Wikipedia

Serpents in the Bible

Serpents(Hebrew:נָחָשׁ,romanized:nāḥāš) are referred to in both theHebrew Bibleand theNew Testament.Thesymbol of a serpentorsnakeplayed important roles in the religious traditions and cultural life ofancient Greece,Egypt,Mesopotamia,andCanaan.[1]The serpent was a symbol of evil power andchaosfrom theunderworldas well as a symbol of fertility, life, healing, and rebirth.[2]

Nāḥāš(נחש‎),Hebrewfor "snake", is also associated withdivination,including theverb formmeaning "to practice divination or fortune-telling".Nāḥāšoccurs in theTorahto identify the serpent in theGarden of Eden.Throughout theHebrew Bible,it is also used in conjunction withseraphto describe vicious serpents in thewilderness.Thetannin,a dragon monster, also occurs throughout the Hebrew Bible. In theBook of Exodus,the staves ofMosesandAaronare turned into serpents, anāḥāšfor Moses, atanninfor Aaron. In the New Testament, theBook of Revelationmakes use ofancient serpentandthe Dragonseveral times to identifySatanorthe Devil[3](Revelation 12:9;20:2). The serpent is most often identified with thehubristicSatan, and sometimes withLilith.[3]

The narrative of the Garden of Eden and thefall of humankindconstitute amythological traditionshared by all theAbrahamic religions,[3][4][5][6]with a presentation more or less symbolic ofJudeo-Christian-Islamicmorals and religious beliefs,[3][4][7]which had an overwhelming impact onhuman sexuality,gender roles,andsex differencesboth in theWesternandIslamiccivilizations.[3]Inmainstream (Nicene) Christianity,the doctrine of the Fall is closely related to that oforiginal sinorancestral sin.[8]Unlike Christianity, the other major Abrahamic religions,JudaismandIslam,do not have a concept of "original sin", and instead have developed varying other interpretations of the Eden narrative.[3][5][8][9][10][11]

Hebrew Bible

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Main articles:Genesis creation narrativeandJewish mythology
Adam,Eve,and a femaleserpentat the entrance toNotre Dame CathedralinParis,France.The portrayal of the image of the serpent as a mirror of Eve was common in earlierChristian iconographyas a result of the identification of women as the ones responsible for thefall of manand source of theoriginal sin.[3]

In theHebrew Bible,theBook of Genesisrefers to a serpent who triggered the expulsion ofAdam and Evefrom theGarden in Eden(Gen 3:1–20).Serpentis also used to describesea monsters.Examples of these identifications are in theBook of Isaiahwhere a reference is made to a serpent-likedragonnamedLeviathan(Isaiah 27:1), and in theBook of Amoswhere a serpent resides at the bottom of the sea (Amos 9:3).Serpentfiguratively describes biblical places such as Egypt (Jer 46:22), and the city ofDan(Gen 49:17). The prophetJeremiahalso compares theKing of Babylonto aserpent(Jer 51:34).

Eden

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Medieval illustration of Eve and the serpent in theGarden of Eden.Folio from theBiblia pauperum,14th–15th century.

The Hebrew wordנָחָשׁ(Nāḥāš) is used in theHebrew Bibleto identify the serpent that appears inGenesis3:1,in theGarden of Eden.In the first book of theTorah,the serpent is portrayed as a deceptive creature ortrickster,[1]who promotes as good what God had forbidden and shows particular cunning in its deception. (cf.Genesis 3:4–5and3:22) The serpent has the ability to speak and to reason: "Now the serpent was more subtle (also translated as" cunning ") than any beast of the field which the Lord God had made".[12]There is no indication in the Book of Genesis that the serpent was adeityin its own right, although it is one of only two cases of animals that talk in theTorah[13](Balaam's donkeybeing the other).

