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Science wars

Thescience warswere a series of scholarly and public discussions in the 1990s over the social place of science in making authoritative claims about the world. Encyclopedia,citing theEncyclopedia of Science and Religion,describes the science wars as the

"complex of discussions about the way the sciences are related to or incarnated in culture, history, and practice. [...] [which] came to be called a 'war' in the mid 1990s because of a strong polarization over questions of legitimacy and authority. One side [...] is concerned with defending the authority of science as rooted in objective evidence and rational procedures. The other side argues that it is legitimate and fruitful to study the sciences as institutions and social-technical networks whose development is influenced by linguistics, economics, politics, and other factors surrounding formally rational procedures and isolated established facts."[1]

The science wars took place principally in the United States in the 1990s in the academic and mainstream press.Scientific realists(such asNorman Levitt,Paul R. Gross,Jean BricmontandAlan Sokal) accused many writers, whom they described as 'postmodernist', of having effectively rejected scientificobjectivity,thescientific method,empiricism,and scientific knowledge.[citation needed]

Though much of the theory associated with 'postmodernism' (seepost-structuralism) did not make any interventions into thenatural sciences,the scientific realists took aim at its general influence. The scientific realists argued that large swathes of scholarship, amounting to a rejection of objectivity and realism, had been influenced by major 20th-century post-structuralist philosophers (such asJacques Derrida,Gilles Deleuze,Jean-François Lyotardand others), whose work they declare to be incomprehensible or meaningless. They implicate a broad range of fields in this trend, includingcultural studies,feminist studies,comparative literature,media studies,and especiallyscience and technology studies,which does apply such methods to the study of science.

Solid-state physicistN. David Merminunderstands the science wars as a series of exchanges between scientists and "sociologists,historiansandliterary critics"who the scientists" thought...were ludicrously ignorant of science, making all kinds of nonsensical pronouncements. The other side dismissed these charges as naive, ill informed and self-serving. "[2]SociologistHarry Collinswrote that the "science wars" began "in the early 1990s with attacks by natural scientists or ex-natural scientists who had assumed the role of spokespersons for science. The subject of the attacks was the analysis of science coming out of literary studies and the social sciences."[3]

Historical background

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Until the mid-20th century, thephilosophy of sciencehad concentrated on the viability of scientific method and knowledge, proposing justifications for the truth of scientific theories and observations and attempting to discover at a philosophical level why science worked. Karl Popper,an early opponent oflogical positivismin the 20th century, repudiated the classical observationalist/inductivistform ofscientific methodin favour ofempirical falsification.He is also known for his opposition to the classicaljustificationist/verificationistaccount of knowledge which he replaced withcritical rationalism,"the firstnon justificational philosophy of criticismin the history of philosophy ".[4] His criticisms of scientific method were adopted by several postmodernist critiques.[5]

A number of 20th-century philosophers maintained that logical models of pure science do not apply to actual scientific practice. It was the publication ofThomas Kuhn'sThe Structure of Scientific Revolutionsin 1962, however, which fully opened the study of science to new disciplines by suggesting that the evolution of science was in part socially determined and that it did not operate under the simple logical laws put forward by the logical positivist school of philosophy.

Kuhn described the development of scientific knowledge not as a linear increase in truth and understanding, but as a series of periodic revolutions which overturned the old scientific order and replaced it with new orders (what he called "paradigms"). Kuhn attributed much of this process to the interactions and strategies of the human participants in science rather than its own innate logical structure. (Seesociology of scientific knowledge).

Some interpreted Kuhn's ideas to mean that scientific theories were, either wholly or in part,social constructs,which many interpreted as diminishing the claim of science to representing objective reality, and that reality had a lesser or potentially irrelevant role in the formation of scientific theories.[citation needed]In 1971,Jerome RavetzpublishedScientific knowledge and its social problems,a book describing the role that the scientific community, as a social construct, plays in accepting or rejecting objective scientific knowledge.[6]

Postmodernism

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A number of different philosophical and historical schools, often grouped together as "postmodernism",began reinterpreting scientific achievements of the past through the lens of the practitioners, often positing the influence of politics and economics in the development of scientific theories in addition to scientific observations. Rather than being presented as working entirely from positivistic observations, many scientists of the past were scrutinized for their connection to issues of gender, sexual orientation, race, and class. Some more radical philosophers, such asPaul Feyerabend,argued that scientific theories were themselves incoherent and that other forms of knowledge production (such as those used inreligion) served the material and spiritual needs of their practitioners with equal validity as did scientific explanations.

