Wikipedia

Schools of Buddhism

Theschools of Buddhismare the various institutional and doctrinal divisions ofBuddhismwhich are the teachings off buddhist texts. The schools of Buddhism have existed from ancient times up to the present. The classification and nature of variousdoctrinal,philosophicalorculturalfacets of the schools of Buddhism is vague and has been interpreted in many different ways, often due to the sheer number (perhaps thousands) of different sects, subsects, movements, etc. that have made up or currently make up the whole of Buddhist traditions. The sectarian and conceptual divisions of Buddhist thought are part of the modern framework ofBuddhist studies,as well ascomparative religioninAsia.Some factors in Buddhism appear to be consistent, such as the afterlife.

Representatives from the three major modern Buddhist traditions, at theWorld Fellowship of Buddhists,27th General Conference, 2014.

From a largely English-language standpoint, and to some extent in most of Western academia, Buddhism is separated into two groups:Theravāda(lit.'the Teaching of the Elders' or 'the Ancient Teaching'), andMahāyāna(lit.'the Great Vehicle'). The most common classification among scholars is threefold: Theravāda, Mahāyāna andVajrayāna.

Classifications

edit
Percentage of Buddhists by country, according to thePew Research Center.

In contemporaryBuddhist studies,modern Buddhism is often divided into three major branches, traditions or categories:[1][2][3][4]

Another way of classifying the different forms of Buddhism is through the different monastic ordination traditions. There are three main traditions of monastic law (Vinaya) each corresponding to the first three categories outlined above:

Terminology

edit

The terminology for the major divisions of Buddhism can be confusing, as Buddhism is variously divided by scholars and practitioners according to geographic, historical, and philosophical criteria, with different terms often being used in different contexts. The following terms may be encountered in descriptions of the major Buddhist divisions:

