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Ruthenians

(Redirected fromRuthenes)
Not to be confused with the Eastern Catholic body, theRuthenian Greek Catholic Church.

RuthenianandRutheneareexonymsofLatinorigin, formerly used in Eastern and Central Europe as commonethnonymsforUkrainiansand partiallyBelarusians,particularly during thelate medievalandearly modernperiods. The Latin termRutheniwas used in medieval sources to describe Eastern Slavs of theGrand Duchy of Lithuania,as an exonym for people of the formerKievan Rus',thus including ancestors of the modernBelarusians,RusynsandUkrainians.[1][2]The use ofRuthenianand related exonyms continued through the early modern period, developing several distinctive meanings, both in terms of their regional scopes and additional religious connotations (such as affiliation with theRuthenian Greek Catholic Church).[1][3][4][5][6]

Ruthenians
A boy with the pilgrimage flag with theRuthenian lionduring the Ruthenian pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1906
Languages
Religion
PredominantlyEastern Orthodox
Ruthenian Greek Catholic,Ukrainian Greek Catholic,Russian Greek Catholic Churchamong other Byzantine rites originally from Slavic origins.
Related ethnic groups
OtherEast Slavs

In medieval sources, the Latin termRutheniwas commonly applied to East Slavs in general, thus encompassing allendonymsand their various forms (Belarusian:русіны,romanized:rusiny;Ukrainian:русини,romanized:rusyny). By opting for the use of exonymic terms, authors who wrote in Latin were relieved from the need to be specific in their applications of those terms, and the same quality ofRuthenianexonyms is often recognized in modern, mainly Western authors, particularly those who prefer to use exonyms (foreign in origin) over endonyms.[7][8][9]

During the early modern period, the exonymRuthenianwas most frequently applied to the East Slavic population of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,an area encompassing territories of modernBelarusandUkrainefrom the 15th up to the 18th centuries.[10][11]In the formerAustro-Hungarian Monarchy,the same term (German:Ruthenen) was employed up to 1918 as an official exonym for the entire Ukrainian population within the borders of the Monarchy.[12][13]

Etymology

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Ruteni,a misnomer that was also the name of anextinct and unrelated Celtic tribeinAncient Gaul,[7]was used in reference to Rus' in theAnnales Augustaniof 1089.[7]An alternative early modern Latinisation,Rucenus(pluralRuceni) was, according toBoris Unbegaun,derived fromRusyn.[7]BaronHerberstein,describing the land ofRussia(Rus'), inhabited by theRutheniwho call themselvesRussi,claimed that the first of the governors who ruleRussia(Rus') is the Grand Duke of Moscow, the second is the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the third is the King of Poland.[14][15]

Map of the Muscovy Abatis Line in the 17th century printed in 1916 in Saint Petersburg demonstrates understanding of the pre-Peter's epoch.

According to professorJohn-Paul Himkafrom the University of Alberta the wordRuthenidid not include the modern Russians, who were known asMoscovitaethroughout Western Europe.[7][16]Vasili III of Russia,who ruled theGrand Duchy of Moscowin the 16th century, was known in European Latin sources asRhuteni Imperator,do to a self proclaimed title"Tsar of Rus' (Russia)".[17]Jacques Margeretin his book "Estat de l'empire de Russie, et grande duché de Moscovie" of 1607 said that the name "Muscovites" for the population ofTsardom (Empire) of Russiais an error.[citation needed]During conversations, they called themselvesrusaki(which is a colloquial term forRussians) and only the citizens of the capital called themself "Muscovites". Margeret considered that this error is worse than calling all the French "Parisians".[18][19]Professor David Frick from the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute has also found in Vilnius the documents from 1655, which demonstrate that Moscovitae were sometimes referred in Lithuania as Rutheni (as former part of Kievan Rus').[20]The 16th century Portuguese poetLuís Vaz de Camõesin hisOs Lusíadas"(Canto III, 11)[21][22]clearly writes "...Entre este mar e o Tánais vive estranha Gente: Rutenos, Moscos e Livónios, Sármatas outro tempo..." differentiating between Ruthenians and Muscovites.

