or race.

In Florida, Reagan referred to a "strapping young buck",which became an example ofdog whistle politics,and attacked Ford for handing thePanama Canalto Panama's government while Ford implied that he wouldend Social Security.Then, in Illinois, he again criticized Ford's policy and his secretary of state,Henry Kissinger.Losing the first five primaries prompted Reagan to desperately win North Carolina's by running a grassroots campaign and uniting with theJesse Helmspolitical machine that viciously attacked Ford. Reagan won an upset victory, convincing party delegates that Ford's nomination was no longer guaranteed.Reagan won subsequent victories in Texas, Alabama, Georgia, and Indiana with his attacks on social programs, opposition toforced busing,increased support from inclined voters of a decliningGeorge Wallacecampaign for theDemocratic nomination,and repeated criticisms of Ford and Kissinger's policies, includingdétente.

The result was a seesaw battle for the 1,130 delegates required for their party's nomination that neither would reach before theKansas City conventionin Augustand Ford replacing mentions ofdétentewith Reagan's preferred phrase, "peace through strength".Reagan tookJohn Sears' advice of choosing liberalRichard Schweikeras his running mate, hoping to pry loose of delegates from Pennsylvania and other states,and distract Ford. Instead, conservatives were left alienated, and Ford picked up the remaining uncommitted delegates and prevailed, earning 1,187 to Reagan's 1,070. Before giving his acceptance speech, Ford invited Reagan to address the convention; Reagan emphasized individual freedomand the dangers of nuclear weapons. In 1977, Ford told Cannon that Reagan's primary challenge contributed to his own narrow loss to DemocratJimmy Carterin the1976 United States presidential election.

1980 election

Main article:Ronald Reagan 1980 presidential campaign

Further information:1980 Republican Party presidential primariesand1980 United States presidential election

1980 presidential electionElectoral Collegeresults, Reagan won 489–49

Reagan emerged as a vocal critic of President Carter in 1977. ThePanama Canal Treaty's signing, the1979 oil crisis,and rise in the interest,inflation and unemployment rateshelped set up his 1980 presidential campaign,which he announced on November 13, 1979with an indictment of the federal government.His announcement stressed his fundamental principles of tax cuts to stimulate the economy and having both asmall governmentand a strongnational defense,since he believed the United States was behind the Soviet Union militarily.Heading into 1980, his age became an issue among the press, and the United States was ina severe recession.

In theprimaries,Reagan unexpectedly lost theIowa caucustoGeorge H. W. Bush.Three days before theNew Hampshire primary,the Reagan and Bush campaigns agreed to a one-on-one debate sponsored byThe TelegraphatNashua, New Hampshire,but hours before the debate, the Reagan campaign invited other candidates includingBob Dole,John B. Anderson,Howard BakerandPhil Crane.Debate moderator Jon Breen denied seats to the other candidates, asserting thatThe Telegraphwould violate federal campaign contribution laws if it sponsored the debate and changed the ground rules hours before the debate.As a result, the Reagan campaign agreed to pay for the debate. Reagan said that as he was funding the debate, he could decide who would debate.During the debate, when Breen was laying out the ground rules and attempting to ask the first question, Reagan interrupted in protest to make an introductory statement and wanted other candidates to be included before the debate began.The moderator asked Bob Malloy, the volume operator, to mute Reagan's microphone. After Breen repeated his demand to Malloy, Reagan furiously replied, "I am paying for this microphone, Mr. Green! [sic] ".This turned out to be the turning point of the debate and the primary race.Ultimately, the four additional candidates left, and the debate continued between Reagan and Bush. Reagan's polling numbers improved, and he won the New Hampshire primary by more than 39,000 votes.Soon thereafter, Reagan's opponents began dropping out of the primaries, including Anderson, who left the party to become an independent candidate. Reagan easily captured the presidential nomination and chose Bush as his running mate at theDetroit conventionin July.

The general election pitted Reagan against Carter amid the multitude of domestic concerns and ongoingIran hostage crisisthat began on November 4, 1979.Reagan's campaign worried that Carter would be able to secure the release of the American hostages inIranas part of theOctober surprise,Carter "suggested that Reagan would wreckSocial Security"and portrayed him as a warmonger,and Anderson carried supportfrom liberal Republicansdissatisfied with Reagan's conservatism.One of Reagan's key strengths was his appeal to the rising conservative movement. Though most conservative leaders espoused cutting taxes and budget deficits, many conservatives focused more closely on social issues like abortion andgay rights.Evangelical Protestants became an increasingly important voting bloc, and they generally supported Reagan.Reagan also won the backing ofReagan Democrats.Though he advocated socially conservative view points, Reagan focused much of his campaign on attacks againstCarter's foreign policy.

In August, Reagan gave aspeech at the Neshoba County Fair,stating his belief instates' rights.Joseph Crespinoargues that the visit was designed to reach out to Wallace-inclined voters,and somealso saw these actions as an extension of theSouthern strategyto garner white support for Republican candidates.Reagan's supporters have said that this was his typical anti-big government rhetoric, without racial context or intent.In theOctober 28 debate,Carter chided Reagan for being against national health insurance. Reagan replied, "There you go again",though the audience laughed and viewers found him more appealing.Reagan later asked the audience if they were better off than they were four years ago, slightly paraphrasing Roosevelt's words in 1934.In 1983, Reagan's campaign managers were revealed to havingobtained Carter's debate briefing bookbefore the debates.On November 4, 1980, Reagan won in a decisive victory in theElectoral Collegeover Carter, carrying 44 states and receiving 489 electoral votes to Carter's 49 in six states and the District of Columbia. He won the popular vote by a narrower margin, receiving nearly 51 percent to Carter's 41 percent and Anderson's 7 percent. In theUnited States Congress,Republicanswon a majority of seats in the Senatefor the first time since 1952while Democratsretained the House of Representatives.

Presidency (1981–1989)

Main article:Presidency of Ronald Reagan

For a chronological guide, seeTimeline of the Ronald Reagan presidency.

Further information:Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administrationandForeign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration

First inauguration

Main article:First inauguration of Ronald Reagan

Reagan delivers his inaugural address from theU.S. Capitol(audio only)

Reagan was inaugurated as the 40th president of the United States on Tuesday, January 20, 1981.Chief JusticeWarren E. Burgeradministered thepresidential oath of office.In hisinaugural address,Reagan commented on the country's economic malaise, arguing, "In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problem, government is the problem".As a final insult to President Carter, Iran waited until Reagan had been sworn in before announcing the release of their American hostages.

"Reaganomics" and the economy

Main article:Reaganomics

Reagan advocated alaissez-fairephilosophy,and promoted a set ofneoliberalreforms dubbed "Reaganomics", which includedmonetarismandsupply-side economics.