God placedAdamin the Garden of Eden to tend it and warned Adamnot to eatthe fruit of theTree of Knowledge of Good and Evil,"for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die."[14]The serpent temptsEveto eat of the tree, but Eve tells the serpent what God had said.[15]The serpent replies that she would not surely die (Genesis 3:4) and that if she eats the fruit of the tree "then your eyes shall be opened, and ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil." (Genesis 3:5) Eve ate the fruit, and gave some to Adam who also ate. God, who was walking in the Garden, learns of their transgression. To preventAdam and Evefrom eating the fruit of theTree of Lifeand living forever, they are banished from the garden upon which God posts an angelic guard. The serpent is punished for its role inthe Fall,beingcursedby God tocrawl on its bellyand eat dust.

There is a debate about whether the serpent in Eden should be viewed figuratively or as a literal animal. According to onemidrashic interpretationinRabbinic literature,the serpent representssexual desire;[16]another interpretation is that the snake is theyetzer hara.Modern Rabbinic ideas include interpreting the story as a psychological allegory where Adam represents reasoning faculties, Eve the emotional faculties, and the serpent the hedonic sexual/physical faculties.[17]Voltaire,drawing onSocinianinfluences, wrote: "It was so decidedly a real serpent, that all its species, which had before walked on their feet, were condemned to crawl on their bellies. No serpent, no animal of any kind, is calledSatan,orBelzebub,orDevil,in thePentateuch."[18]

20th-century scholars such asW. O. E. Oesterley(1921) were cognizant of the differences between the role of the Edenic serpent in the Hebrew Bible and its connections with the "ancient serpent" in the New Testament.[19]Modern historiographers of Satan such as Henry Ansgar Kelly (2006) and Wray and Mobley (2007) speak of the "evolution of Satan",[20]or "development of Satan".[21]

According toGerhard von Rad,Old Testament scholar,Lutheran theologianandUniversity of Heidelbergprofessor, who appliedform criticismas a supplement to thedocumentary hypothesisof the Hebrew Bible, the snake in the Eden's narrative was more an expedient to represent the impulse totemptationof mankind (that is, disobeyingGod's law) rather than an evil spirit or the personification of the Devil, as the laterChristian literatureerroneously depicted it; moreover, von Rad himself states that the snake is neither a supernatural being nor a demon, but one of the wild animals created by God (Genesis 3:1), and the only thing that differentiates it from the others in Eden is the ability to speak:

The serpent which now enters the narrative is marked as one of God's created animals (ch. 2.19). In thenarrator's mind, therefore, it is not the symbol of a "demonic" power and certainly not of Satan. What distinguishes it a little from the rest of the animals is exclusively his greater cleverness. [...] The mention of the snake here is almost incidental; at any rate, in the "temptation" by it the concern is with a completelyunmythicalprocess, presented in such a way because the narrator is obviously anxious to shift the responsibility as little as possible fromman.It is a question only of man andhisguilt; therefore the narrator has carefully guarded against objectifying evil in any way, and therefore he has personified it as little as possible as a power coming from without. That he transferred the impulse to temptation outside man was almost more a necessity for the story than an attempt at making evil something existing outside man. [...] In thehistory of religionsthesnakeindeed is the sinister, strange animalpar excellence[...], and one can also assume that long before, a myth was once at the basis of our narrative. But as it lies now before us, transparent and lucid, it is anything but a myth.[13]

Moses and Aaron

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When God had revealed himself to the prophet Moses inExodus 3:4–22,Moses recognized that the call of God was for him to lead thepeople of Israelout ofslavery,but anticipated that people would deny or doubt his calling. InExodus 4:1–5,Moses asked God how to respond to such doubt, and God asked him to cast the rod which he carried (possibly a shepherd's crook)[22]onto the ground, whereupon it became a serpent (anachash). Moses fled from it, but God encouraged him to come back and take it by the tail, and it became a rod again.