1587 Map of the WorldUrbano Monti

Ruthenians of different regions in 1836:

After thepartition of Poland,the term Ruthenian referred exclusively to people of the Rusyn- and Ukrainian-speaking areas of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, especially in theKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria,Bukovina,andTranscarpathia.[7]

1507 - "A more universal map of the known world from recently completed observations"Johannes Ruysch

At the request ofMykhailo Levytsky,in 1843, the term Ruthenian became the official name for the Rusyns and Ukrainians within theAustrian Empire.[7]For example,Ivan FrankoandStepan Banderain their passports were identified as Ruthenians (Polish:Rusini).[23]By 1900, more and more Ruthenians began to call themselves with the self-designated name Ukrainians.[7]With the emergence ofUkrainian nationalismduring the mid-19th century, use of "Ruthenian" and cognate terms declined among Ukrainians and fell out of use in Eastern and Central Ukraine. Most people in the western region of Ukraine followed suit later in the 19th century. During the early 20th century, the nameUkrajins'ka mova( "Ukrainian language" ) became accepted by much of the Ukrainian-speaking literary class in theAustro-HungarianKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria.[citation needed]

Following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, new states emerged and dissolved; borders changed frequently. After several years, the Rusyn and Ukrainian speaking areas of eastern Austria-Hungary found themselves divided between theCzechoslovakia,Poland,andRomania.

When commenting on the partition of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in March 1939, US diplomatGeorge Kennannoted, "To those who inquire whether thesepeasantsare Russians or Ukrainians, there is only one answer. They are Neither. They are simplyRuthenians."[24]Dr. Paul R. Magocsi emphasizes that modern Ruthenians have "the sense of a nationality distinct from Ukrainians" and often associate Ukrainians withSovietsor Communists.[25]

After the expansion of Soviet Ukraine following World War II, several groups who had not previously considered themselves Ukrainians were merged into the Ukrainian identity.[26]

Ruthenian terminology in Poland

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Ruthenians of Kholm (Chełm) in 1861.
Ruthenians ofPodlachiain the second half of the 19th century.

In theinterbellumperiod of the 20th century, the termrusyn(Ruthenian) was also applied to people from theKresy Wschodnie(the eastern borderlands) in theSecond Polish Republic,and included Ukrainians, Rusyns, and Lemkos, or alternatively, members of theUniateorGreek Catholic Churches.In Galicia, the Polish government actively replaced all references to "Ukrainians" with the old wordrusini( "Ruthenians" ).

ThePolish census of 1921considered Ukrainians no other than Ruthenians, meanwhile Belarusians have already become a separate nation, which in Polish is literally translated as "White Ruthenians" (Polish:Białorusini).[27]However thePolish census of 1931counted Belarusian, Ukrainian, and Rusyn as separate language categories, and the census results were substantially different from before.[28]According toRusyn-American historianPaul Robert Magocsi,Polish government policy in the 1930s pursued a strategy of tribalization, regarding various ethnographic groups—i.e.,Lemkos,Boykos,andHutsuls,as well as Old Ruthenians andRussophiles—as different from other Ukrainians and offered instructions in Lemko vernacular in state schools set up in the westernmostLemko Region.[29][28]

ThePolish census of 1931listed "Belarusian", "Rusyn" and "Ukrainian" (Polish:białoruski, ruski, ukraiński,respectively) as separate languages.[30][31]

Carpatho-Ruthenian ethnonyms

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Further information:Rusyn people

By the end of the 19th century, another set of terms came into use in several western languages, combining regionalCarpathianwithRutheniandesignations, and thus producing composite terms such as: Carpatho-Ruthenes or Carpatho-Ruthenians. Those terms also acquired several meanings, depending on the shifting geographical scopes of the termCarpathian Ruthenia.Those meanings were also spanning from wider uses as designations for all East Slavs of the Carpathian region, to narrower uses, focusing on those local groups of East Slavs who did not accept a modern Ukrainian identity, but rather opted to keep their traditionalRusynidentity.[32]

The designations Rusyn and Carpatho-Rusyn were banned in theSoviet Unionby the end of World War II in June 1945.[26]Ruthenians who identified under the Rusyn ethnonym and considered themselves to be a national and linguistic group separate from Ukrainians and Belarusians were relegated to the Carpathian diaspora and formally functioned among the large immigrant communities in the United States.[25][26]A cross-European revival took place only with the collapse of communist rule in 1989.[26]This has resulted in political conflict and accusations of intrigue against Rusyn activists, including criminal charges. The Rusyn minority is well represented in Slovakia. The single category of people who listed their ethnicity as Rusyn was created in the 1920s; however, no generally accepted standardised Rusyn language existed.[33]