Imre Lakatosadvanced a midway view between the "postmodernist" and "realist" camps. For Lakatos, scientific knowledge is progressive; however, it progresses not by a strict linear path where every new element builds upon and incorporates every other, but by an approach where a "core" of a "research program" is established by auxiliary theories which can themselves be falsified or replaced without compromising the core. Social conditions and attitudes affect how strongly one attempts to resist falsification for the core of a program, but the program has an objective status based on its relative explanatory power. Resisting falsification only becomesad-hocand damaging to knowledge when an alternate program with greater explanatory power is rejected in favor of another with less. But because it is changing a theoretical core, which has broad ramifications for other areas of study, accepting a new program is also revolutionary as well as progressive. Thus, for Lakatos the character of science is that of being both revolutionary and progressive; both socially informed and objectively justified.

The science wars

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InHigher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels With Science(1994), scientistsPaul R. GrossandNorman Levittaccused postmodernists ofanti-intellectualism,presented the shortcomings ofrelativism,and suggested that postmodernists knew little about the scientific theories they criticized and practiced poorscholarshipfor political reasons. The authors insist that the "science critics" misunderstood the theoretical approaches they criticized, given their "caricature, misreading, and condescension, [rather] than argument".[7][8][9][10]The book sparked the so-called science wars.Higher Superstitioninspired aNew York Academy of Sciencesconference titledThe Flight from Science and Reason,organized by Gross, Levitt, andGerald Holton.[11]Attendees of the conference were critical of thepolemicalapproach of Gross and Levitt, yet agreed upon the intellectual inconsistency of how laymen, non-scientist, and social studies intellectuals dealt with science.[12]

Social Text

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In 1996,Social Text,aDuke Universitypublication ofpostmoderncritical theory,compiled a "Science Wars" issue containing brief articles by postmodernist academics in thesocial sciencesand thehumanities,that emphasized the roles of society and politics in science. In the introduction to the issue, theSocial Texteditor,Andrew Ross,said that the attack uponscience studieswas aconservativereactionto reduced funding for scientific research, characterizing theFlight from Science and Reasonconference as an attempted "linking together a host of dangerous threats:scientific creationism,New Agealternatives and cults,astrology,UFO-ism,the radical science movement, postmodernism, and critical science studies, alongside the ready-made historical specters ofAryan-Nazi scienceand the Soviet error ofLysenkoism"that" degenerated into name-calling ".[13]

The historianDorothy Nelkincharacterised Gross and Levitt's vigorous response as a "call to arms in response to the failed marriage of Science and the State" —in contrast to the scientists' historical tendency to avoid participating in perceived political threats, such ascreation science,theanimal rights movement,and anti-abortionists' attempts to curb fetal research.[clarification needed]At the end of the Soviet–AmericanCold War(1945–91),military funding of sciencedeclined, while funding agencies demanded accountability, and research became directed by private interests. Nelkin suggested that postmodernist critics were "convenient scapegoats" who diverted attention from problems in science.[14]

Also in 1996, physicistAlan Sokalhad submitted an article toSocial Texttitled "Transgressing the Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity",which proposed thatquantum gravityis alinguisticandsocial constructand thatquantum physicssupports postmodernist criticisms of scientificobjectivity.After holding the article back from earlier issues due to Sokal's refusal to consider revisions, the staff published it in the "Science Wars" issue as a relevant contribution.[15]Later, in the May 1996 issue ofLingua Franca,in the article "A Physicist Experiments With Cultural Studies", Sokal exposed hisparody-article, "Transgressing the Boundaries" as an experiment testing theintellectual rigorof anacademic journalthat would "publish an article liberally salted with nonsense if (a) it sounded good and (b) it flattered the editors' ideological preconceptions".[16]The matter became known as the "Sokal Affair"and brought greater public attention to the wider conflict.[17]

Jacques Derrida,a frequent target of "anti-relativist" criticism in the wake of Sokal's article, responded to the hoax in "Sokal and Bricmont Aren't Serious", first published inLe Monde.He called Sokal's action sad (triste) for having overshadowed Sokal's mathematical work and ruined the chance to sort out controversies of scientific objectivity in a careful way. Derrida went on to fault him and co-author Jean Bricmont for what he considered an act of intellectual bad faith: they had accused him of scientific incompetence in the English edition of a follow-up book (an accusation several English reviewers noted), but deleted the accusation from the French edition and denied that it had ever existed. He concluded, as the title indicates, that Sokal was not serious in his approach, but had used the spectacle of a "quick practical joke" to displace the scholarship Derrida believed the public deserved.[18]