Taxation

Reagan outlining his plan for tax cuts, 1981

Reagan worked with theboll weevil Democratsto pass tax and budget legislation in a Congress led byTip O'Neill,a liberal who strongly criticized Reaganomics.He lifted federal oil and gasoline price controls on January 28, 1981,and in August, he signed theEconomic Recovery Tax Act of 1981to dramatically lower federalincome tax ratesand require exemptions and brackets to be indexed for inflation starting in 1985.Amid growing concerns aboutthe mounting federal debt,Reagan signed theTax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982,one of the eleven times Reagan raised taxes.The bill doubledthe federal cigarette tax,rescinded a portion of the corporate tax cuts from the 1981 tax bill,and according toPaul Krugman,"a third of the 1981 cut" overall.Many of his supporters condemned the bill, but Reagan defended his preservation of cuts on individual income tax rates.By 1983, the amount of federal tax had fallen for all or most taxpayers, but most strongly affected the wealthy.

TheTax Reform Act of 1986reduced the number of tax brackets and top tax rate, and almost doubledpersonal exemptions.

To Reagan,the tax cutswould not have increased the deficit as long as there was enough economic growth and spending cuts. His policies proposed that economic growth would occur when the tax cuts spur investments, which would result in more spending, consumption, and ergo tax revenue. This theoretical relationship has been illustrated by some with the controversialLaffer curve.Critics labeled this "trickle-down economics",the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will spread to the poor.Milton FriedmanandRobert Mundellargued that these policies invigorated America's economy and contributed to theeconomic boom of the 1990s.

Inflation and unemployment

Monthly unemployment, inflation, and interest rates from January 1981 to January 1989 according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics andFederal Reserve Economic Data

Reagan took office in the midst ofstagflation.The economy briefly experienced growth before plunging into a recession in July 1981.As Federal Reserve chairman,Paul Volckerfought inflation by pursuinga tight money policy of high interest rates,which restricted lending and investment, raised unemployment, and temporarily reduced economic growth.In December 1982, theBureau of Labor Statistics(BLS) measured the unemployment rate at 10.8 percent.Around the same time, economic activitybegan to rise until its end in 1990,setting the record for the longest peacetime expansion.In 1983, the recession endedand Reagan nominated Volcker to a second term in fear of damaging confidence in the economic recovery.

Reagan appointedAlan Greenspanto succeed Volcker in 1987. Greenspan raised interest rates in another attempt to curb inflation, setting off theBlack Mondaystock market crash, although the markets eventually recovered.By 1989, the BLS measured the unemployment rate at 5.3 percent.The inflation rate dropped from 12 percent during the 1980 election to under 5 percent in 1989. Likewise, the interest rate dropped from 15 percent to under 10 percent.Yet, not all shared equally in the economic recovery, and botheconomic inequalityand the number ofhomeless individualsincreased during the 1980s.Critics have contended that a majority of the jobs created during this decade paid the minimum wage.

Government spending

In 1981, in an effort to keep it solvent, Reagan approved a plan for cuts to Social Security. He later backed off of these plans due to public backlash.He then created theGreenspan Commissionto keep Social Security financially secure, and in 1983 he signed amendments to raise both the program's payroll taxes and retirement age for benefits.He had signed theOmnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981to cut funding forfederal assistancesuch as food stamps,unemployment benefits,subsidized housingand theAid to Families with Dependent Children,and would discontinue theComprehensive Employment and Training Act.On the other side, defense spending doubled between 1981 and 1985.During Reagan's presidency,Project Socratesoperated within theDefense Intelligence Agencyto discover why the United States was unable to maintain its economic competitiveness. According to program director Michael Sekora, their findings helped the country surpass the Soviets in terms of missile defense technology.

Deregulation

Reagan sought to loosen federal regulation of economic activities, and he appointed key officials who shared this agenda.William Leuchtenburgwrites that by 1986, the Reagan administration eliminated almost half of the federal regulations that had existed in 1981.The 1982Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Actderegulatedsavings and loan associationsby letting them make a variety of loans and investments outside of real estate.After the bill's passage, savings and loans associations engaged in riskier activities, and the leaders of some institutions embezzled funds. The administration's inattentiveness toward the industry contributed to thesavings and loan crisisand costly bailouts.

Deficits

The deficits were exacerbated by the early 1980s recession, which cut into federal revenue.The national debt tripled between the fiscal years of 1980 and 1989, and the national debt as a percentage of the gross domestic product rose from 33 percent in 1981 to 53 percent by 1989. During his time in office, Reagan never fulfilled his 1980 campaign promise of submitting abalanced budget.The United States borrowed heavily to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits.Reagan described the tripled debt the "greatest disappointment of his presidency".Jeffrey Frankelopined that the deficits were a major reason why Reagan's successor, Bush, reneged onhis campaign promiseby raising taxes through theBudget Enforcement Act of 1990.

Assassination attempt

Main article:Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan

Reagan (center) waves just before he is shot on March 30, 1981

On March 30, 1981, Reagan was shot byJohn Hinckley Jr.outside theWashington Hilton.Also struck were:James Brady,Thomas Delahanty,andTim McCarthy.Although "right on the margin of death" upon arrival atGeorge Washington University Hospital,Reagan underwent surgery and recovered quickly from a broken rib, a punctured lung, and internal bleeding. Professor J. David Woodard says that the assassination attempt "created a bond between him and the American people that was never really broken".Later, Reagan came to believe that God had spared his life "for a chosen mission".

Supreme Court appointments

Main article:Ronald Reagan Supreme Court candidates

Reagan appointed three Associate Justices to theSupreme Court of the United States:Sandra Day O'Connorin 1981, which fulfilled a campaign promise to name the first female justice to the Court,Antonin Scaliain 1986, andAnthony Kennedyin 1988. He also elevatedWilliam Rehnquistfrom Associate Justice to Chief Justice in 1986.The direction of the Supreme Court's reshaping has been described as conservative.

Public sector labor union fights

Reagan making a statement to the press regarding the air traffic controllers strike, 1981

Early in August 1981, theProfessional Air Traffic Controllers Organization(PATCO)went on strike,violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking.On August 3, Reagan said that he would fire air traffic controllers if they did not return to work within 48 hours; according to him, 38 percent did not return. On August 13, Reagan fired roughly 12,000 striking air traffic controllers who ignored his order.He used military controllersand supervisors to handle the nation's commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained.The breaking of the PATCO strike demoralized organized labor, and the number of strikes fell greatly in the 1980s.With the assent of Reagan's sympatheticNational Labor Relations Boardappointees, many companies also won wage and benefit cutbacks from unions, especially in the manufacturing sector.During Reagan's presidency, the share of employees who were part of a labor union dropped from approximately one-fourth of the total workforce to approximately one-sixth of the total workforce.