Later in the Book of Exodus (Exodus 7), the staffs of Moses and Aaron were turned into serpents, anachashfor Moses, atanniynfor Aaron.[23]

Fiery serpents

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Further information:Fiery flying serpentandSeraph

"Fiery serpent" (Hebrew:שָׂרָף‎sārāf;"burning" ) occurs in theTorahto describe a species of vicious snakes whose venom burns upon contact. According toWilhelm Gesenius,saraphcorresponds to theSanskritSarpa(Jawl aqra), serpent;sarpin,reptile (from the rootsrip, serpere).[24]These "burning serpents"(YLT)infested the great and terrible place of the desert wilderness (Num.21:4-9; Deut.8:15). The Hebrew word for "poisonous" literally means "fiery", "flaming" or "burning", as the burning sensation of a snake bite on human skin, a metaphor for the fiery anger of God (Numbers 11:1).[25]

TheBook of Isaiahexpounds on the description of these fiery serpents as "flying saraphs"(YLT),or "flying dragons",[24]in the land of trouble and anguish (Isaiah 30:6). Isaiah indicates that these saraphs are comparable tovipers,(YLT)worse than ordinary serpents (Isaiah 14:29).[26]The prophetIsaiahalso sees a vision ofseraphimin theTempleitself: but these are divine agents, with wings and human faces, and are probably not to be interpreted as serpent-like so much as "flame-like".[27]

Serpent of bronze

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Further information:Nehushtan

In theBook of Numbers,whileMoseswas in the wilderness, he mounted a serpent of bronze on a pole that functioned as a cure against the bite of the "seraphim", the "burning ones" (Numbers 21:4–9). The phrase in Numbers 21:9, "a serpent of bronze," is a wordplay as "serpent" (nehash) and “bronze” (nehoshet) are closely related inHebrew,nehash nehoshet.[2]

Mainstream scholars suggest that the image of the fiery serpent served to function like that of a magicalamulet.Magic amulets or charms were used in the ancient Near East[28]to practice a healing ritual known assympathetic magicin an attempt to ward off, heal or reduce the impact of illness and poisons.[2]Copper and bronze serpent figures have been recovered, showing that the practice was widespread.[28]A Christian interpretation would be that the bronze serpent served as a symbol for each individual Israelite to take their confession of sin and the need for God's deliverance to heart. Confession of sin and forgiveness was both a community and an individual responsibility. The plague of serpents remained an ongoing threat to the community and the raised bronze serpent was an ongoing reminder to each individual for the need to turn to the healing power of God.[2]It has also been proposed that the bronze serpent was a type of intermediary between God and the people[28]that served as a test of obedience, in the form of free judgment,[29]standing between the dead who were not willing to look to God's chosen instrument of healing, and the living who were willing and were healed.[30]Thus, this instrument bore witness to the sovereign power ofYahweheven over the dangerous and sinister character of the desert.[29]

In2 Kings 18:4,a bronze serpent, alleged to be the one Moses made, was kept in Jerusalem's Temple[2]sanctuary.[26]The Israelites began to worship the object as an idol orimage of God,by offering sacrifices and burning incense to it, untilHezekiahwas made King. Hezekiah referred to it asNehushtan[31]and had torn it down. Scholars have debated the nature of the relationship between the Mosaic bronze serpent and Hezekiah's Nehushtan, but traditions happen to link the two.[2]

New Testament

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Gospels

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In theGospel of Matthew,John the Baptistcalls thePhariseesandSaducees,who were visiting him, a "brood of vipers" (Matthew 3:7).Jesusalso uses this imagery, observing: "Ye serpents, ye generation of vipers, how can ye escape the damnation of hell?" (Matthew 23:33). Alternatively, Jesus also presents the snake with a less negative connotation when sending out theTwelve Apostles.Jesus exhorted them, "Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves: be ye therefore wise asserpents,and harmless as doves "(Matthew 10:16).Wilhelm Geseniusnotes that even amongst the ancient Hebrews, the serpent was a symbol of wisdom.[32]

In theGospel of John,Jesus made mention of the Mosaic serpent when he foretold hiscrucifixionto a Jewish teacher.[30]Jesus compared the act of raising up the Mosaicserpent on a pole,with the raising up of theSon of Manon a cross (John 3:14–15).[33]

IvoryofChrist treading on the beastsfromGenoels-Elderen,with four beasts; thebasiliskwas sometimes depicted as a bird with a long smooth tail.[34]

