Wikipedia

Shogun

(Redirected fromShōgun)
For other uses, seeShogun (disambiguation).
Not to be confused withShotgun.

Shogun(English:/ˈʃoʊɡʌn/SHOH-gun;[1]Japanese:Tướng quân,romanized:shōgun,pronounced[ɕoːɡɯɴ]ⓘ), officiallysei-i taishōgun(Chinh di đại tướng quân,"Commander-in-Chiefof the Expeditionary Force Against the Barbarians "),[2]was the title of themilitaryrulersof Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868.[3]Nominally appointed by theEmperor,shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country,[4]except during parts of theKamakura periodandSengoku periodwhen the shoguns themselves were figureheads, with real power in the hands of theshikken(Chấp 権)of theHōjō clanandkanrei(Quản lãnh)of theHosokawa clan.In addition,Taira no KiyomoriandToyotomi Hideyoshiwere leaders of the warrior class who did not hold the position of shogun, the highest office of the warrior class, yet gained the positions ofdaijō-daijin(Quá chính đại thần,Chancellor of the Realm)andkampaku(Quan bạch,Imperial Regent),the highest offices of the aristocratic class. As such, they ran their governments as its de facto rulers.[5][6][7]

The office of shogun was in practice hereditary, although over the course of the history of Japan several different clans held the position. The title was originally held by military commanders during theHeian periodin the eighth and ninth centuries. WhenMinamoto no Yoritomogained political ascendency over Japan in 1185, the title was revived to regularize his position, making him the first shogun in the usually understood sense.

It is often said that one must be of theMinamotolineage to become a shogun, but this is not true. While it is true that the Minamoto lineage was respected as a lineage suitable for the position of shogun, the fourth and fifth shoguns of the Kamakura shogunate were from theFujiwaralineage (although their mothers were from the Minamoto lineage), and the sixth through ninth shoguns were from the imperial lineage.Oda Nobunaga,who claimed to be a descendant of theTaira clan,was approached for the position of shogun a month before his death.[8][9][10]

The shogun's officials were collectively referred to as thebakufu(Mạc phủ,IPA:[baꜜkɯ̥ɸɯ];"tent government" );they were the ones who carried out the actual duties of administration, while the imperial court retained only nominal authority.[11]The tent symbolized the shogun's role as the military's field commander but also denoted that such an office was meant to be temporary. Nevertheless, the institution, known in English as theshogunate(/ˈʃoʊɡəneɪt/SHOH-gə-nayt), persisted for nearly 700 years, ending whenTokugawa Yoshinoburelinquished the office toEmperor Meijiin 1867 as part of theMeiji Restoration.[12]

Etymology

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Kanjithat make up the word shogun

The termshogun(Tướng quân,lit. 'army commander')is the abbreviation of the historical titlesei-i taishōgun(Chinh di đại tướng quân):

  • Chinh (sei,せい) means "conquer" or "subjugate", and
  • Di (i,い) means "barbarian" or "savage";
  • Đại (dai,だい) means "great";
  • Đem(shō,しょう) means "commander",[13]and
  • Quân (gun,ぐん) means "army".[14]

Thus, a literal translation ofsei-i taishōgunwould be 'Commander-in-Chief of the Expeditionary Force Against the Barbarians'.[2]

The term originally referred to the general who commanded the army sent to fight the tribes of northern Japan, but after the twelfth century, the term was used to designate the leader of thesamurai.[15]The term is often translatedgeneralissimoand is also used for such military leaders of foreign nations by the Japanese.

Thoughshogun(Tướng quân)now predominantly refers to the historical positionsei-i taishōgun(Chinh di đại tướng quân) in Japanese, this term simply means "a general" in other East Asian languages, such as Chinese (simplified Chinese:Tướng quân;traditional Chinese:Tướng quân;pinyin:jiāngjūn;Jyutping:zoeng1 gwan1). In fact, sincesei-i taishōgun(Chinh di đại tướng quân) was originally a specific type of general, this is an example ofsemantic widening.