Civil rights

Reagan signing the Passage of Martin Luther King Jr. Day, 1983

Despite Reagan having opposed theVoting Rights Act of 1965,the bill was extended for 25 years in 1982.He initially opposed the establishment ofMartin Luther King Jr. Day,and alluded toclaims that King was associated with communistsduring his career, but signeda bill to create the holiday in 1983after it passed both houses of Congress with veto-proof margins.In 1984, he signed legislation intended to impose fines forfair housingdiscrimination offenses.In March 1988, Reagan vetoed theCivil Rights Restoration Act of 1987,but Congress overrode his veto. He had argued that the bill unreasonably increased the federal government's power and undermined the rights of churches and business owners.Later in September, legislation was passed to correct loopholes in theFair Housing Act of 1968.

Early in his presidency, Reagan appointedClarence M. Pendleton Jr.,known for his opposition to affirmative action and equal pay for men and women, as chair of theUnited States Commission on Civil Rightsdespite Pendleton's hostility toward long-establishedcivil rightsviews. Pendleton and Reagan's subsequent appointees greatly eroded the enforcement of civil rights law, arousing the ire of civil rights advocates.In 1987, Reagan unsuccessfullynominated Robert Borkto the Supreme Court as a way to achieve his civil rights policy that could not be fulfilled during his presidency; his administration had opposedaffirmative action,particularly in education, federal assistance programs, housing and employment,but Reagan reluctantly continued these policies.In housing, Reagan's administration saw considerably fewer fair housing cases filed than the three previous administrations.

War on drugs

Main article:War on drugs

Reagan signing the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986

In response to concerns about the increasingcrack epidemic,Reagan intensified the war on drugs in 1982.While the American public did not see drugs as an important issue then, the FBI,Drug Enforcement Administrationand theUnited States Department of Defenseall increased theiranti-drugfunding immensely.Reagan's administration publicized the campaign to gain support after crack became widespread in 1985.Reagan signed theAnti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986and1988to specify penalties for drug offenses.Both bills have been criticized in the years since for promotingracial disparities.Additionally, Nancy Reagan founded the "Just Say No"campaign to discourage others from engaging inrecreational drug useand raise awareness about the dangers of drugs.A 1988 study showed 39 percent of high school seniors using illegal drugs compared to 53 percent in 1980,butScott Lilienfeldand Hal Arkowitz say that the success of these types of campaigns have not been found to be affirmatively proven.

Escalation of the Cold War

Further information:Cold War (1979–1985)andReagan Doctrine

Reagan meeting withAfghan mujahideenleaders, 1983

Reagan ordered a massive defense buildup;he revived theB-1 Lancerprogram that had been rejected by theCarter administration,and deployed theMX missile.In response to Soviet deployment of theSS-20,he oversawNATO's deployment of thePershing missilein Western Europe.In 1982, Reagan tried to cut off the Soviet Union's access tohard currencyby impeding its proposed gas line to Western Europe. It hurt the Soviet economy, but it also caused much ill will among American allies in Europe who counted on that revenue; he later retreated on this issue.In March 1983, Reagan introduced theStrategic Defense Initiative(SDI) to protect the United States from space intercontinental ballistic missiles. He believed that this defense shield could protect the country from nuclear destruction in a hypothetical nuclear war with the Soviet Union.There was much disbelief among the scientific community surrounding the program's scientific feasibility, leading opponents to dub the SDI "Star Wars",though Soviet leaderYuri Andropovsaid it would lead to "an extremely dangerous path".

Reagan listening to Pakistani presidentMuhammad Zia-ul-Haq,1982

In a 1982 address to theBritish Parliament,Reagan said, "the march of freedom and democracy... will leaveMarxism–Leninismon theash heap of history".Dismissed by the American press as" wishful thinking ",Margaret Thatchercalled the address a "triumph".David Cannadinesays of Thatcher that "Reagan had been grateful for her interest in him at a time when the British establishment refused to take him seriously" with the two agreeing on "building up stronger defenses against Soviet Russia" and both believing in outfacing "what Reagan would later call 'the evil empire'"in reference to the Soviet Union during a speech to theNational Association of Evangelicalsin March 1983.After Soviet fighters downedKorean Air Lines Flight 007in September, which included CongressmanLarry McDonaldand 61 other Americans, Reagan expressed outrage towards the Soviet Union.The next day, reports suggested that the Soviets had fired on the plane by mistake.In spite of the harsh, discordant rhetoric,Reagan's administration continued discussions with the Soviet Union onSTART I.

Reagan meeting Egyptian PresidentHosni Mubarakin theOval Office,September 1983

Although the Reagan administration agreed with the communist government in China toreduce the sale of arms to Taiwanin 1982,Reagan himself was the first president to rejectcontainmentanddétente,and to put into practice the concept that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with.Hiscovert aidtoAfghan mujahideenforces through Pakistan against the Soviets has been given credit for assisting in ending theSoviet occupation of Afghanistan.However, the United States was subjectedto blowbackin the form of theTalibanthat opposed them inthe war in Afghanistan.In his1985 State of the Union Address,Reagan proclaimed, "Support for freedom fighters is self-defense".Through theReagan Doctrine,his administration supportedanti-communistmovements that fought against groups backed by the Soviet Union in an effort torollbackSoviet-backed communist governments and reduce Soviet influence across the world.Military historianGeoffrey Wawronotes the administration ignoredhuman rights violationsin the countries they backed.Other human rights concerns include thegenocide in Guatemalaand mass killings in Chad.

Invasion of Grenada

Main article:United States invasion of Grenada

Reagan discussing the Grenada situation with a bipartisan group of members of Congress, 1983

On October 19, 1983,Maurice Bishopwas overthrown and murdered by one of his colleagues. Several days later, Reagan ordered American forces to invade Grenada. Reagan cited a regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean nation and concern for the safety of hundreds of American medical students atSt. George's Universityas adequate reasons to invade. Two days of fighting commenced, resulting in an American victory.While the invasion enjoyed public support in the United States, it was criticized internationally, with theUnited Nations General Assemblyvoting to censure the American government.Cannon later noted that throughout Reagan's 1984 presidential campaign, the invasion overshadowed the1983 Beirut barracks bombings,which killed 241 Americans taking part inan international peacekeeping operationduring theLebanese Civil War.

1984 election

Main articles:Ronald Reagan 1984 presidential campaignand1984 United States presidential election

1984 presidential electionElectoral Collegeresults, Reagan won 525–13

Reagan announced his reelection campaign on January 29, 1984, declaring, "America is back and standing tall".In February, his administration reversed the unpopular decision to send theUnited States Marine Corpsto Lebanon, thus eliminating a political liability for him. Reagan faced minimal opposition in the Republican primaries,and he and Bush accepted the nomination atthe Dallas conventionin August.In the general election, his campaign ran the commercial, "Morning in America".At a time when the American economy was already recovering,former vice presidentWalter Mondalewas attacked by Reagan's campaign as a "tax-and-spend Democrat", while Mondale criticized the deficit, the SDI, and Reagan's civil rights policy. However, Reagan's age induced his campaign managers to minimize his public appearances. Mondale's campaign believed that Reagan's age and mental health were issues beforethe October presidential debates.