Temptation of Christ

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In thetemptation of Christ,theDevilcitesPsalm 91:11–12,"for it is written, He shall give his angels charge concerning thee: and in [their] hands they shall bear thee up, lest at any time thou dash thy foot against a stone."[35]He cuts off before verse 13, "Thou shalt tread upon the lion and adder: the young lion and the dragon (tanniyn)[36]shalt thou trample under feet. "[37][38]

The serpent in Psalm 91:13 is identified as Satan by Christians:[39]"superaspidemetbasiliscumcalcabis conculcabis leonem et draconem"in theLatin Vulgate,literally "Theaspand thebasiliskyou will trample under foot; you will tread on thelionand thedragon".This passage is commonly interpreted by Christians as a reference to Christ defeating and triumphing over Satan. The passage led to theLate AntiqueandEarly MedievaliconographyofChrist treading on the beasts,in which two beasts are often shown, usually the lion and snake or dragon, and sometimes four, which are normally the lion, dragon, asp (snake) and basilisk (which was depicted with varying characteristics) of the Vulgate. All represented the devil, as explained byCassiodorusandBedein their commentaries on Psalm 91.[40]The serpent is often shown curled round the foot of the cross in depictions of thecrucifixion of JesusfromCarolingian artuntil about the 13th century; often it is shown as dead. The crucifixion was regarded as the fulfillment of God's curse on the serpent inGenesis 3:15.Sometimes it is pierced by the cross and in one ivory is biting Christ's heel, as in the curse.[41]

Ancient serpent

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Serpent (Greek:ὄφις;[42]Trans:Ophis,/ˈo.fis/;"snake", "serpent" ) occurs in theBook of Revelationas the "ancient serpent"[43]or "old serpent"(YLT)used to describe "the dragon",[20:2]Satan[44]the Adversary,(YLT)who is thedevil.[12:9, 20:2]This serpent is depicted as a red seven-headed dragon having ten horns, each housed with adiadem.The serpent battlesMichael the Archangelin aWar in Heavenwhich results in this devil being cast out to the earth. While on earth, he pursues theWoman of the Apocalypseand gives power and authority to theBeast.Unable to obtain her, he wages war with the rest of her seed (Revelation 12:1–18). He who has the key tothe abyssand a great chain over his hand, binds the serpent for a thousand years. The serpent is then cast into theabyssand sealed within until he is released (Revelation 20:1–3).

In Christian tradition, the "ancient serpent" is commonly identified with the Genesis serpent and as Satan. This identification redefined the Hebrew Bible's concept of Satan ( "the Adversary", a member of theHeavenly Courtacting on behalf ofGodto testJob's faith), so that Satan/Serpent became a part of a divine plan stretching from Creation to Christ and theSecond Coming.[45]

Religious views

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Biblical apocrypha and deuterocanonical books

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The firstdeuterocanonicalsource to connect the serpent with the devil may beWisdom of Solomon.[46]The subject is more developed in thepseudepigraphal-apocryphalApocalypse of Moses(Vita Adae et Evae) where the devil works with the serpent.[47]

Christianity

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Following the imagery of chapter 12 of theBook of Revelation,Bernard of Clairvauxhad called Mary the "conqueror of dragons", and she was long to be shown crushing a snake underfoot, also a reference to her title as the "New Eve".[48]

Gnosticism

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Main article:Gnosticism
Further information:Gnostic texts,Naassenes,andOphites
A lion-faced,serpentinedeityfound on a Gnostic gem inBernard de Montfaucon'sL'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figuresmay be a depiction of the Demiurge.

Gnosticismoriginated in the late 1st century CE in non-rabbinicalJewishandearly Christiansects.[49]In theformation of Christianity,varioussectariangroups, labeled "gnostics" by their opponents, emphasised spiritual knowledge (gnosis) of the divine spark within, overfaith(pistis) in the teachings and traditions of the various communities of Christians.[50][51][52][53]Gnosticism presents a distinction between thehighest, unknowable God,and theDemiurge,"creator" of the material universe.[50][51][52][54]The Gnostics considered the mostessentialpart of the process ofsalvationto be this personal knowledge, in contrast to faith as an outlook in theirworldviewalong with faith in theecclesiastical authority.[50][51][52][54]