Bakufu

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The shogunate's administration was known as thebakufu(Mạc phủ),literally meaning"government from thecurtain".In this context," curtain "is a synecdoche for a type of semi-open tent called amaku,a temporary battlefield headquarters from which a samurai general would direct his forces, and whose sides would be decorated with hismon.The application of the termbakufuto the shogunate government was therefore heavy with symbolism, connoting both the explicitly military character of the shogunal regime and its (at least theoretically) ephemeral nature.[16]

Titles

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Historically, similar terms tosei-i taishōgunwere used with varying degrees of responsibility, although none of them had equal or more importance thansei-i taishōgun.[citation needed]Some of them were:

History

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See also:SamuraiandHistory of Japan
Shoguns in the history of Japan
S# Name Birth/Death Government
First shoguns[20]
Tajihi no Agatamori 668–737[21] 720[22]
Ōtomo no Yakamochi 718?–785[23] 784–785[24]Ki no Kosamiin the year 789[25]
Ki no Kosami 733–797 789[25]
Ōtomo no Otomaro 731–809[26] 794[27]
Sakanoue no Tamuramaro 758–811[28] 797–811?[29]
Fun'ya no Watamaro 765–823[30] 813[29]
Fujiwara no Tadabumi 873–947[31] 940[29]
Minamoto no Yoshinaka 1154–1184[32] 1184[29]
Kamakura Shogunate[33]
1 Minamoto no Yoritomo 1147–1199 1192–1199
2 Minamoto no Yoriie 1182–1204 1202–1203
3 Minamoto no Sanetomo 1192–1219 1203–1219
4 Kujō Yoritsune 1218–1256 1226–1244
5 Kujō Yoritsugu 1239–1256 1244–1252
6 Prince Munetaka 1242–1274 1252–1266
7 Prince Koreyasu 1264–1326 1266–1289
8 Prince Hisaaki 1276–1328 1289–1308
9 Prince Morikuni 1301–1333 1308–1333
Kenmu Restoration
Prince Moriyoshi 1308–1335[34]He was named shogun by his father Emperor Go-Daigo in 1333[35] 1333–1335[35]
Prince Nariyoshi 1326–1344?[36] 1334–1338[36]
Ashikaga Shogunate[33]
1 Ashikaga Takauji 1305–1358 1338–1358
2 Ashikaga Yoshiakira 1330–1367 1358–1367
3 Ashikaga Yoshimitsu 1358–1408 1368–1394
4 Ashikaga Yoshimochi 1386–1428 1394–1423
5 Ashikaga Yoshikazu 1407–1425 1423–1425
6 Ashikaga Yoshinori 1394–1441 1429–1441
7 Ashikaga Yoshikatsu 1434–1443 1442–1443
8 Ashikaga Yoshimasa 1436–1490 1449–1473
9 Ashikaga Yoshihisa 1465–1489 1473–1489
10 Ashikaga Yoshitane 1466–1523 1490–1493
11 Ashikaga Yoshizumi 1480–1511 1494–1508
10 Ashikaga Yoshitane 1466–1523 1508–1521
12 Ashikaga Yoshiharu 1511–1550 1521–1546
13 Ashikaga Yoshiteru 1536–1565 1546–1565
14 Ashikaga Yoshihide 1538–1568 1568
15 Ashikaga Yoshiaki 1537–1597 1568–1573
Tokugawa Shogunate[33]
1 Tokugawa Ieyasu 1542–1616 1603–1605
2 Tokugawa Hidetada 1579–1632[37] 1605–1623
3 Tokugawa Iemitsu 1604–1651 1623–1651
4 Tokugawa Ietsuna 1641–1680 1651–1680
5 Tokugawa Tsunayoshi 1646–1709 1680–1709
6 Tokugawa Ienobu 1662–1712[37] 1709–1712
7 Tokugawa Ietsugu 1709–1716 1713–1716
8 Tokugawa Yoshimune 1684–1751 1716–1745
9 Tokugawa Ieshige 1711–1761 1745–1760
10 Tokugawa Ieharu 1737–1786 1760–1786
11 Tokugawa Ienari 1773–1841[37] 1787–1837
12 Tokugawa Ieyoshi 1793–1853 1837–1853
13 Tokugawa Iesada 1824–1858 1853–1858
14 Tokugawa Iemochi 1846–1866 1858–1866
15 Tokugawa Yoshinobu 1837–1913 1867–1868[38]

First shogun

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There is no consensus among the various authors since some sources considerTajihi no Agatamorithe first, others sayŌtomo no Otomaro,[39]other sources assure that the first wasSakanoue no Tamuramaro,while others avoid the problem by just mentioning from the firstKamakurashogunMinamoto no Yoritomo. Originally, the title ofsei-i taishōgun( "Commander-in-Chief of the Expeditionary Force Against the Barbarians" )[2]was given to military commanders during the earlyHeian periodfor the duration of military campaigns against theEmishi,who resisted the governance of theKyoto-based imperial court.