Following Reagan's performance in the first debate where he struggled to recall statistics, his age was brought up by the media in negative fashion. Reagan's campaign changed his tactics for the second debate where he quipped, "I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience". This remark generated applause and laughter,even from Mondale. At that point, Broder suggested that age was no longer a liability for Reagan,and Mondale's campaign felt that "the election was over".In November, Reagan won a landslide reelection victory with 59 percent of the popular vote and 525 electoral votes from 49 states. Mondale won 41 percent of the popular vote and 13 electoral votes from the District of Columbia and his home state of Minnesota.

Response to the AIDS epidemic

Main article:Ronald Reagan and AIDS

Reagan has been criticized for his delayed and muted response to the AIDS epidemic. This 1987 art installation byACT UPquotes Reagan on AIDS with a blank slate, representing total silence.

TheAIDS epidemicbegan to unfold in 1981,and AIDS was initially difficult to understand for physicians and the public.As the epidemic advanced, according to White House physician and later physician to the president, brigadier general John Hutton, Reagan thought of AIDS as though "it was the measles and would go away". The October 1985 death of the President's friendRock Hudsonaffected Reagan's view; Reagan approached Hutton for more information on the disease. Still, between September 18, 1985, and February 4, 1986, Reagan did not mention AIDS in public.

In 1986, Reagan askedC. Everett Koopto draw up a report on the AIDS issue. Koop angered many evangelical conservatives, both in and out of the Reagan administration, by stressing the importance of sex education including condom usage in schools.A year later, Reagan, who reportedly had not read the report,gave his first speech on the epidemic when 36,058 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS, and 20,849 had died of it.Reagan called for increased testing (including routine testing for marriage applicants) and mandatory testing of select groups (including federal prisoners).Even after this speech, however, Reagan remained reluctant to publicly address AIDS.

Scholars and AIDS activists have argued that the Reagan administration largely ignored theAIDS crisis.Randy ShiltsandMichael Bronskisaid that AIDS research was chronically underfunded during Reagan's administration, and Bronski added that requests for more funding by doctors at theCenters for Disease Control and Preventionwere routinely denied.In a September 1985 press conference (soon after Hollywood celebrity Rock Hudson had announced his AIDS diagnosis) Reagan called a government AIDS research program a "top priority", but also cited budgetary constraints.Between the fiscal years of 1984 and 1989, federal spending on AIDS totaled $5.6 billion. The Reagan administration proposed $2.8 billion during this time period, but pressure from congressional Democrats resulted in the larger amount.

Addressing apartheid

Shortly after the 1984 election, Reagan metDesmond Tutu,who described Reagan's administration as "an unmitigated disaster for us blacks",and Reagan himself as "a racist pure and simple".

Popular opposition toapartheidincreased during Reagan's first term in office and thedisinvestment from South Africamovement achieved critical mass after decades of growing momentum. Criticism of apartheid was particularly strong on college campuses and amongmainline Protestantdenominations.President Reagan was opposed to divestiture because he personally thought, as he wrote in a letter toSammy Davis Jr.,it "would hurt the very people we are trying to help and would leave us no contact within South Africa to try and bring influence to bear on the government". He also noted the fact that the "American-owned industries there employ more than 80,000 blacks" and that their employment practices were "very different from the normal South African customs".

The Reagan administration developedconstructive engagementwith the South African government as a means of encouraging it to gradually move away from apartheid and to give up its nuclear weaponsprogram.It was part of a larger initiative designed to foster peaceful economic development and political change throughout southern Africa.This policy, however, engendered much public criticism, and renewed calls for the imposition of stringent sanctions.In response, Reagan announced the imposition of new sanctions on the South African government, including anarms embargoin late 1985.These sanctions were seen as weak by anti-apartheid activists and as insufficient by the president's opponents in Congress.In 1986, Congress approved theComprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act,which included tougher sanctions; Reagan's veto was overridden by Congress. Afterward, he remained opposed to apartheid and unsure of "how best to oppose it". Several European countries, as well as Japan, also imposed their sanctions on South Africa soon after.

Libya bombing

Main article:1986 United States bombing of Libya

Reagan receiving a briefing on the Libya bombing, 1986

Contentious relations between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were revived in theWest Berlin discotheque bombingthat killed an American soldier and injured dozens of others on April 5, 1986. Stating that there was irrefutable evidence that Libya had a direct role in the bombing, Reagan authorized the use of force against the country. On April 14, the United States launched a series ofairstrikeson ground targets in Libya.Thatcher allowed theUnited States Air Forceto use Britain's air bases to launch the attack, on the justification that the United Kingdom was supporting America's right to self-defense under Article 51 of theCharter of the United Nations.The attack was, according to Reagan, designed to haltMuammar Gaddafi's "ability to export terrorism", offering him "incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior".The attack was condemned by many countries; by an overwhelming vote, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution to condemn the attack and deem it a violation of the Charter and international law.

Iran–Contra affair

Main article:Iran–Contra affair

Reagan receiving theTower Commissionon theIran–Contra affair,1987

Reagan authorizedWilliam J. Caseyto arm theContras,fearing that Communists would take over Nicaragua if it remained under the leadership of theSandinistas.Congress passed the 1982Boland Amendment,prohibiting the CIA and United States Department of Defense from using their budgets to provide aid to the Contras. Still, the Reagan administration raised funds for the Contras from private donors and foreign governments.When Congress learned that the CIA had secretly placednaval minesin Nicaraguan harbors, Congress passed a second Boland Amendment that barred granting any assistance to the Contras.By mid-1985,Hezbollahbegan totake American hostages in Lebanon,holding seven of them in reaction to the United States' support of Israel.

Reagan procured the release of seven American hostages held by Hezbollah by selling American arms to Iran, then engaged in the Iran–Iraq War, in hopes that Iran would pressure Hezbollah to release the hostages.The Reagan administration sold over 2,000 missiles to Iran without informing Congress; Hezbollah released four hostages but captured an additional six Americans. OnOliver North's initiative, the administration redirected the proceeds from the missile sales to the Contras.The transactions were exposed byAsh-Shiraain early November 1986. Reagan initially denied any wrongdoing, but on November 25, he announced thatJohn Poindexterand North had left the administration and that he would form theTower Commissionto investigate the transactions. A few weeks later, Reagan asked a panel of federal judges to appointa special prosecutorwho would conduct a separate investigation.

The Tower Commission released a report in February 1987 confirming that the administration had traded arms for hostages and sent the proceeds of the weapons sales to the Contras. The report laid most of the blame on North, Poindexter, andRobert McFarlane,but it was also critical ofDonald Reganand other White House staffers.Investigators did not find conclusive proof that Reagan had known about the aid provided to the Contras, but the report noted that Reagan had "created the conditions which made possible the crimes committed by others" and had "knowingly participated or acquiesced in covering up the scandal".The affair damaged the administration and raised questions about Reagan's competency and the wisdom of conservative policies.The administration's credibility was also badly damaged on the international stage as it had violated its own arms embargo on Iran.