Conservative Buddhism
an alternative name for theearly Buddhist schools.
Early Buddhist schools
the schools into which Buddhism became divided in its first few centuries; only one of these,Theravāda,survives as an independent school.
East Asian Buddhism
a term used by scholars[5]to cover the Buddhist traditions of Japan, Korea, Vietnam and most of China and Southeast Asia
Eastern Buddhism
an alternative name used by some scholars[6]for East Asian Buddhism; also sometimes used to refer to all traditional forms of Buddhism, as distinct from Western(ized) forms.
Ekayāna(one yana)
Mahayana texts such as the Lotus Sutra and the Avatamsaka Sutra sought to unite all the different teachings into a single great way. These texts serve as the inspiration for using the term Ekayāna in the sense of "one vehicle". This "one vehicle" became a key aspect of the doctrines and practices of Tiantai and Tendai Buddhist sects, which subsequently influenced Chán and Zen doctrines and practices. In Japan, the one-vehicle teaching of the Lotus Sutra also is also a main doctrine of Nichiren Buddhist sects. TheLotus Sutrahas so much influence that meditation was replaced by chanting the Japanese wordsNamu Myoho Renge Kyo( "The Way of the Lotus Sutra" ) in religious practice.
Esoteric Buddhism
usually considered synonymous with "Vajrayāna".[7]Some scholars have applied the term to certain practices found within the Theravāda, particularly in Cambodia.[8]
Hīnayāna
literally meaning "lesser vehicle". It is considered a controversial term when applied by the Mahāyāna, to refer to the Theravāda school, and as such is widely viewed as condescending and pejorative.[9][a]Moreover, Hīnayāna refers to the now non-extant schools with limited set of views, practices, and results, prior to the development of the Mahāyāna traditions. The term is currently most often used as a way of describing a stage on the path in Tibetan Buddhism, but is often mistakenly confused with the contemporary Theravāda tradition, which is far more complex, diversified, and profound, than the literal and limiting definition attributed toHīnayāna.[10]Its use in scholarly publications is now also considered controversial.[b]
Lamaism
synonymous withTibetan Buddhism;an old term, sometimes still used, but widely considered derogatory.
Mahāyāna
a movement that emerged fromearly Buddhist schools,together with its later descendants, East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. Vajrayāna traditions are sometimes listed separately. The main use of the term in East Asian and Tibetan traditions is in reference to spiritual levels,[11]regardless of school.
Mainstream Buddhism
a term used by some scholars for theearly Buddhist schools.
Mantrayāna
usually considered synonymous withVajrayāna.[12]TheTendaischool in Japan has been described as influenced by Mantrayana.[11]
Navayāna
( "new vehicle" ) refers to the re-interpretation of Buddhism by modern Indian jurist and social reformerB. R. Ambedkar.[13][14]
Newar Buddhism
a non-monastic, caste based Buddhism with patrilineal descent and Sanskrit texts.
Nikāya Buddhism
a non-derogatory substitute term for Hinayana or the early Buddhist schools.
Non-Mahāyāna
an alternative term for the early Buddhist schools.
Northern Buddhism
an alternative term used by some scholars[6][page needed]for Tibetan Buddhism. Also, an older term still sometimes used to encompass both East Asian and Tibetan traditions. It has even been used to refer to East Asian Buddhism alone, without Tibetan Buddhism.
Secret Mantra
an alternative rendering ofMantrayāna,a more literal translation of the term used by schools in Tibetan Buddhism when referring to themselves.[15]
Sectarian Buddhism
an alternative name for the early Buddhist schools.
Southeast Asian Buddhism
an alternative name used by some scholars[16][page needed]for Theravāda.
Southern Buddhism
an alternative name used by some scholars[6][page needed]forTheravāda.
Śrāvakayāna
an alternative term sometimes used for the early Buddhist schools.
TantrayānaorTantric Buddhism
usually considered synonymous with "Vajrayāna".[12]However, one scholar describes the tantra divisions of some editions of theTibetan scripturesas including Śravakayāna, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna texts[17](seeBuddhist texts). Some scholars,[8]particularly François Bizot,[18]have used the termTantric Theravadato refer to certain practices found particularly in Cambodia.
Theravāda
the Buddhism ofSri Lanka,Bangladesh,Burma,Thailand,Laos,Cambodia,and parts ofVietnam,China,India,andMalaysia.It is the only surviving representative of the historicalearly Buddhist schools.The termTheravādais also sometimes used to refer toallof the early Buddhist schools.[19]
Tibetan Buddhism
usually understood as including the Buddhism of Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan, and parts of China, India, and Russia, which follow the Tibetan tradition.
Vajrayāna
a movement that developed out of IndianMahāyāna,together with its later descendants. There is some disagreement on exactly which traditions fall into this category. Tibetan Buddhism is universally recognized as falling under this heading; many also include the JapaneseShingonschool. Some scholars[20]also apply the term to the Koreanmilgyo tradition,which is not a separate school. One scholar says, "Despite the efforts of generations of Buddhist thinkers, it remains exceedingly difficult to identify precisely what it is that sets theVajrayanaapart. "[21]
Map of the major geographical centers of major Buddhist schools in South Asia, at around the time ofXuanzang's visit in the seventh century.
* Red: non-PudgalavādaSarvāstivādaschool
* Orange: non-DharmaguptakaVibhajyavādaschools
* Yellow:Mahāsāṃghika
* Green:Pudgalavāda(Green)
* Gray:Dharmaguptaka
Note the red and grey schools already gave some original ideas of Mahayana Buddhism and the Sri Lankan section (seeTamrashatiya) of the orange school is the origin of modern Theravada Buddhism.

Early schools

edit
Main articles:Early Buddhist schoolsandNikaya Buddhism
See also:Pre-sectarian Buddhism

The early Buddhist schools or mainstream sects refers to the sects into which theIndian Buddhistmonasticsaṅghasplit. They are also called the Nikaya Buddhist schools,Ezhuthupally,and in Mahayana Buddhism they are referred to either as theŚrāvaka(disciple) schools orHinayana(inferior) schools.

Most scholars now believe that the first schism was originally caused by differences invinaya(monastic rule).[22]: 88–90 Later splits were also due to doctrinal differences and geographical separation.

The first schism separated the community into two groups, theSthavira(Elders) Nikaya and theMahāsāṃghika(Great Community). Most scholars hold that this probably occurred after the time of Ashoka.[23]Out of these two main groups later arose many other sects or schools.