Heian period (794–1185)

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Further information:Heian period

Sakanoue no Tamuramaro

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Further information:Sakanoue no Tamuramaro
Sakanoue no Tamuramaro(758–811) was one of the first shoguns of the earlyHeian period.

Sakanoue no Tamuramaro (758–811)[28]was a Japanese general who fought against theEmishitribes of northern Japan (settled in the territory that today integrates the provinces of Mutsu and Dewa). Tamarumaro was the first general to bend these tribes, integrating their territory to that of theYamato State.For his military feats he was named sei-i taishōgun and probably because he was the first to win the victory against the northern tribes he is generally recognized as the first shogun in history.[28][40][41](Note: according to historical sourcesŌtomo no Otomaroalso had the title of sei-i taishōgun).

The regency political system and cloistered rule

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Further information:Sesshō and KampakuandFujiwara clan

The shoguns of this period had no real political power, and the imperial court was in charge of politics. From the mid-9th century to the mid-11th century, theFujiwara clancontrolled political power. They excluded other clans from the political center and monopolized the highest positions in the court, such assesshō(Nhiếp chính,Imperial Regent for Minor Emperors),kampaku(Quan bạch,Imperial Regent fo Adult Emperors),anddaijō-daijin(Quá chính đại thần,Chancellor of the Realm),reaching their peak at the end of the 10th century underFujiwara no MichinagaandFujiwara no Yorimichi.[42][43][44]

Later, in the mid-11th century,Emperor Go-Sanjoweakened the power of thesesshōandkampakuby presiding over politics himself, and when the next emperor,Shirakawa,abdicated and became acloistered emperorand began acloistered rule,thesesshōandkampakulost their real political authority and became nominal, effectively ending the Fujiwara regime.[42][43][44]

The first attempt to establish a warrior class government

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Further information:Taira no Masakado
Taira no Masakado's rebellion is historically significant as the first rebellion of the warrior class and the first attempt of the warrior class to establish a government.[45]

Taira no Masakado,who rose to prominence in the early 10th century, was the first of the local warrior class to revolt against the imperial court.[45]He had servedFujiwara no Tadahiraas a young man, but eventually won a power struggle within theTaira clanand became a powerful figure in theKanto region.In 939,Fujiwara no Haruaki,a powerful figure in theHitachi province,fled to Masakado. He was wanted for tyranny byFujiwara no Korechika,anKokushi(Quốc tư,imperial court official)who oversaw the province of Hitachi province, and Fujiwara no Korechika demanded that Masakado hand over Fujiwara no Haruaki. Masakado refused, and war broke out between Masakado and Fujiwara no Korechika, with Masakado becoming an enemy of the imperial court. Masakado proclaimed that the Kanto region under his rule was independent of the imperial court and called himself theShinnō(Tân hoàng,New Emperor).In response, the imperial court sent a large army led byTaira no Sadamorito kill Masakado. As a result, Masakado was killed in battle in February 940. He is still revered as one of the three greatonryō(Oán linh,vengeful spirits)of Japan.[45][46]

The birth of the first warrior class government

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Further information:Taira no kiyomoriandGenpei War
Taira no Kiyomoriwas the first person born of the warrior class to rise to the highest rank of nobility and the first to establish a de facto samurai government.[5]

During the reigns ofEmperor ShirakawaandEmperor Toba,theTaira clanbecameKokushi(Quốc tư),or overseers of various regions, and accumulated wealth by taking samurai from various regions as their retainers. In the struggle to succeed Emperor Toba, formerEmperor SutokuandEmperor Go-Shirakawa,each with his samurai class on his side, fought theHōgen rebellion,which was won by Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who hadTaira no KiyomoriandMinamoto no Yoshitomoon his side. Later, Taira no Kiyomori defeated Minamoto no Yoshitomo in theHeiji rebellionand became the first samurai-born aristocratic class, eventually becomingdaijō-daijin(Quá chính đại thần,Chancellor of the Realm),the highest position of the aristocratic class, and the Taira clan monopolized important positions at the imperial court and wielded power. The seizure of political power by Taira no Kiyomori was the first instance of the warrior class leading politics for the next 700 years.[5]