The USSStarkincident

In the context of theTanker Waron May 17, 1987, an Iraqi fighter jet hit theUSSStarkwith twoExocet missiles,killing 37 sailors.Three days later,President Reagandeclared a "policy of self-defense" would now be ordered, as he accepted Iraq's official apology:"Our ships are deployed in the Persian Gulf in order to protect U.S. interests and maintain free access and maintainfreedom of navigationand access to the area's oil supplies. It is a vital mission, but our ships need to protect themselves and they will. [From now on] if aircraft approach any of our ships in a way that appears hostile, there is one order of battle. Defend yourselves. Defend American lives.. We're going to do what has to be done to keep the Persian Gulf open. It's international waters. No country there has a right to try and close it off and take it for itself. And the villain in the piece really is Iran. And so they're delighted with what has just happened. "

Soviet decline and thaw in relations

Further information:Cold War (1985–1991)

Mikhail Gorbachev and Reagan signing theINF Treaty,1987

Although the Soviets did not accelerate military spending in response to Reagan's military buildup,their enormous military expenses, in combination withcollectivized agricultureand inefficientplanned manufacturing,were a heavy burden for theSoviet economy.At the same time, the prices of oil, the primary source of Soviet export revenues, fell to one third of the previous level in 1985. These factors contributed to a stagnant economy during the tenure ofMikhail Gorbachevas Soviet leader.

President Ronald Reagan giving a speech atMoscow State Universityin theUSSR,1988

Reagan's foreign policy towards the Soviets wavered betweenbrinkmanshipand cooperation.Reagan appreciated Gorbachev's revolutionary change in the direction of the Soviet policy and shifted to diplomacy, intending to encourage him to pursue substantial arms agreements.They heldfour summit conferences between 1985 and 1988.Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech, this would lead to reform and the end of communism.The critical summit was inReykjavík in 1986,where they agreed to abolish all nuclear weapons. However, Gorbachev added the condition that SDI research must be confined to laboratories during the ten-year period when disarmament would take place. Reagan refused, stating that it was defensive only and that he would share the secrets with the Soviets, thus failing to reach a deal.

In June 1987, Reagan addressed Gorbachev during a speech at theBerlin Wall,demanding that he "tear down this wall".The remark was ignored at the time, but after the wallfell in November 1989,it was retroactively recast as a soaring achievement.In December, Reagan and Gorbachev met again atthe Washington Summitto sign theIntermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty,committing to the total abolition of their respective short-range and medium-range missile stockpiles.The treaty established an inspections regime designed to ensure that both parties honored the agreement.In May 1988, the U.S. Senate overwhelmingly voted in favor of ratifying the treaty,providing a major boost to Reagan's popularity in the aftermath of the Iran–Contra affair. A new era of trade and openness between the two powers commenced, and the United States and Soviet Union cooperated on international issues such as the Iran–Iraq War.

Post-presidency (1989–2004)

Reagan and Gorbachev at Rancho del Cielo, 1992

Nancy and Ronald Reagan with a model ofUSSRonald Reagan,1996

Uponleaving the presidencyon January 20, 1989, at the age of 77, Reagan became the oldest president at the end of his tenure, surpassingDwight D. Eisenhowerwholeft officeon January 20, 1961, at the age of 70. This distinction will eventually pass to incumbent presidentJoe Bidenwho is currently 82 years old.

In retirement, Ronald and Nancy Reagan lived at668 St. Cloud RoadinBel Air,in addition toRancho del CieloinSanta Barbara.He receivedmultiple awards and honorsin addition to generous payments for speaking engagements. In 1989 he supported repealing theTwenty-second Amendment's presidential term limits. In 1991, theRonald Reagan Presidential Libraryopened. Reagan also addressed the1992 Republican National Convention"to inspire allegiance to the party regulars";and favored aconstitutional amendmentrequiring a balanced budget.

Support for Brady Bill

Reagan publicly favored theBrady Bill,drawing criticism from gun control opponents.In 1989, in his first public appearance after leaving office and shortly after theStockton schoolyard shootingat Cleveland Elementary School in Stockton, California, he stated: "I do not believe in taking away the right of the citizen to own guns for sporting, for hunting, and so forth, or for home defense. But I do believe that anAK-47,a machine gun, is not a sporting weapon or needed for the defense of the home ".

In March 1991, Reagan wrote an op-ed in theNew York Times,titled "Why I'm for the Brady Bill".In May 1994, Reagan,Gerald Ford,andJimmy Cartersent a letter to House members, urging them to support the controversialFederal Assault Weapons Ban.

Alzheimer's disease

His final public speech occurred on February 3, 1994, during a tribute to him in Washington, D.C.; his last major public appearance was at thefuneral of Richard Nixonon April 27, 1994.In August 1994, Reagan was diagnosed withAlzheimer's disease,which he announced through a handwritten letter in November.There was speculation over how long he had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration,but lay observations that he suffered from Alzheimer's while still in office have been disputed by medical experts;his doctors said that he first began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992or 1993.Over time, the disease destroyed Reagan's mental capacity. By 1997, he was reported to recognize few people other than his wife, though he continued to walk through parks and on beaches, play golf, and visit his office in nearbyCentury City.Eventually, his family decided that he would live in quiet semi-isolation with his wife.By the end of 2003, Reagan had lost his ability to speak and was mostly confined to his bed, no longer able to recognize any family members.

Death and funeral

Main article:Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan

Reagan died ofpneumonia,complicated by Alzheimer's,at his home in Los Angeles, on June 5, 2004.PresidentGeorge W. Bushcalled Reagan's death "a sad hour in the life of America".His public funeral was held in theWashington National Cathedral,whereeulogieswere given by Margaret Thatcher,Brian Mulroney,George H. W. Bush, and George W. Bush.Other world leaders attended includingMikhail GorbachevandLech Wałęsa.Reagan was interred at his presidential library.

Legacy

See also:List of things named after Ronald ReaganandCultural depictions of Ronald Reagan

Approval ratings

Similar to previous presidents, Reagan began his presidency withapproval ratingsgreater than 50 percent,peaking above 70 percent shortly afterhis attempted assassination,before declining by the end of his first year.Afterwards, his ratings fluctuated in the mid-30s and mid-40s in his second and third years,which has been attributed to the1981–1982 recession.His approval ratings rebounded after theinvasion of Grenadaand by mid-1984 his approval rating neared 60 percent.In the first two years of his second term, his approval ratings were consistently above 60 percentbut declined during the Iran–Contra scandal,before beginning to recover in mid-1987.In theGallup poll,Reagan finished his presidency with an approval rating of 63 percent, the third highest for a departing president in history, behind onlyFranklin D. RooseveltandBill Clinton,both of whom finished at 66 percent.