From the Sthaviras arose theSarvāstivādasects, theVibhajyavādins,the Theravadins, theDharmaguptakasand thePudgalavādasects.

The Sarvāstivāda school, popular in northwest India andKashmir,focused onAbhidharmateachings.[24]Their name means "the theory that all exists" which refers to one of their main doctrines, the view that all dharmas exist in the past, present and in the future. This is an eternalist theory of time.[25]Over time, the Sarvāstivādins became divided into various traditions, mainly theVaibhāṣika(who defended the orthodox "all exists" doctrine in their Abhidharma compendium called theMahāvibhāṣa Śāstra), theSautrāntika(who rejected the Vaibhāṣika orthodoxy) and theMūlasarvāstivāda.

The Pudgalavāda sects (also known asVātsīputrīyas) were another group of Sthaviras which were known for their unique doctrine of thepudgala(person). Their tradition was founded by the elder Vātsīputra circa 3rd century BCE.[26]

The Vibhajyavādins were conservative Sthaviras who did not accept the doctrines of either the Sarvāstivāda or the Pudgalavāda. In Sri Lanka, a group of them became known as Theravada, the only one of these sects that survives to the present day. Another sect which arose from the Vibhajyavādins were the Dharmaguptakas. This school was influential in spreading Buddhism to Central Asia and to China. Their Vinaya is still used in East Asian Buddhism.

The Mahāsāṃghikas also split into various sub groups. One of these were theLokottaravādins(Transcendentalists), so called because of their doctrine which saw every action of the Buddha, even mundane ones like eating, as being of a supramundane and transcendental nature. One of the few Mahāsāṃghika texts which survive, theMahāvastu,is from this school. Another sub-sect which emerged from the Mahāsāṃghika was called theCaitika.They were concentrated inAndhra Pradeshand in South India. Some scholars such as A.K. Warder hold that many important Mahayana sutras originated among these groups.[27]Another Mahāsāṃghika sect was namedPrajñaptivāda.They were known for the doctrine that viewed all conditioned phenomena as being mere concepts (Skt.prajñapti).[28]

According to the Indian philosopherParamartha,a further split among the Mahāsāṃghika occurred with the arrival of the Mahayana sutras. Some sub-schools, such as theKukkuṭikas,did not accept the Mahayana sutras as being word of the Buddha, whole others, like the Lokottaravādins, did accept them.[29]

Although there are differences in the historical records as to the exact composition of the various schools of early Buddhism, a hypothetical combined list would be as follows:

Theravāda

edit
The Tipitaka (Pali Canon), in a Thai Style book case. The Pali Tipitaka is the doctrinal foundation of all major Theravāda sects today

Theravādais the only extant mainstream non-Mahayana school. They are derived from the Sri LankanMahāvihārasect, which was a branch of the South Indian Vibhajjavādins. Theravāda bases its doctrine on thePāli Canon,the only complete Buddhist canon surviving in aclassical Indian language.This language isPāli,which serves as the school'ssacred languageandlingua franca.[31]

The different sects and groups in Theravāda often emphasize different aspects (or parts) of thePāli canonand the later commentaries (especially the very influentialVisuddhimagga), or differ in the focus on and recommended way of practice. There are also significant differences in strictness or interpretation of theVinaya Pitaka,the TheravādinVinayafollowed by monastics of this tradition.

The various divisions in Theravāda include:

Mahāyāna schools

edit

Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism

edit
Nagarjuna,one of the most influential thinkers of Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism

Mahāyāna (Great Vehicle) Buddhism is category of traditions which focus on thebodhisattvapath and affirm texts known asMahāyāna sutras.These texts are seen by modern scholars as dating as far back as the 1st century BCE.[32]Unlike Theravada and other early schools, Mahāyāna schools generally hold that there are currently many Buddhas which are accessible, and that they are transcendental or supramundane beings.[33]

In India, there were two major traditions of Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy. The earliest was theMādhyamaka( "Middle Way" ), also known as theŚūnyavāda( "Emptiness") school. This tradition followed the works of the philosopherNāgārjuna(c. 150–c. 250 CE). Two subsects of the Madhyamaka school that developed were theSvatantrika,founded by the 6th-century Indian philosopherBhāviveka,and thePrasangika,founded byChandrakirtiand later advanced byJe Tsongkhapa,14th-century founder of theGelugsect in Tibet.