After World War II, following the practice in the Soviet Union, Ruthenian ethnicity was disallowed. This Soviet policy maintained that the Ruthenians and their language were part of the Ukrainian ethnic group and language. At the same time, the Greek Catholic church was banned and replaced with the Eastern Orthodox church under the Russian Patriarch, in an atmosphere which repressed all religions. Thus, in Slovakia, the former Ruthenians were technically free to register as any ethnicity but Ruthenian.[33]

The government of Slovakia has proclaimed Rusyns (Rusíni) to be a distinct national minority (1991) and recognisedRusyn languageas a distinct language (1995).[7]

Speculative theories

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Latin memorial plate from 1521, that mentions kingOdoacerasRex Rhutenorum(Petersfriedhof,Salzburg).

Since the 19th century, several speculative theories emerged regarding the origin and nature of medieval and early modern uses ofRuthenianterms as designations for East Slavs. Some of those theories were focused on a very specific source, a memorial plate from 1521, that was placed in thecatacombeChapel of St Maximus inPetersfriedhof,the burial site ofSt Peter's AbbeyinSalzburg(modernAustria). The plate contains Latin inscription that mentions Italian rulerOdoacer(476–493) as king of "Rhutenes" or "Rhutenians" (Latin:Rex Rhvtenorvm), and narrates a story about the martyrdom of St Maximus during an invasion of several peoples intoNoricumin 477. Due to the very late date (1521) and several anachronistic elements, the content of that plate is considered as legendary.[34][35]

In spite of that, some authors (mainly non-scholars) employed that plate as a "source" for several theories that were trying to connect Odoacer with ancient CelticRuthenesfrom Gaul, thus also providing an apparent bridge towards later medieval authors who labeled East Slavs asRuthenesorRuthenians.On those bases, an entire strain of speculative theories was created, regarding the alleged connection between ancient Gallic Ruthenes and later East Slavic "Ruthenians".[36]As noted by professorPaul R. Magocsi,those theories should be regarded as "inventive tales" of "creative" writers.[37][38]

Geography

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Main article:Ruthenia

From the 9th century,Kievan Rus'– now part of the modern states ofUkraine,BelarusandRussia– was known in Western Europe bya variety of namesderived from Rus'. From the 12th century, the land of Rus' was usually known in Western Europe by theLatinisednameRuthenia.[citation needed][dubious–discuss]

  • Kievan Rus',also known as Ruthenia,c.1230
  • 1868 linguistic, ethnographic, and political map of Eastern Europe by Casimir Delamarre
    Ruthenians and Ruthenian language
  • 1907 linguistic and ethnographic map that indicatesUkrainiansas "Little Russiansor Ruthenians "
  • 1911 map depicting the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with Ruthenians in light green
  • 1927 Polish map that indicates Ukrainians as "Ruthenians" ( "Rusini" ), andBelarusiansas "White Ruthenians" ( "Białorusini" )
  • 1918 map of Ukraine. Caption says following: "In the ruled area Ukrainian (Ruthenian) speech predominates… "
  • Ethnographic groups of Ruthenians, from "Rusini, zarys etnografii naRusi"(1928)[39]

Ruthenian culture

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Book in Ruthenian language printed in Trnava (1727)

Language

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Main article:Ruthenian language

The Ruthenian language (Ruthenian:рускаꙗ мова, рускїй ѧзыкъ) was anexonymiclinguonymfor a closely related group ofEast Slaviclinguisticvarieties,particularly those spoken from the 15th to 18th centuries in theEast Slavicregions of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.By the end of the 18th century, they gradually diverged into regional variants, which subsequently developed into the modernBelarusian(White Ruthenian),Ukrainian(Ruthenian), andRusyn(CarpathianRuthenian) languages.[40][41]

Religions

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Main articles:Ruthenian Uniate Church,Metropolis of Kiev and all Rus',andReligion in Ukraine

With thebaptism of Volodymyrbegan a long history of the dominance of Eastern Orthodoxy inRuthenia.The Rus' accepted Christianity in itsByzantine format the same time as the Poles accepted it in itsLatin form,Lithuanians largely remainedpaganto the lateMiddle Agesbefore their nobility embraced the Latin form upon thepolitical unionwith the Poles. The eastward expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had been facilitated by amicable treaties and inter-marriages of the nobility when faced with the external threat of theMongol invasion of Kievan Rus'.