In 1990, a year after he left office, a Gallup survey found that Americans continued to give Reagan's presidency high ratings, with 54 percent approving and 44 percent disapproving.In 1992, a Gallup poll found that Reagan's ratings had declined to 48 percent approving and 49 percent disapproving of his presidency.In 2006, his approval rating had increased to 71 percent, making him the second-most popular president sinceWorld War II,with onlyJohn F. Kennedyhaving a higher rating.In a 2023 poll, Reagan was again rated highly by Americans, with a 69 percent approval rating.

Historical reputation

TheRonald Reagan Presidential LibraryinSimi Valley, California

In 2008, British historian M. J. Heale summarized that scholars had reached a broad consensus in which "Reagan rehabilitated conservatism, turned the country to the right, practiced a 'pragmatic conservatism' that balanced ideology with the constraints of government, revived faith in the presidency and American self-respect, and contributed to critically ending the Cold War ",which ended with thedissolution of the Soviet Unionin 1991.Many conservative and liberal scholars have agreed that Reagan has been the most influential president since Roosevelt, leaving his imprint on American politics, diplomacy, culture, and economics through his effective communication of his conservative agenda and pragmatic compromising.During the initial years of Reagan's post-presidency, historical rankingsplaced his presidencyin the twenties.Throughout the 2000s and 2010s, his presidency was often placed in the top ten.

Many proponents, including his Cold War contemporaries,believe that his defense policies, economic policies, military policies, and hard-line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and communism, together with his summits with Gorbachev, played a significant part in ending the Cold War.Professor Jeffrey Knopf argues that while Reagan's practice of referring to the Soviet Union as "evil" probably made no difference to the Soviet leaders, it possibly gave encouragement to Eastern European citizens who opposed their communist regimes.President Truman's policy of containmentis also regarded as a force behind the fall of the Soviet Union, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself.Nevertheless,Melvyn P. Lefflercalled Reagan "Gorbachev's minor, yet indispensable partner, setting the framework for the dramatic changes that neither anticipated happening anytime soon".

Critics, for example Paul Krugman, note Reagan's tenure as having begun a period of increased income inequality, sometimes called the "Great Divergence".Krugman also views Reagan as having initiated the ideology of the current-day Republican Party, which he feels is led by" radicals "who seek to" undo the twentieth century "gains in income equality and unionization.Others, such as Nixon'sSecretary of CommercePeter G. Peterson,also criticize what they feel was not just Reagan's fiscal irresponsibility, but also the ushering in of an era where tax cutting "became the GOP's core platform", with resulting deficits and GOP leaders (speciously in Peterson's opinion) arguing supply-side gains would enable the country to "grow" its way out of deficits.

Reagan was known for storytelling and humor,which involved punsand self-deprecation.Reagan also often emphasizedfamily values,despite being the first president to have been divorced.He showed the ability to comfort Americans during the aftermath of theSpace ShuttleChallengerdisaster.Reagan's ability to talk about substantive issues with understandable terms and to focus on mainstream American concerns earned him the laudatory moniker the "Great Communicator".He also earned the nickname "Teflon President" in that public perceptions of him were not substantially tarnished by themultitude of controversies that arose during his administration.

Political influence

Reagan leda new conservative movement,altering the political dynamic of the United States.Conservatism became the dominant ideology for Republicans, displacing the party's faction of liberals and moderates.In his time, men began voting more Republican, and women began voting more Democrat – a gender distinction that has persisted.He was supported by young voters, an allegiance that shifted many of them to the party.He attempted to appeal to black voters in 1980,but would receive the lowest black vote for a Republican presidential candidate at the time.Throughout Reagan's presidency, Republicans were unable to gain complete control of Congress.

The period of American history most dominated by Reagan and his policies (particularly on taxes, welfare, defense, the federal judiciary, and the Cold War) is known as theReagan era,which suggests that the "Reagan Revolution" had a lasting impact on the United States in domestic and foreign policy. TheGeorge H. W. BushandBill Clinton administrationsare often treated as an extension of the era, as is theGeorge W. Bush administration.Since 1988,Republican presidential candidateshave invokedReagan's policies and beliefs.