Continued conflict

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In the first few years after the 'Science Wars' edition ofSocial Text,the seriousness and volume of discussion increased significantly, much of it focused on reconciling the 'warring' camps of postmodernists and scientists. One significant event was the 'Science and Its Critics' conference in early 1997; it brought together scientists and scholars who study science, and featured Alan Sokal andSteve Fulleras keynote speakers. The conference generated the final wave of substantial press coverage (in both news media and scientific journals), though by no means resolved the fundamental issues ofsocial constructionandobjectivityin science.[19]

Other attempts have been made to reconcile the two camps. Mike Nauenberg, a physicist at theUniversity of California, Santa Cruz,organized a small conference in May 1997 that was attended by scientists and sociologists of science alike, among themAlan Sokal,N. David MerminandHarry Collins.In the same year, Collins organized the Southampton Peace Workshop, which again brought together a broad range of scientists and sociologists. The Peace Workshop gave rise to the idea of a book that intended to map out some of the arguments between the disputing parties.The One Culture?: A Conversation about Science,edited by chemist Jay A. Labinger and sociologist Harry Collins, was eventually published in 2001. The book, the title of which is a reference toC.P. Snow'sThe Two Cultures,contains contributions from authors such as Alan Sokal, Jean Bricmont,Steven WeinbergandSteven Shapin.[20]

Other important publications related to the science wars includeFashionable Nonsenseby Sokal andJean Bricmont(1998),The Social Construction of What?byIan Hacking(1999) andWho Rules in SciencebyJames Robert Brown(2004).

ToJohn C. Baez,theBogdanov Affairin 2002[21]served as the bookend to the Sokal controversy: the review, acceptance, and publication of papers, later alleged to be nonsense, in peer-reviewed physics journals.Cornellphysics professorPaul Ginsparg,argued that the cases are not at all similar, and that the fact that some journals and scientific institutions have low standards is "hardly a revelation".[22]The new editor in chief of the journalAnnals of Physics,who was appointed after the controversy along with a new editorial staff, had said that the standards of the journal had been poor leading up to the publication since the previous editor had become sick and died.[21]

Interest in the science wars has waned considerably in recent years. Though the events of the science wars are still occasionally mentioned in mainstream press, they have had little effect on either the scientific community or the community of critical theorists.[citation needed]Both sides continue to maintain that the other does not understand their theories, or mistakes constructive criticisms and scholarly investigations for attacks. In 1999Bruno Latoursaid "Scientists always stomp around meetings talking about 'bridging the two-culture gap', but when scores of people from outside the sciences begin to build just that bridge, they recoil in horror and want to impose the strangest of all gags on free speech sinceSocrates:only scientists should speak about science! "[23]Subsequently, Latour has suggested a re-evaluation of sociology's epistemology based on lessons learnt from the Science Wars: "... scientists made us realize that there was not the slightest chance that the type of social forces we use as a cause could have objective facts as their effects".[24]

Reviewing Sokal'sBeyond the Hoax,Mermin stated that "As a sign that the science wars are over, I cite the 2008 election of Bruno Latour [...] to Foreign Honorary Membership in that bastion of the establishment, theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences"and opined that" we are not only beyond Sokal's hoax, but beyond the science wars themselves ".[2]

However, more recently some of the leading critical theorists have recognized that their critiques have at times been counter-productive, and are providing intellectual ammunition for reactionary interests.[25]

Writing about these developments in the context ofglobal warming,Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are using the very same argument of social construction to destroy hard-won evidence that could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies? Is it enough to say that we did not really mean what we said?"[26]

Kendrick Fraziernotes that Latour is interested in helping to rebuild trust in science and that Latour has said that some of the authority of science needs to be regained.[27]