The other major school of Indian Mahayana was theYogācāra( "yoga practice" ) school, also known as theVijñānavāda( "the doctrine of consciousness" ),Vijñaptivāda( "the doctrine of ideas or percepts" ), orCittamātra( "mind-only" ) school, founded byAsangain the 4th century AD.

Some scholars also note that the compilers of theTathāgatagarbhatexts constitute a third "school" of Indian Mahāyāna.[34]This movement heavily influenced East Asian and Tibetan Mahayana schools such as theDashabhumika,Huayan,Tiantai,Jonang,NichirenandZensects, as did both Madhyamaka and Yogacara.

East Asian Mahayana

edit

East Asian Buddhismor East Asian Mahayana refers to the schools that developed inEast Asiaand use theChinese Buddhist canon.It is a major religion in China, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, Malaysia and Singapore. East Asian Buddhists constitute the numerically largest body of Buddhist traditions in the world, numbering over half of the world's Buddhists.[35][36]

East Asian Mahayana began to develop in China during theHan dynasty(when Buddhism was firstintroduced from Central Asia). It is thus influenced byChinese cultureandphilosophy.[37]East Asian Mahayana developed new, uniquely Asian interpretations of Buddhist texts and focused on the study ofsutras.[38]

East Asian Buddhist monastics generally follow theDharmaguptaka Vinaya.[39]

Main sects

edit

Esoteric schools

edit
See also:Vajrayāna
Indian Buddhist Mahasiddhas, 18th century, Boston MFA.

Esoteric Buddhism, also known as Vajrayāna, Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, and Tantric Buddhism is often placed in a separate category by scholars due to its uniquetantricfeatures and elements. Esoteric Buddhism arose and developed inmedieval Indiaamong esoteric adepts known asMahāsiddhas.Esoteric Buddhism maintains its own set of texts alongside the classic scriptures, these esoteric works are known as theBuddhist Tantras.It includes practices that make use ofmantras,dharanis,mudras,mandalasand the visualization of deities and Buddhas.

Main Esoteric Buddhist traditions include:

New Buddhist movements

edit
B. R. Ambedkardelivering speech during conversion,Deekshabhoomi,Nagpur, 14 October 1956
Taixu,the founder of Chinese Humanistic Buddhism

One major branch of the New Buddhism movement is.

•Navayana( "New Way" ), also known asDalit Buddhist movement,and "Ambedkarite" Buddhism. Implementing the Principles of Buddhism for the Welfare of Many People.

Various Buddhistnew religious movementsarose in the 20th century, including the following.

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^Hinayana(literally, "inferior way" ) is a polemical term, which self-described Mahāyāna (literally, "great way" ) Buddhist literature uses to denigrate its opponents.[9]
  2. ^"The supposedMahayana-Hinayanadichotomy is so prevalent in Buddhist literature, that it has yet fully to loosen its hold over scholarly representations of the religion ".[9]

Other notes

edit
  1. ^abcdefAccording to Buswell and Lopez, theKāśyapīyaandMahīśāsakawere offshoots of the Sarvastivadins, but are grouped under theVibhajjavādaas "non-sarvastivada" groups.[30]