References

Works cited

Further information:Bibliography of Ronald Reagan

Books

• Alexander, Michelle(2010).The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness.The New Press.ISBN978-1-59558-103-7.
• Amaker, Norman C. (1988).Civil Rights and the Reagan Administration.Urban Institute.ISBN978-0-87766-452-9.
• Anderson, Martin(1990).Revolution: The Reagan Legacy.Hoover Institution Press.ISBN978-0-8179-8992-7.
• Bartlett, Bruce(2012).The Benefit and The Burden: Tax Reform-Why We Need It and What It Will Take.Simon & Schuster.ISBN978-1-4516-4619-1.
• Bergen, Peter(2001).Holy War Inc.Free Press.ISBN9780743234955.
• Boller, Paul (2004).Presidential Campaigns: From George Washington to George W. Bush.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-516716-0.
• Brands, H. W.(2015).Reagan: The Life.Anchor Books.ISBN978-0-385-53639-4.
• Cannadine, David(2017).Margaret Thatcher: A Life and Legacy.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-879500-1.
• Cannon, Lou(2000) [1991].President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime.PublicAffairs.ISBN978-1-891620-91-1.
• —— (2001).Ronald Reagan: The Presidential Portfolio: A History Illustrated from the Collection of the Ronald Reagan Library and Museum.PublicAffairs.ISBN978-1-891620-84-3.
• —— (2003).Governor Reagan: His Rise to Power.PublicAffairs.ISBN978-1-58648-030-1.
• Carter, Gregg(2002).Guns in American Society: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, Culture, and the Law, Volume 1.ABC-Clio.ISBN978-1-57607-268-4.
• Crespino, Joseph(2021).In Search of Another Country: Mississippi and the Conservative Counterrevolution.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-14094-0.
• Dick, Bernard F. (2014).The President's Ladies: Jane Wyman and Nancy Davis.University Press of Mississippi.ISBN978-1-61703-980-5.
• Eliot, Marc (2008).Reagan: The Hollywood Years.Crown Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-307-40512-8.
• Evans, Thomas W. (2006).The Education of Ronald Reagan: The General Electric Years and the Untold Story of His Conversion to Conservatism.Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-13860-4.
• Fallon, Janet L. (2017).A Communication Perspective on Margaret Thatcher: Stateswoman of the Twentieth Century.Le xing ton Books.ISBN978-1-4985-4738-3.
• Fialka, John J. (1999).War by Other Means: Economic Espionage in America.W. W. Norton & Company.ISBN978-0-393-04014-2.
• Fischer, Beth A. (2019).The Myth of Triumphalism: Rethinking President Reagan's Cold War Legacy.University Press of Kentucky.ISBN978-0-8131-7819-6.
• Freie, John F. (2015).Making of the Postmodern Presidency: From Ronald Reagan to Barack Obama.Paradigm Publishers.ISBN978-1-59451-782-2.
• Friedrich, Otto(1997) [1986].City of Nets: A Portrait of Hollywood in the 1940's.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-20949-7.
• Gerstle, Gary(2022).The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order: America and the World in the Free Market Era.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-751964-6.
• Gould, Lewis L.(2010).1968: The Election That Changed America.Government Institutes.ISBN978-1-56663-862-3.
• Graebner, Norman; Burns, Richard; Siracusa, Joseph (2008).Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War.Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-313-35241-6.
• Hampson, Fen Osler(2018).Master of Persuasion: Brian Mulroney's Global Legacy.McClelland & Stewart.ISBN978-0-7710-3907-2.
• Haney López, Ian(2014).Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-996427-7.
• Herring, George C.(2008).From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-507822-0.
• Holmes, Alison R. (2020).Multi-Layered Diplomacy in a Global State: The International Relations of California.Springer Science+Business Media.ISBN978-3-030-54131-6.
• Karaagac, John (2002).Between Promise and Policy: Ronald Reagan and Conservative Reformism.Le xing ton Books.ISBN978-0-7391-0094-3.
• Kengor, Paul(2004).God and Ronald Reagan: A Spiritual Life.ReganBooks.ISBN978-0-06-057141-2.
• —— (2006).The Crusader: Ronald Reagan and the Fall of Communism.ReganBooks.ISBN978-0-06-113690-0.
• Keyssar, Alexander(2009).The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States.Basic Books.ISBN978-0-465-00502-4.
• Kupelian, David (2010).How Evil Works: Understanding and Overcoming the Destructive Forces That Are Transforming America.Simon & Schuster.ISBN978-1-4391-6819-6.
• Koop, C. Everett(1991).Koop: The Memoirs of America's Family Doctor.Random House.ISBN978-0-394-57626-8.
• Landesman, Fred (2015).The John Wayne Filmography.McFarland & Company.ISBN978-0-7864-3252-3.
• Lettow, Paul (2006).Ronald Reagan and His Quest to Abolish Nuclear Weapons.Random House.ISBN978-0-8129-7326-6.
• Leuchtenburg, William(2015).The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-517616-2.
• Metzger, Robert (1989).Reagan: American Icon.University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN978-0-8122-1302-7.
• Oliver, Willard; Marion, Nancy (2010).Killing the President: Assassinations, Attempts, and Rumored Attempts on U.S. Commanders-in-chief.Praeger Publishing.ISBN978-0-313-36474-7.
• Patterson, James T.(2005).Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush V. Gore.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-512216-9.
• Pemberton, William (1998) [1997].Exit With Honor: The Life and Presidency of Ronald Reagan.M. E. Sharpe.ISBN978-0-7656-0096-7.
• Reagan, Ronald (1990) [1989].Speaking My Mind: Selected Speeches.Hutchinson.ISBN978-0-09-174426-7.
• Reagan, Michael(2011). Denney, Jim (ed.).The New Reagan Revolution: How Ronald Reagan's Principles Can Restore America's Greatness.Thomas Dunne Books.ISBN978-0-312-64454-3.
• Rossinow, Douglas (2015).The Reagan Era: A History of the 1980s.Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-16989-9.
• Shilts, Randy(2000) [1987].And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic.St. Martin's Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-312-24135-3.
• Shull, Steven (1993).A Kinder, Gentler Racism?: The Reagan-Bush Civil Rights Legacy.M. E. Sharpe.ISBN978-1-56324-240-3.
• Skidmore, Max (2008).Securing America's Future: A Bold Plan to Preserve and Expand Social Security.Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN978-0-7425-6243-1.
• Søndergaard, Rasmus (2020).Reagan, Congress, and Human Rights: Contesting Morality in US Foreign Policy.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-108-49563-9.
• Spitz, Bob(2018).Reagan: An American Journey.Penguin Press.ISBN978-1-59420-531-6.
• Steuerle, C. Eugene (1992).The Tax Decade: How Taxes Came to Dominate the Public Agenda.Urban Institute.ISBN978-0-87766-523-6.
• Thomson, Alex (2008).U.S. Foreign Policy Towards Apartheid South Africa, 1948–1994: Conflict of Interests.Palgrave Macmillan.doi:10.1057/9780230617285.ISBN978-0-230-61728-5.
• Vaughn, Stephen (1994).Ronald Reagan in Hollywood: Movies and Politics.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-44080-6.
• Wawro, Geoffrey(2010).Quicksand: America's Pursuit of Power in the Middle East.The Penguin Press.ISBN978-1-101-19768-4.
• Weisberg, Jacob(2016).Ronald Reagan: The American Presidents Series: The 40th President, 1981–1989.Times Books.ISBN978-0-8050-9727-6.
• Witcover, Jules(1977).Marathon: The Pursuit of the Presidency, 1972-1976.Viking Press.ISBN978-0-670-45461-7.
• Woodard, J. David (2012).Ronald Reagan: A Biography.Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-313-39638-0.
• Yager, Edward (2006).Ronald Reagan's Journey: Democrat to Republican.Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN978-0-7425-4421-5.

Chapters

• Bennett, W. Lance; Livingston, Steven (2021). "Defending Democracy in the Disinformation Age". In Bennett, W. Lance; Livingston, Steven (eds.).The Disinformation Age: Politics, Technology, and Disruptive Communication in the United States.Cambridge University Press.pp. 261–294.ISBN978-1-108-91462-8.
• Mayer, Jeremy D. (2015). "Reagan and Race: Prophet of Color Blindness, Baiter of the Backlash". In Longley, Kyle; Mayer, Jeremy; Schaller, Michael; Sloan, John (eds.).Deconstructing Reagan: Conservative Mythology And America's Fortieth President.Routledge.pp. 70–89.ISBN978-0-7656-1590-9.
• Johns, Andrew L. (2015). "Ronald Reagan in Historical Perspective". In Johns, Andrew L. (ed.).A Companion to Ronald Reagan.Wiley-Blackwell.pp. 1–6.ISBN978-0-470-65504-7.
• Lawrence, Mark Atwood (2021). "Rhetoric and Restraint: Ronald Reagan and the Vietnam Syndrome". In Hunt, Jonathan R.; Miles, Simon (eds.).The Reagan Moment: America and the World in the 1980s.Cornell University Press.pp. 165–187.ISBN978-1-5017-6071-6.
• Leffler, Melvyn P.(2021). "Ronald Reagan and the Cold War". In Hunt, Jonathan R.; Miles, Simon (eds.).The Reagan Moment: America and the World in the 1980s.Cornell University Press.pp. 25–42.ISBN978-1-5017-6071-6.
• Mullen, Lawrence J. (1999). "Ronald Reagan". In Murray, Michael D. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Television News.Oryx Press.ISBN978-1-57356-108-2.
• Patterson, James T.(2003). "Afterword: Legacies of the Reagan Years". In Brownlee, W. Elliot;Graham, Hugh(eds.).The Reagan Presidency: Pragmatic Conservatism and Its Legacies.University Press of Kansas.pp. 355–375.ISBN978-0-7006-1268-0.
• Roy, Ravi K. (2012). "Capitalism". InAnheier, Helmut;Juergensmeyer, Mark(eds.).Encyclopedia of Global Studies.SAGE Publications.pp. 153–158.ISBN978-1-4129-9422-4.
• Schuparra, Kurt (2015). "Reagan's Gubernatorial Years". In Johns, Andrew L. (ed.).A Companion to Ronald Reagan.Wiley-Blackwell.pp. 40–53.ISBN978-0-470-65504-7.