InGnosticism,thebiblical serpentin theGarden of Edenwas praised and thanked for bringing knowledge (gnosis) to Adam and Eve and thereby freeing them from themalevolentDemiurge's control.[54]Gnostic Christian doctrines rely on adualistic cosmologythat implies the eternal conflict between good and evil, and a conception of the serpent as theliberating saviorand bestower of knowledge to humankind opposed to the Demiurge orcreator god,identified with theHebrew Godof theOld Testament.[51][54]Gnostic Christians considered the Hebrew God of the Old Testament as the evil,false godand creator of the material universe, and theUnknown Godof theGospel,the father ofJesus Christand creator of the spiritual world, as the true, good God.[50][51][54][55]In theArchontic,Sethian,andOphitesystems,Yaldabaoth(Yahweh) is regarded as the malevolent Demiurge and false god of the Old Testament who generated the material universe and keeps the souls trapped in physical bodies, imprisoned in the world full of pain and suffering that hecreated.[56][57][58]

However, not all Gnostic movements regarded the creator of the material universe as inherently evil or malevolent.[55][59]For instance,Valentiniansbelieved that the Demiurge is merely an ignorant and incompetent creator, trying to fashion the world as good as he can, but lacking the proper power to maintain its goodness.[55][59]All Gnostics were regarded ashereticsby theproto-orthodoxEarly Church Fathers.[50][51][52][54]