However, when Taira no Kiyomori used his power to have the child of his daughterTaira no TokukoandEmperor Takakurainstalled asEmperor Antoku,there was widespread opposition. Prince Mochihito,no longer able to assume the imperial throne, called upon theMinamoto clanto raise an army to defeat the Taira clan, and theGenpei Warbegan. In the midst of the Genpei War,Minamoto no Yoshinakaexpelled the Taira clan from Kyoto, and although initially welcomed by the hermit Emperor Go-Shirakawa, he became estranged and isolated due to the disorderly military discipline and lack of political power under his command. He staged a coup, overthrew the emperor's entourage, and became the first of the Minamoto clan to assume the office ofSei-i Taishōgun(shogun).In response,Minamoto no YoritomosentMinamoto no NoriyoriandMinamoto no Yoshitsuneto defeat Yoshinaka, who was killed within a year of becoming shogun. In 1185, the Taira clan was finally defeated in theBattle of Dan-no-ura,and the Minamoto clan came to power.[5][47]

Kamakura shogunate (1185–1333)

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Further information:Kamakura shogunateandKamakura period
Minamoto no Yoritomo,the first shogun (1192–1199) of theKamakura shogunate

There are various theories as to the year in which the Kamakura period and Kamakura shogunate began. In the past, the most popular theory was that the year was 1192, when Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointedsei-i taishōgun(Chinh di đại tướng quân).Later, the prevailing theory was that the year was 1185, when Yoritomo established theshugo(Bảo hộ),which controlled military and police power in various regions, and thejitō(Hai đầu bờ ruộng),which was in charge of tax collection and land administration. Japanese history textbooks as of 2016 do not specify a specific year for the beginning of the Kamakura period, as there are various theories about the year the Kamakura shogunate was established.[48]

Minamoto no Yoritomoseized power from the central government and aristocracy and by 1192 established afeudal systembased inKamakurain which the private military, thesamurai,gained some political powers while the Emperor and thearistocracyremained thede jurerulers.[49][50]

In 1192, Yoritomo was awarded the title ofsei-i taishōgunbyEmperor Go-Tobaand the political system he developed with a succession of shoguns as the head became known as a shogunate.Hojo Masako's (Yoritomo's wife) family, theHōjō,seized power from the Kamakura shoguns.[51]

In 1199, Yoritomo died suddenly at the age of 53, and the 18-year-oldMinamoto no Yoriietook over as second shogun. To support the young Yoriie, the decisions of the shogunate were made by a 13-man council, includingHojo Tokimasaand his sonHojo Yoshitoki,but this was effectively dismantled shortly afterwards when one of the key members lost his political position and two others died of illness.[52][53]

Puppetization of the shogun by theshikken

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Hōjō Tokimasashifted the source of power in the shogunate from the shogun to the shogun's assistant,shikken,and established the rule of theHōjō clan.

When Minamoto no Yoriie fell ill in 1203, a power struggle broke out between theHojo clanandHiki Yoshikazu,and Hojo Tokimasa destroyed theHiki clan.Tokimasa then installed the 12-year-oldMinamoto no Sanetomoas the third shogun, puppeting him while himself becoming the firstshikken(Chấp 権,Regent)and assuming actual control of the shogunate. Hojo Yoshitoki later assassinated Minamoto no Yoriie.[52][53]

However, Hojo Tokimasa lost influence in 1204 when he killedHatakeyama Shigetada,believing false information that his son-in-law Shigetada was about to rebel, and lost his position in 1205 when he tried to install his son-in-law Hiraga Tomomasa as the fourth shogun. Hojo Yoshitoki became the secondshikken,and the shogunate was administered under the leadership ofHojo Masako.[52][53]

In 1219, the third shogun, Minamoto no Sanetomo, was assassinated for unknown reasons.[53]

In 1221, war broke out for the first time in Japan between the warrior class government and the imperial court, and in this battle, known as theJōkyū War,the shogunate defeated formerEmperor Go-Toba.[53]The shogunate exiled former Emperor Go-Toba toOki Islandfor waging war against the shogunate. The shogunate learned its lesson and set up an administrative body in Kyoto called theRokuhara Tandai(Sáu sóng la thăm đề)to oversee the imperial court and western Japan.[54]

After the sudden death of Hojo Yoshitoki in 1224,Hojo Yasutokibecame the thirdshikken,and after the death of Hojo Masako in 1225, the administration of the shogunate returned to a council system.[53]

In 1226,Hojo YasutokiinstalledKujo Yoritsune,a member of thesekkanfamily,as the fourth shogun.[53]

In 1232, theGoseibai Shikimokuwas enacted, the first codified law by a warrior class government in Japan.[53]

Puppetization of the shogun by thetokusō

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Hōjō Tokiyorishifted the source of power in the shogunate from the official position ofshikkento the private title oftokusōof the Hojo clan.