Religions in the Commonwealth (1573), orthodox Christianity in green, Catholicism in yellow

By the end of the 12th century,Europewas generally divided into two large areas:Western Europewith dominance of Catholicism, andEastern Europewith Orthodox and Byzantine influences. The border between them was roughly marked by theBug River.This placed the area now known asBelarusin a unique position where these two influences mixed and interfered.

The first Latin Church diocese in White Ruthenia was established inTuraŭbetween 1008 and 1013. Catholicism was a traditionally dominant religion of Belarusiannobility(theszlachta) and of a large part of the population of western and northwestern parts of Belarus. Before the 14th century, theEastern Orthodox Churchwas dominant in White Ruthenia. TheUnion of Krewoin 1385 broke this monopoly and madeCatholicismthe religion of the ruling class.

Jogaila,then ruler of the GrandDuchy of Lithuania,ordered the whole population of Lithuania to convert to Catholicism. One and a half years after the Union of Krewo, theWilno(Vilnius) episcopate was created which received a lot of land from the Lithuanian dukes. By the mid-16th century Catholicism became strong in Lithuania and bordering with it north-west parts of White Ruthenia, but the Orthodox church was still dominant.

In the 14th century, EmperorAndronikos II Palaiologossanctioned the creation of two additional metropolitan sees: theMetropolis of Halych(1303) and theMetropolis of Lithuania(1317).

Metropolitan Roman (1355–1362) of Lithuania and MetropolitanAlexius of Kievboth claimed the see. Both metropolitans travelled to Constantinople to make their appeals in person. In 1356, their cases were heard by a Patriarchal Synod. TheHoly Synodconfirmed that Alexis was the Metropolitan of Kiev while Roman was also confirmed in his see at Novogorodek. In 1361, the two sees were formally divided. Shortly afterwards, in the winter of 1361/62, Roman died. From 1362 to 1371, the vacant see of Lithuania–Halych was administered by Alexius. By that point, the Lithuanian metropolis was effectively dissolved.

Following the signing of theCouncil of Florence,MetropolitanIsidore of Kievreturned to Moscow in 1441 as a Ruthenian cardinal. He was arrested by theGrand Duke of Moscowand accused ofapostasy.The Grand Duke deposed Isidore and in 1448 installed own candidate as Metropolitan of Kyiv —Jonah.This was carried out without the approval of PatriarchGregory III of Constantinople.When Isidore died in 1458, he was succeeded as metropolitan in the Patriarchate of Constantinople byGregory the Bulgarian.Gregory's canonical territory was the western part of the traditionalKievan Rus'lands — the states of theGrand Duchy of Lithuaniaand theKingdom of Poland.Theepiscopal seatwas in the city ofNavahrudakwhich is today located inBelarus.It was later moved toVilnius— the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Aparallel succession to the titleensued between Moscow and Vilnius. The Metropolitans of Kiev are the predecessors of thePatriarch of Moscow and all Rus'that was formed in the 16th century.

The Ruthenian Uniate Church was created in 1595–1596 by those clergy of theEastern Orthodox churcheswho subscribed to theUnion of Brest.In the process, they switched their allegiancesand jurisdictionfrom theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinopleto theHoly See.It had a single metropolitan territory — theMetropolis of Kiev, Galicia and all Ruthenia.The formation of the church led to a high degree of confrontation among Ruthenians, such as the murder of thehierarchJosaphat Kuntsevychin 1623. Opponents of the union called church members "Uniates",although Catholic documents no longer use the term due to its perceived negative overtones. In 1620, these dissenters erected their own metropolis — the"Metropolis of Kyev, Galicia and all Ruthenia".

In the 16th century, a crisis began in Christianity: theProtestant Reformationbegan in Catholicism and a period ofheresybegan in an Orthodox area. From the mid-16th centuryProtestantideas began spreading in theGrand Duchy of Lithuania.The first Protestant Church in Belarus was created in Brest byMikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł.Protestantism did not survive due to theCounter-Reformation in Poland.