See also

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References

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  1. ^abGraf, Fritz (2018). "Travels to the Beyond: A Guide". In Ekroth, Gunnel; Nilsson, Ingela (eds.).Round Trip to Hades in the Eastern Mediterranean Tradition: Visits to the Underworld from Antiquity to Byzantium.Cultural Interactions in the Mediterranean. Vol. 2.LeidenandBoston:Brill Publishers.pp.11–36.doi:10.1163/9789004375963_002.ISBN978-90-04-37596-3.S2CID201526808.
  2. ^abcdefOlson 1996,p. 136
  3. ^abcdefg
  4. ^abLeeming, David A.(June 2003). Carey, Lindsay B. (ed.). "Religion and Sexuality: The Perversion of a Natural Marriage".Journal of Religion and Health.42(2).Springer Verlag:101–09.doi:10.1023/A:1023621612061.ISSN1573-6571.JSTOR27511667.S2CID38974409.
  5. ^abAwn, Peter J. (1983)."Mythic Biography".Satan's Tragedy and Redemption: Iblīs in Sufi Psychology.Numen Book Series. Vol. 44.LeidenandBoston:Brill Publishers.pp.18–56.doi:10.1163/9789004378636_003.ISBN978-90-04-37863-6.ISSN0169-8834.
  6. ^Mahmoud, Muhammad (1995)."The Creation Story in 'Sūrat Al-Baqara," with Special Reference to Al-Ṭabarī's Material: An Analysis ".Journal of Arabic Literature.26(1/2):201–14.doi:10.1163/157006495X00175.JSTOR4183374.
  7. ^"Catholic Encyclopedia: Adam".newadvent.org.
  8. ^abTuling, Kari H. (2020)."Part 1: Is God the Creator and Source of All Being – Including Evil?".In Tuling, Kari H. (ed.).Thinking about God: Jewish Views.JPS Essential Judaism Series.LincolnandPhiladelphia:University of Nebraska Press/Jewish Publication Society.pp.3–64.doi:10.2307/j.ctv13796z1.5.ISBN978-0-8276-1848-0.LCCN2019042781.S2CID241611417.
  9. ^Kolatch, Alfred J.(2021) [1989]."Issues in Jewish Ethics: Judaism's Rejection of Original Sin".Jewish Virtual Library.American–Israeli Cooperative Enterprise (AICE).Archivedfrom the original on 9 October 2017.Retrieved10 April2021.
  10. ^Jarrar, Maher (2017)."Strategies for Paradise: Paradise Virgins and Utopia".In Günther, Sebastian; Lawson, Todd (eds.).Roads to Paradise: Eschatology and Concepts of the Hereafter in Islam.Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 136.LeidenandBoston:Brill Publishers.pp.271–94.doi:10.1163/9789004333154_013.ISBN978-90-04-33315-4.ISSN0929-2403.LCCN2016047258.
  11. ^Johns, Anthony Hearle (2006). "Fall of Man". InMcAuliffe, Jane Dammen(ed.).Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān.Vol. II.Leiden:Brill Publishers.doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00147.ISBN90-04-14743-8.
  12. ^Genesis 3:1
  13. ^abvon Rad, Gerhard(1973).Genesis: A Commentary.The Old Testament Library (Revised ed.).Philadelphia:Westminster John Knox Press.pp.87–88.ISBN0-664-20957-2.
  14. ^Genesis 2:17
  15. ^Genesis 3:3
  16. ^Barton, SO "Midrash Rabba to Genesis", sec 20, p. 93
  17. ^Hakira, Vol. 5: Reclaiming the Self: Adam’s Sin and the Human Psyche By Menachem Krakowski
  18. ^Gorton & Voltaire 1824,p. 22
  19. ^OesterleyImmortality and the Unseen World: a study in Old Testament religion(1921) "... moreover, not only an accuser but one who tempts to evil. With the further development of Satan as the arch-fiend and head of the powers of darkness we are not concerned here, as this is outside the scope of the Old Testament."
  20. ^"The idea ofZoroastrianinfluence on the evolution of Satan is in limited favor among scholars today, not least because the satan figure is always subordinate to God in Hebrew and Christian representations, and Angra Mainyu... "–Kelly, Henry Ansgar (2006).Satan: a biography(1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 360.ISBN978-0-521-84339-3.
  21. ^Mobley, T.J. Wray, Gregory (2005).The birth of Satan: tracing the devil's biblical roots.New York: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-1-4039-6933-0.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^Keil and Delitzsch, OT Commentary on Exodus 4http://biblehub /commentaries/kad/exodus/4.htmaccessed 2015-10-09.
  23. ^"A tale of two staffs".Israel National News.8 January 2016.Retrieved17 June2024.
  24. ^abGesenius, Wilhelm & Samuel Prideaux Tregelles (1893).Genenius's Hebrew and Chaldee lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures.J. Wiley & Sons. p. dccxcv.
  25. ^Olson 1996,p. 135
  26. ^abNoth 1968,p. 156
  27. ^Hendel 1999,pp. 746–47
  28. ^abcNelson 2008,p. 172
  29. ^abNoth 1968,p. 157
  30. ^abOlson 1996,p. 137
  31. ^Joines, Karen Randolph (1968).The Bronze Serpent in the Israelite Cult The Bronze Serpent in the Israelite Cult.JOBL, 87. p. 245, note 1.
  32. ^Gesenius, Wilhelm & Samuel Prideaux Tregelles (1893).Genenius's Hebrew and Chaldee lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures.J. Wiley & Sons. p. dccxcvi.
  33. ^C. H. Spurgeon,"The Mysteries of the Brazen Serpent"Archived2013-02-12 at theWayback Machine,1857