In 1246,Hojo Tokiyoribecame the fifthshikken,and in 1252 he installedPrince Munetakaas the sixth shogun. The appointment of a member of the imperial family as shogun made the shogun more and more like a puppet. After retiring from the shikkens, he used his position as head of the Hojo clan's main family,tokusō(Đến tông),to dominate politics, thus shifting the source of power in the shogunate from theshikkentotokusō.[53][55]

During the reign ofHojo Tokimune,the eighthshikkenand seventhtokusō,the shogunate twice defeated theMongol invasion of Japanin 1274 and 1281. The shogunate defeated the Mongols with the help of samurai calledgokenin(Ngự người nhà),lords in the service of the shogunate. However, since the war was a war of national defense and no new territory was gained, the shogunate was unable to adequately reward thegokenin,and their dissatisfaction with the shogunate grew.[56]

In 1285, during the reign ofHojo Sadatoki,the ninthshikkenandeighth tokusō,Adachi Yasumori and his clan, who had been the main vassals of the Kamakura shogunate, were destroyed by Taira no Yoritsuna, further strengthening the ruling system of thetokusō,which emphasized blood relations.[53]As tokusō's ruling system was strengthened, the power of the title ofnaikanrei(Nội quản lãnh),tokusō's chief retainer, increased, and whentokusōwas young or incapacitated,naikanreitook control of the shogunate. Taira no Yoritsuna during the reign of Hojo Sadatoki, and Nagasaki Takatsuna and Nagasaki Takasuke during the reign ofHojo Takatoki,the fourteenthshikkenand ninthtokusō,werenaikanreiwho took control of the Kamakura shogunate.[55][57]In other words, Japanese politics was a multiple puppet structure: Emperor, shogun, shikken, tokusō, and naikanrei.

In response togokenin's dissatisfaction with the shogunate,Emperor Go-Daigoplanned to raise an army against the shogunate, but his plan was leaked and he was exiled to Oki Island in 1331. In 1333, Emperor Go-Daigo escaped from Oki Island and again called ongokeninand samurai to raise an army against the shogunate.Kusunoki Masashigewas the first to respond to the call, sparking a series of rebellions against the shogunate in various places.Ashikaga Takauji,who had been ordered by the shogunate to suppress the forces of Emperor Go-Daigo, turned to the emperor's side and attackedRokuhara Tandai.Then, in 1333,Nitta Yoshisadainvaded Kamakura and the Kamakura shogunate fell, and the Hōjō clan was destroyed.[54][56]

Kenmu Restoration (1333–1336)

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Around 1334–1336,Ashikaga Takaujihelped Emperor Go-Daigo regain his throne in theKenmu Restoration.[58]

Emperor Go-Daigo rejectedcloistered ruleand the shogunate and abolished thesesshōandkampakuin favour of an emperor-led government. He also began building a new palace and established four new administrative bodies. However, the nobles who had long been out of politics and the newly appointed samurai were unfamiliar with administrative practices, and the court was unable to handle the drastic increase in lawsuits. Emperor Go-Daigo gave high positions and rewards only to the nobles, and the warriors began to swear allegiance to Ashikaga Takauji, who was willing to give up his personal fortune to give them such rewards.[54]

During the Kenmu Restoration, after the fall of the Kamakura shogunate in 1333, another short-lived shogun arose.Prince Moriyoshi(Morinaga), son of Go-Daigo, was awarded the title ofsei-i taishōgun.However, Prince Moriyoshi was later put underhouse arrestand, in 1335, killed byAshikaga Tadayoshi.

Emperor Go-daigo did not like the growing fame of Ashikaga Takauji and ordered Nitta Yoshisada and others to defeat Ashikaga Takauji. In response, Takauji led a group of samurai against the new government and defeated the imperial court forces. This ended Emperor Go-Daigo's new regime in 1336 after only two years.[54][58]

Ashikaga (Muromachi) shogunate (1336/1338–1573)

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Further information:Ashikaga shogunate,Muromachi period,andDaimyo
Ashikaga Takauji(1336/1338–1358) established theAshikaga shogunate.