In 2016,Shawn Lawrence Otto,in his bookThe War on Science: Who's Waging It, Why It Matters, and What We can Do About It,that the winners of the war on science "will chart the future of power, democracy, and freedom itself."[28]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^"Science Wars".Encyclopedia.Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2022.Retrieved14 December2022.
  2. ^abMermin, N. David(July 2008)."Science wars revisited".Nature.454(7202): 276–277.Bibcode:2008Natur.454..276M.doi:10.1038/454276a.S2CID45065085.
  3. ^"The Science Wars – Harry Collins".Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2022.Retrieved3 December2022.
  4. ^Bartley, William W.(1964)."Rationality versus the Theory of Rationality".Archived2 January 2013 at theWayback MachineIn Mario Bunge:The Critical Approach to Science and Philosophy.The Free Press of Glencoe, section IX.
  5. ^Stove, David Charles(1982).Popper and After:Four Modern IrrationalistsArchived19 October 2013 at theWayback Machine,Oxford:Pergamon Press.
  6. ^Ravetz, Jerome R. (1979).Scientific knowledge and its social problems.Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.ISBN978-0-19-519721-1.
  7. ^Flower, Michael J. (1995). "Review ofHigher Superstition",Contemporary Sociology,Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 113–14.
  8. ^Isis(Vol. 87, No. 2, 1996),American Anthropologist(Vol. 98, No. 2, 1996).
  9. ^Social Studies of Science(Vol. 26, No. 1, 1996).
  10. ^The review inThe Journal of Higher Education(Vol. 66, No. 5, 1995) snidely suggested that book's final sentence proved that politics, the epistemology, philosophy, and science are inter-related.
  11. ^Gross, Levitt, and Martin W. Lewis. (1997).The Flight from Science and Reason(New York: New York Academy of Science.)
  12. ^Kramer, Jennifer. "Who's Flying – And In What Direction?"Archived10 May 2006 at theWayback MachineCoverage of the NYAS Flight from Science and Reason conference. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
  13. ^Ross, Andrew. (1996). "Introduction"Social Text46/47,Vol. 14, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 1–13, esp. p. 7.
  14. ^Nelkin, Dorothy. (1996). "The Science Wars: Responses to a Marriage Failed"Social Text46/47, Vol. 14, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 93–100., p. 95.
  15. ^Robbins, Bruce and Ross, Andrew.Editorial Response to the hoax, explaining Social Text's decision to publishArchived9 June 2012 at theWayback Machine
  16. ^Sokal, Alan D. (1996). "Transgressing the Boundaries: Toward a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity".Social Text(46/47): 217–252.doi:10.2307/466856.JSTOR466856.
  17. ^Sokal, Alan. (1996). "A Physicist Experiments with Cultural StudiesArchived2019-09-04 at theWayback Machine,"Lingua Franca,May/June, pp 62–64.
  18. ^Derrida, Jacques(2005) [1994].Paper Machine.Stanford: Stanford University Press.70.ISBN978-0-8047-4619-9.
  19. ^Baringer, Philip S. (2001). "Introduction: 'the science wars'", fromAfter the Science Wars,eds. Keith M. Ashman and Philip S. Baringer. New York: Routledge, p. 2.
  20. ^Labinger, Jay A. andHarry Collins.(2001). "Preface", in:The One Culture?: A Conversation about Science,eds. Labinger, Jay A andHarry Collins.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. ix–xi.
  21. ^abMonastersky, Richard (2 November 2002)."French TV Stars Rock the World of Theoretical Physics".Chronicle of Higher Education.Archived fromthe originalon 7 February 2008.Retrieved20 March2008.
  22. ^Ginsparg, Paul.(12 November 2002). "'Is It Art?' Is Not a Question for Physics".The New York Times,section A, p. 26.
  23. ^Latour, B. (1999).Pandora's Hope. Essays on the Reality of Science StudiesArchived4 September 2007 at theWayback Machine,Harvard University Press,US.
  24. ^Latour, B. (2005).Reassembling the Social. An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory,Oxford University Press, US, p. 100.[ISBN missing]
  25. ^SERRC; Erik Baker;Naomi Oreskes(10 July 2017)."It's No Game: Post-Truth and the Obligations of Science Studies".Social Epistemology Review and Reply Collective.Archivedfrom the original on 30 September 2020.Retrieved8 November2020.
  26. ^Latour, B. (2004).Why Has Critique Run Out of Steam? From Matters of Fact to Matters of ConcernArchived16 September 2012 at theWayback Machine,Critical Inquiry30, pp. 225–48.
  27. ^Frazier, Kendrick(2018). "'Science Wars' Veteran Latour Now Wants to Help Rebuild Trust in Science ".Skeptical Inquirer.42(1): 7.
  28. ^Radford, Benjamin;Frazier, Kendrick(January 2017). "The War on Science: Who's Waging It, Why It Matters, and What We Can Do About It".Skeptical Inquirer.41(1): 61.

References

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