Both the Catholic Church in the Commonwealth and the Ruthenian Church underwent a period of decay. The Ruthenian Church was the church of a people without statehood. The Poles considered the Ruthenians a conquered people. Over time, the Lithuanian military and political ascendancy did away with the Ruthenian autonomies. The disadvantageous political status of the Ruthenian people also affected the status of their church and undermined her capacity for reform and renewal. Furthermore, they could not expect support from the Mother Church in Constantinople or from their co-religionists in Moscow. Thus, the Ruthenian church was in a weaker position than the Catholic Church in the Commonwealth.

Until 1666, whenPatriarch Nikonwas deposed bythe tsar,theRussian Orthodox Churchhad been independent of the State. In 1721, the first Russian Emperor,Peter I,abolished completely the patriarchate and effectively made the church a department of the government, ruled by theMost Holy Synodcomposed of senior bishops and lay bureaucrats appointed by the emperor himself. Over time, Imperial Russia would style itself a protector and patron of all Orthodox Christians, especially those within the Ottoman Empire.

Domination oftsarist-ruled Ukraineby theRussian Empire(from 1721) eventually led to the decline ofUniate Catholicism(officially founded in 1596) in the Ukrainian lands under Tsarist control.

Ruthenians (Rutheni), an illustration in a book by Pietro Bertelli, 1563.

Music and Dance

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Main articles:Music of BelarusandMusic of Ukraine

Musical scores titled "Baletto Ruteno"or"Horea Rutenia",meaning RuthenianBalletcan be found in European collections during theLithuanianandPolishrule of Ruthenia, such as theGdańsk lute tablatureof 1640.[42][43]

Symbols

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Main article:Symbols of the Rurikids