Journal articles

• Birkner, Michael J. (1987)."The Defining Moment: The 1980 Nashua Debate".Gettysburg College.Archivedfrom the original on May 22, 2021.RetrievedMay 22,2021.
• Boris, Eileen (2007). "On Cowboys and Welfare Queens: Independence, Dependence, and Interdependence at Home and Abroad".Journal of American Studies.41(3): 599–621.doi:10.1017/S002187580700401X.JSTOR27558050.S2CID145653386.
• Clabaugh, Gary (2004). "The Educational Legacy of Ronald Reagan".Educational Horizons.82(4): 256–259.JSTOR42926508.
• DeGrasse, Robert W. Jr. (1983). "Military Spending and Jobs".Challenge.26(3): 4–15.doi:10.1080/05775132.1983.11470849.JSTOR40720151.
• Francis, Donald(2012)."Commentary: Deadly AIDS policy failure by the highest levels of the US government: A personal look back 30 years later for lessons to respond better to future epidemics".Journal of Public Health Policy.33(3): 290–300.doi:10.1057/jphp.2012.14.ISSN1745-655X.JSTOR23253449.PMID22895498.S2CID205127920.
• Garrow, David(2007). "Review: Picking up the Books: The New Historiography of the Black Panther Party".Reviews in American History.35(4): 650–670.doi:10.1353/rah.2007.0068.JSTOR30031608.S2CID145069539.
• Gellin, Bruce (1992). "The Stalled Response to AIDS".Issues in Science and Technology.9(1): 24–28.JSTOR43311244.PMID10122433.
• Graetz, Michael (2012)."Energy Policy: Past or Prologue?".Daedalus.141(2): 31–44.doi:10.1162/DAED_a_00144.JSTOR23240277.S2CID57569482.
• Hayes, Matthew; Fortunato, David; Hibbing, Matthew (2020)."Race–gender bias in white Americans' preferences for gun availability".Journal of Public Policy.41(4): 818–834.doi:10.1017/S0143814X20000288.S2CID234615039.
• Heclo, Hugh(2008). "The Mixed Legacies of Ronald Reagan".Presidential Studies Quarterly.38(4): 555–574.doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2008.02664.x.JSTOR41219701.
• Henry, David (2009). "Ronald Reagan and the 1980s: Perceptions, Policies, Legacies by Cheryl Hudson, Gareth Davies".The Journal of American History.96(3): 933–934.doi:10.1093/jahist/96.3.933.JSTOR25622627.
• Kanet, Roger E.(2006)."The Superpower Quest for Empire: The Cold War and Soviet Support for 'Wars of National Liberation'".Cold War History.6(3): 331–352.doi:10.1080/14682740600795469.S2CID154531753.
• Kazan gian, Powel (2014). "The AIDS Pandemic in Historic Perspective".Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences.69(3): 351–382.doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrs061.JSTOR24631705.PMID23090980.
• Kim, Young Soo; Shin, Joongbum (2017)."Variance in Global Response to HIV/AIDS between the United States and Japan: Perception, Media, and Civil Society".Japanese Journal of Political Science.18(4): 514–535.doi:10.1017/S1468109917000159.S2CID158468369.
• Li, Jinhua (2013)."Analysis of the High Unemployment Rate in the USA".World Review of Political Economy.4(2): 218–229.doi:10.13169/worlrevipoliecon.4.2.0218.JSTOR10.13169/worlrevipoliecon.4.2.0218.
• Lucas, Richert (2009)."Reagan, Regulation, and the FDA: The US Food and Drug Administration's Response to HIV/AIDS, 1980-90".Canadian Journal of History.44(3): 467–487.doi:10.3138/cjh.44.3.467.ProQuest194343072.
• Nichols, Curt (2012). "The Presidential Ranking Game: Critical Review and Some New Discoveries".Presidential Studies Quarterly.42(2): 275–299.doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2012.03966.x.JSTOR41427390.
• Onge, Jeffrey (2017). "Operation Coffeecup: Ronald Reagan, Rugged Individualism, and the Debate over" Socialized Medicine "".Rhetoric and Public Affairs.20(2): 223–252.doi:10.14321/rhetpublaffa.20.2.0223.JSTOR10.14321/rhetpublaffa.20.2.0223.S2CID149379808.
• Pach, Chester (2006). "The Reagan Doctrine: Principle, Pragmatism, and Policy".Presidential Studies Quarterly.36(1): 75–88.doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00288.x.JSTOR27552748.
• Primuth, Richard (2016). "Ronald Reagan's Use of Race in the 1976 and 1980 Presidential Elections".The Georgia Historical Quarterly.100(1): 36–66.JSTOR43855884.
• Putnam, Jackson (2006). "Governor Reagan: A Reappraisal".California History.83(4): 24–45.doi:10.2307/25161839.JSTOR25161839.
• Reimler, John (1999). "The Rebirth of Racism in Education: The Real Legacy of the Reagan Revolution".Journal of Thought.34(2): 31–40.JSTOR42589574.
• Sinai, Allen(1992). "Financial and Real Business Cycles".Eastern Economic Journal.18(1): 1–54.JSTOR40325363.
• Sirin, Cigdem (2011). "From Nixon's War on Drugs to Obama's Drug Policies Today: Presidential Progress in Addressing Racial Injustices and Disparities".Race, Gender & Class.18(3/4): 82–99.JSTOR43496834.
• Vaughn, Stephen (1995). "The Moral Inheritance of a President: Reagan and the Dixon Disciples of Christ".Presidential Studies Quarterly.25(1): 109–127.JSTOR27551378.

External links

Official sites

• Ronald Reagan Foundation and Presidential Library
• Ronald Reaganonwhitehouse.gov
• Ronald Reaganin the Governors' Gallery of theCalifornia State Library
• The Ronald W. Reagan Society of Eureka College

Media

• AppearancesonC-SPAN
  • "Life Portrait of Ronald Reagan",fromAmerican Presidents: Life Portraits,December 6, 1999
• Ronald Reagan Oral HistoriesatMiller Center
• Ronald Reagan's timelineatPBS
• Reagan Library's channelonYouTube

News coverage

• Ronald Reagancollected news and commentary atThe New York Times
• Ronald ReaganfromThe Washington Post
• Ronald ReaganatCNN
• Ronald Reagancollected news and commentary atThe Guardian

Other

• Ronald ReaganatIMDb
• Ronald Reaganat theTCM Movie Database
• Works by or about Ronald Reaganat theInternet Archive
• Ronald ReaganatMiller Center