  34. ^The basilisk and the weaselbyWenceslas Hollar
  35. ^Matthew 4:6)
  36. ^Strong's Concordance:H8577
  37. ^(Psalm 91:13KJV)
  38. ^Whittaker, H.A.Studies in the Gospels"Matthew 4" Biblia, Cannock 1996
  39. ^Psalm 91 in the Hebrew/Protestant numbering, 90 in the Greek/Catholic liturgical sequence – seePsalms#Numbering
  40. ^Hilmo, Maidie.Medieval images, icons, and illustrated English literary texts: from Ruthwell Cross to the Ellesmere Chaucer,Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, p. 37,ISBN978-0-7546-3178-1,google books
  41. ^Schiller, I, pp. 112–13, and many figures listed there. See also Index.
  42. ^Strong's Concordance:G3789
  43. ^From theGreek:ἀρχαῖος,archaios(/arˈxɛ.os/) –Strong's ConcordanceNumberG744
  44. ^Σατανᾶς,Satanas,(/sa.taˈnas/) – ofAramaicorigin corresponding to Σατάν (G4566) –Strong's ConcordanceNumberG4567
  45. ^Harris, Stephen L.,Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
  46. ^Alfred von Rohr Sauer, Concordia Theological Monthly 43 (1972): "The Wisdom of Solomon deserves to be remembered for the fact that it is the first tradition to identify the serpent of Genesis 3 with the devil: 'Through the devil's envy death entered the world' (2:24)".
  47. ^The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Expansions of the "Old... James H. Charlesworth – 1985" He seeks to destroy men's souls (Vita 17:1) by disguising himself as an angel of light (Vita 9:1, 3; 12:1; ApMos 17:1) to put into men "his evil poison, which is his covetousness" (epithymia,... "
  48. ^Schiller, Gertrud,Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I,p. 108 & fig. 280, 1971 (English trans. from German), Lund Humphries, London,ISBN0-85331-270-2
  49. ^Magris, Aldo (2005). "Gnosticism: Gnosticism from its origins to the Middle Ages (further considerations)". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.).Macmillan Encyclopedia of Religion(2nd ed.).New York:Macmillan Inc.pp.3515–16.ISBN978-0028657332.OCLC56057973.
  50. ^abcdeMay, Gerhard (2008)."Part V: The Shaping of Christian Theology – Monotheism and creation".InMitchell, Margaret M.;Young, Frances M.(eds.).The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1: Origins to Constantine.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.pp.434–51,452–56.doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.026.ISBN9781139054836.
  51. ^abcdefEhrman, Bart D.(2005) [2003]."Christians" In The Know ": The Worlds of Early Christian Gnosticism".Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew.Oxford:Oxford University Press.pp.113–34.doi:10.1017/s0009640700110273.ISBN978-0-19-518249-1.LCCN2003053097.S2CID152458823.
  52. ^abcdBrakke, David (2010).The Gnostics: Myth, Ritual, and Diversity in Early Christianity.Cambridge, Massachusetts:Harvard University Press.pp.18–51.ISBN9780674066038.JSTORj.ctvjnrvhh.6.S2CID169308502.
  53. ^Layton, Bentley(1999)."Prolegomena to the Study of Ancient Gnosticism".InFerguson, Everett(ed.).Doctrinal Diversity: Varieties of Early Christianity.Recent Studies in Early Christianity: A Collection of Scholarly Essays.New YorkandLondon:Garland Publishing, Inc. pp.106–23.ISBN0-8153-3071-5.
  54. ^abcdefKvam, Kristen E.; Schearing, Linda S.; Ziegler, Valarie H., eds. (1999)."Early Christian Interpretations (50–450 CE)".Eve and Adam: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Readings on Genesis and Gender.Bloomington, Indiana:Indiana University Press.pp.108–55.doi:10.2307/j.ctt2050vqm.8.ISBN9780253212719.JSTORj.ctt2050vqm.8.
  55. ^abcBousset, Wilhelm(1911)."Valentinus and the Valentinians".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 27 (11th ed.). pp.852–57.
  56. ^Litwa, M. David (2016) [2015]."Part I: The Self-deifying Rebel –" I Am God and There is No Other! ": The Boast of Yaldabaoth".Desiring Divinity: Self-deification in Early Jewish and Christian Mythmaking.OxfordandNew York:Oxford University Press.pp.47–65.doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190467166.003.0004.ISBN9780199967728.LCCN2015051032.OCLC966607824.
  57. ^Fischer-Mueller, E. Aydeet (January 1990). "Yaldabaoth: The Gnostic Female Principle in Its Fallenness".Novum Testamentum.32(1).LeidenandBoston:Brill Publishers:79–95.doi:10.1163/156853690X00205.eISSN1568-5365.ISSN0048-1009.JSTOR1560677.
  58. ^This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Arendzen, John Peter (1908). "Demiurge".In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  59. ^abLogan, Alastair H. B. (2002) [2000]."Part IX: Internal Challenges – Gnosticism".In Esler, Philip F. (ed.).The Early Christian World.Routledge Worlds (1st ed.).New YorkandLondon:Routledge.pp.923–25.ISBN9781032199344.

Works cited

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