References

edit
  1. ^Lee Worth Bailey, Emily Taitz (2005),Introduction to the World's Major Religions: Buddhism,Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 67.
  2. ^Mitchell, Scott A. (2016),Buddhism in America: Global Religion, Local Contexts,Bloomsbury Publishing, p. 87.
  3. ^Gethin, Rupert,The Foundations of Buddhism,Oxford University Press, pp. 253–266.
  4. ^William H. Swatos (ed.) (1998)Encyclopedia of Religion and Society,Altamira Press, p. 66.
  5. ^B & G, Gethin, R & J, P & K
  6. ^abcPenguin, Harvey[page needed][full citation needed]
  7. ^Encyclopedia of Religion,vol. 2, p. 440. New York, NY: Macmillan.
  8. ^ab{{[}}no author cited{{]}} (1997).Indian Insights.London, UK: Luzac.[page needed][full citation needed]
  9. ^abcEncyclopedia of Buddhism.MacMillan Library Reference. New York, NY: MacMillan. 2004. p. 840.
  10. ^Ray, Reginald A (2000)Indestructible Truth: The Living Spirituality of Tibetan Buddhism,p. 240
  11. ^abPenguin Handbook[full citation needed][page needed]
  12. ^abHarvey, pp. 153ff
  13. ^Gary Tartakov (2003). Rowena Robinson (ed.).Religious Conversion in India: Modes, Motivations, and Meanings.Oxford University Press. pp.192–213.ISBN978-0-19-566329-7.
  14. ^Christopher Queen (2015). Steven M. Emmanuel (ed.).A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy.John Wiley & Sons. pp.524–525.ISBN978-1-119-14466-3.
  15. ^Hopkins, Jeffrey (1985)The Ultimate Deity in Action Tantra and Jung's Warning against Identifying with the DeityBuddhist-Christian Studies, Vol. 5, (1985), pp. 159–172
  16. ^R & J, P & K
  17. ^Skilling, (1997).Mahasutras,volume II, Parts I & II, p. 78. Lancaster, UK: Pali Text Society
  18. ^Crosby, Kate (2000). Tantric Theravada: A bibliographic essay on the writings of François Bizot and others on the yogvacara Tradition. [In]Contemporary Buddhism,1:2, 141–198;doi:10.1080/14639940008573729.
  19. ^Encyclopedia of Religion,volume 2, Macmillan, New York, 1987, pp. 440ff;Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy,sv Buddhism
  20. ^Harvey[page needed][full citation needed]
  21. ^Lopez,Buddhism in Practice,Princeton University Press, 1995, p. 6
  22. ^Harvey, Peter (2013).An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, history, and practices(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  23. ^Cox, Collett (1995).Disputed Dharmas: Early Buddhist theories on existence.Tokyo, JP: The Institute for Buddhist Studies. p. 23.ISBN4-906267-36-X.
  24. ^Westerhoff, Jan (2018).The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy in the First Millennium CE,pp. 60–61.
  25. ^Kalupahana, David (n/d).A history of Buddhist philosophy, continuities and discontinuities,p. 128.
  26. ^Williams, Paul (2005).Buddhism: The early Buddhist schools and doctrinal history; Theravāda doctrine,vol. 2, p. 86, Taylor & Francis.
  27. ^Warder, A.K. (2000).Indian Buddhism,p. 313
  28. ^Harris, Ian Charles (1991).The Continuity of Madhyamaka and Yogacara in Indian Mahayana Buddhism,p. 98
  29. ^Sree, Padma; Barber, Anthony, W. (2008).Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra,p. 68.
  30. ^Buswell, Robert E. Jr.;Lopez, Donald S. Jr.(2013),Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism(PDF),Princeton University Press,p. 859,ISBN978-0-691-15786-3,archived(PDF)from the original on 12 June 2018
  31. ^Crosby, Kate (2013),Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity,p. 2.
  32. ^Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999).Indian Buddhism:p. 335.
  33. ^Williams, Paul,Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,Routledge, 2008, p. 21.
  34. ^Kiyota, M. (1985). Tathāgatagarbha thought: A basis of Buddhist devotionalism in east Asia.Japanese Journal of Religious Studies,207–231.
  35. ^Pew Research Center,Global Religious Landscape: Buddhists.
  36. ^Johnson, Todd M.; Grim, Brian J. (2013).The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography(PDF).Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 34. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013.Retrieved2 September2013.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  37. ^Gethin, Rupert, The Foundations of Buddhism, OUP Oxford, 1998, p. 257.
  38. ^Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Taylor & Francis, 2008, P. 129.
  39. ^Gethin, Rupert, The Foundations of Buddhism, OUP Oxford, 1998, p. 260
  40. ^"Buddhism in China Today: An Adaptable Present, a Hopeful Future".Retrieved2020-06-01..
  41. ^"Pháp cổ sơn thánh nghiêm pháp sư mấy vị điển tàng".Archived fromthe originalon 2013-05-28.Retrieved2013-07-29..

Further reading

edit
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schools_of_Buddhism&oldid=1276067301"