Notable Ruthenian people

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See also

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References

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  1. ^abPaul Robert Magocsi."Rusyn".Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved15 May2023.
  2. ^РУСИНЫ[Rusyns].Большая российская энциклопедия - электронная версия(in Russian). [Great Russian Encyclopedia- electronic version]. Archived fromthe originalon 26 September 2021.Retrieved15 December2021.
  3. ^Shipman 1912a,p. 276-277.
  4. ^Shipman 1912b,p. 277-279.
  5. ^Krajcar 1963,p. 79-94.
  6. ^Rohdewald, Stefan; Frick, David A.; Wiederkehr, Stefan (2007).Litauen und Ruthenien: Studien zu einer transkulturellen Kommunikationsregion (15.–18. Jahrhundert)[Lithuania and Ruthenia: studies of a transcultural communication zone (15th–18th centuries)] (in German). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 22.ISBN978-3-447-05605-2.OCLC173071153.
  7. ^abcdefghiHimka, John-Paul."Ruthenians".Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine.
  8. ^Himka 1999,p. 8-9.
  9. ^Magocsi 2015,p. 2-5.
  10. ^Bunčić 2015,p. 276-289.
  11. ^Statute of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1529), Part. 1., Art. 1.:"На первей преречоным прелатом, княжатом, паном, хоруговым, шляхтам и местом преречоных земельВеликого князства Литовского, Руского, Жомойтского и иныхдали есмо:... ";According to.: Pervyi ili Staryi Litovskii Statut // Vremennik Obschestva istorii i drevnostei Rossiiskih. 1854. Book 18, p. 2.
  12. ^Moser 2017–2018,p. 87-104.
  13. ^"Magyarország népessége".mek.oszk.hu.Retrieved24 October2023.
  14. ^Sigismund von HerbersteinRerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii
  15. ^Myl'nikov 1999,p. 46.
  16. ^Speake, Jennifer, ed. (2003)."Muscovy".Literature of travel and exploration: An encyclopedia.Volume Two: G to P. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp. 831–834.ISBN978-1-57958-247-0.
  17. ^Лобин А. Н. Послание государя Василия III Ивановича императору Карлу V от 26 июня 1522 г.: Опыт реконструкции текста // Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana, № 1. Санкт-Петербург, 2013. C. 131.
  18. ^Dunning, Chester (15 June 1983).The Russian Empire and Grand Duchy of Muscovy: A Seventeenth-Century French Account.University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 7, 106.ISBN978-0-8229-7701-8.
  19. ^Myl'nikov 1999,p. 84.
  20. ^Frick, David (2005). "The Councilor and the baker's wife: Ruthenians and their language in seventeenth-century Vilnius". In Vyacheslav V. Ivanov; Julia Verkholantsev (eds.).Speculum Slaviae Orientalis: Muscovy, Ruthenia and Lithuania in the late Middle ages.UCLA Slavic studies; new series (in English and Russian). Vol. IV. Moscow: Новое изд-во: Novoe izdatel'stvo. pp. 45–67.ISBN9785983790285.
  21. ^Fabio Renato Villela.Os Lusíadas, Canto III, 11.Adaptação De Os LusÍadas Ao Português Atual.
  22. ^Luís de Camões «Os Lusíadas. Canto Terceiro».tania-soleil.
  23. ^Panayir, D. (16 February 2011)."Москвофільство. Як галичани вчили росіян любити Росію"[Moscowphilia. How Galicians taught Russians to love Russia.]Istorychna Pravda(Ukrayinska Pravda);(in Ukrainian)
  24. ^Report on Conditions in Ruthenia March 1939, From Prague After Munich: Diplomatic Papers 1938-1940, (Princeton University Press,1968)
  25. ^abMagocsi 1995,p. 221-231.
  26. ^abcdPaul Robert Magocsi."Rusyn".Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved15 May2023.Today the name Rusyn refers to the spoken language and variants of a literary language codified in the 20th century for Carpatho-Rusyns living in Ukraine (Transcarpathia), Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, and Serbia (the Vojvodina).... Subcarpathian Rus was ceded by Czechoslovakia to the Soviet Union and became the Transcarpathian oblast (region) of the Ukrainian S.S.R. The designations Rusyn and Carpatho-Rusyn were banned, and the local East Slavic inhabitants and their language were declared to be Ukrainian. Soviet policy was followed in neighbouring communist Czechoslovakia and Poland, where the Carpatho-Rusyn inhabitants (Lemko Rusyns in the case of Poland) were henceforth officially designated Ukrainians
  27. ^Główny Urząd Statystyczny [Central Statistical Office] (1932). "Ludnosc: Ludnosc wedlug wyznania religijnego i narodowosci" [Population: Population by religious denomination and nationality].Polish Census 1931p. 56, table 11.(in Polish)
  28. ^abGłówny Urząd Statystyczny [Central Statistical Office] "Ludnosc. Ludnosc wedlug wyznania i plci oraz jezyka ojczystego" [Population: Population by religion, gender and native language].Polish Census 1931p. 15; table 10.(in Polish)
  29. ^Magocsi 2010,p. 638-639.
  30. ^Henryk Zieliński, Historia Polski 1914-1939, (1983) Wrocław: Ossolineum
  31. ^"Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, drugi powszechny spis ludności z dn. 9.XII 1931 r. - Mieszkania i gospodarstwa domowe ludność"[Central Statistical Office of the Polish Republic, the second census dated 9.XII 1931 - Abodes and household populace](PDF)(in Polish). Central Statistical office of the Polish Republic. 1938. p. 15. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 17 March 2014.
  32. ^Magocsi 2015,p. 2-14.
  33. ^abVotruba, Martin (1998). "Linguisitic Minorities in Slovakia". In Christina Bratt Paulston; Donald Peckham (eds.).Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe.Multilingual Matters. pp. 258–259.ISBN1-85359-416-4.Retrieved8 October2015.
  34. ^Friedhof und Katakomben im Stift St. Peter
  35. ^Рыбалка 2020,p. 281-307.
  36. ^Шелухин 1929,p. 20-27.
  37. ^Magocsi 2010,p. 58-59.
  38. ^Magocsi 2015,p. 50-51.
  39. ^"Rusini. Zarys etnografii Rusi".rewasz.pl(in Polish).Retrieved23 October2023.
  40. ^Moser 2017–2018,p. 119-135.
  41. ^"Encyclopedia of Rusyn history and culture | WorldCat.org".search.worldcat.org.Retrieved19 December2023.
  42. ^"A Successor to the Ukrainian Sages".m.day.kyiv.ua.Retrieved21 September2023.
  43. ^Хорея Козацька - Бенкет Духовний. Частина Друга,2012,retrieved21 September2023
  44. ^The Cambridge Companion to Modern Russian Culture (2012).The Cambridge Companion to Modern Russian Culture.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781107002524.
  45. ^Petro Doroshenkoat the Encyclopedia of Ukraine

Sources

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Further reading

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