After the failure of the Kenmu Restoration, Emperor Go-Daigo fled toEnryaku-jiTemple onMount Hieiwith theThree Sacred Treasures(Imperialregalia,Ba loại の Thần Khí ). On the other hand, Ashikaga Takauji installedEmperor Kōmyōas the new emperor without the Three Sacred Treasures in 1336.[54]

Ashikaga Takauji tried to make peace with Emperor Go-Daigo, but the negotiations failed when Emperor Go-Daigo refused. Emperor Go-Daigo moved toYoshino,and the country entered theNanboku-cho period(1336-1392), in which two emperors existed at the same time in two different imperial courts, the Southern Court in Yoshino and the Northern Court in Kyoto.[54]

In 1338,[54][59][60]Ashikaga Takauji,like Minamoto no Yoritomo, a descendant of theMinamotoprinces,[59]was awarded the title ofsei-i taishōgunby Emperor Kōmyō and established theAshikaga shogunate,which nominally lasted until 1573. The Ashikaga had their headquarters in the Muromachi district of Kyoto, and the time during which they ruled is also known as theMuromachi period.

Between 1346 and 1358, the Ashikaga shogunate gradually expanded the authority of theshugo(Bảo hộ),the local military and police officials established by the Kamakura shogunate, giving theshugojurisdiction over land disputes betweengokenin(Ngự người nhà)and allowing theshugoto receive half of all taxes from the areas they controlled. Theshugoshared their newfound wealth with the local samurai, creating a hierarchical relationship between theshugoand the samurai, and the first earlydaimyo(Đại danh,feudal lords),calledshugo daimyo(Bảo hộ đại danh),appeared.[61]

Ashikaga Yoshimitsu,the third shogun, negotiated peace with the Southern court, and in 1392 he reunited the two courts by absorbing the Southern court, ending the 58-year Nanboku-cho period. Yoshimitsu continued to hold power after passing the shogunate to his son Ashikaga Yoshimochi in 1395, becomingdaijō-daijin(Quá chính đại thần,Chancellor of the Realm),the highest rank of the nobility, and remaining in power until his death in 1408.[62]

In 1428,Ashikaga Yoshimochi,the fourth shogun, was ill and the question of his succession arose.Ashikaga Yoshikazu,the 5th shogun, died of illness at the age of 19, so the 6th shogun was chosen from among Yoshimochi's four brothers, and to ensure fairness, a lottery was held. The sixth shogun wasAshikaga Yoshinori.However, he was not educated to be a shogun, and his temperamental and despotic behavior caused resentment, and he was assassinated byAkamatsu Mitsusukeduring theKakitsu Rebellion.This led to instability in the Ashikaga shogunate system.[63][64]

Ōnin war and Sengoku period

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Further information:Ōnin warandSengoku period
Ashikaga Yoshimasa

Ashikaga Yoshimasa,the 8th shogun, tried to strengthen the power of the shogun, but his close associates did not follow his instructions, leading to political chaos and increasing social unrest. Since he had no sons, he tried to install his younger brotherAshikaga Yoshimias the ninth shogun, but when his wifeHino Tomikogave birth toAshikaga Yoshihisa,a conflict arose among theshugo daimyoas to whether Yoshimi or Yoshihisa would be the next shogun. TheHatakeyamaandShibaclans were also divided into two opposing factions over succession within their own clans, andHosokawa KatsumotoandYamana Sōzen,who were father-in-law and son-in-law, were politically at odds with each other.[63][65]

In 1467, these conflicts finally led to theŌnin Warbetween the Eastern Army, led by Hosokawa Katsumoto and includingHatakeyama Masanaga,Shiba Yoshitoshi, and Ashikaga Yoshimi, and the Western Army, led by Yamana Sōzen and including Hatakeyama Yoshinari, Shiba Yoshikado, and Ashikaga Yoshihisa. In 1469, the war spread to the provinces, but in 1473, Hosokawa Katsumoto and Yamana Sōzen, the leaders of both armies, were dead, and in 1477, the war ended when the western lords, including Hatakeyama Yoshinari andŌuchi Masahiro,withdrew their armies from Kyoto.[63][65]

The war devastated Kyoto, destroying many aristocratic and samurai residences,Shinto shrines,and Buddhist temples, and undermining the authority of the Ashikaga shoguns, greatly reducing their control over the various regions. Thus began theSengoku period,a period of civil war in which thedaimyoof various regions fought to expand their own power.[63][65]Daimyowho became more powerful as the shogunate's control weakened were calledsengoku daimyo(Chiến quốc đại danh),and they often came fromshugo daimyo,shugodai(Bảo hộ đại,deputy shugo),andkokujin or kunibito(Người trong nước,local masters).In other words,sengoku daimyodiffered fromshugo daimyoin thatsengoku daimyowas able to rule the region on his own, without being appointed by the shogun.[61]

In 1492,Hosokawa Masamoto,thekanrei(Quản lãnh),second in rank to the shogun in the Ashikaga shogunate, and the equivalent ofShikken(Chấp 権)in the Kamakura shogunate, staged a coup, banished the 10th shogun,Ashikaga Yoshitane,from Kyoto, and installedAshikaga Yoshizumias the 11th shogun, making the shogun a puppet of theHosokawa clan.[66]Hosokawa Takakuni,who came to power later, installedAshikaga Yoshiharuas the 12th shogun in 1521.[67]In 1549,Miyoshi Nagayoshibanished the 12th shogun and his son Ashikaga Yoshiteru from Kyoto and seized power. From this point on, the Miyoshi clan continued to hold power in and around Kyoto untilOda Nobunagaentered Kyoto in 1568.[68]

Ashikaga Yoshiteru,famous as a great swordsman[69]

By the time of the 13th shogun,Ashikaga Yoshiteru,the shogun already had few direct fiefs and direct military forces, and his sphere of influence was limited to a few lands around Kyoto, losing both economic and military power. As a result, Ashikaga Yoshiteru was often chased out of Kyoto by thesengoku daimyoMiyoshi Nagayoshiand his forces, and was finally killed in an attack by the forces ofMiyoshi YoshitsuguandMatsunaga Hisahide.Ashikaga Yoshiteru was known as a great swordsman and was a student ofTsukahara Bokuden,who was known as one of the strongest swordsmen.[69]According toYagyū Munenori,a swordsmanship instructor in the Tokugawa Shogunate, Ashikaga Yoshiteru was one of the five best swordsmen of his time. According to several historical books, includingLuís Fróis'Historia de Japam,he fought hard withnaginataandtachiduring a raid, defeating many of his enemies, but eventually ran out of strength and was killed.[70]

Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603)

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Further information:Azuchi–Momoyama period,Oda Nobunaga,andToyotomi Hideyoshi

The Azuchi-Momoyama period refers to the period whenOda NobunagaandToyotomi Hideyoshiwere in power.[71]They andTokugawa Ieyasuare the three unifiers of Japan.[72]The name "Azuchi-Momoyama" comes from the fact that Nobunaga's castle,Azuchi Castle,was located inAzuchi, Shiga,andFushimi Castle,where Hideyoshi lived after his retirement, was located in Momoyama.[71]Although the two leaders of the warrior class during this period were not given the title ofsei-i taishōgun(Chinh di đại tướng quân,shogun),Oda Nobunaga was given a title almost equal to it, and Toyotomi Hideyoshi a higher one.[7][73]

Oda Nobunagawas the first of the three unifiers of Japan.[72]

This era began when Oda Nobunaga expelledAshikaga Yoshiakifrom Kyoto and destroyed the Ashikaga shogunate. Adopting an innovative military strategy usingtanegashima(Hạt giống đảo,matchlockgun)and an economic policy that encouraged economic activity by the common people, he rapidly expanded his power, defeating a series ofsengoku daimyoand armed Buddhist temple forces to unify the central part of Japan.[74]

Nobunaga was given the title ofudaijin(Hữu đại thần,Minister of the Right),an official position as the number three in the imperial court since ancient times, and the title ofukon'e no taishō(Hữu cận vệ đại tướng,Major Captain of the Right Division of Inner Palace Guards),which meant leader of the warrior class. This title was a highly prestigious title given to the leader of the warrior class, similar to the titlesei-i taishōgun(Chinh di đại tướng quân,shogun).This was the first time sinceMinamoto no Sanetomoin 1218 that a member of the warrior class had been appointedudaijin.Previously, the only warrior class members appointed to higher positions thanudaijinwereTaira no KiyomoriandAshikaga Yoshimitsuasdaijō-daijin(Quá chính đại thần,Chancellor of the Realm),andAshikaga YoshinoriandAshikaga Yoshimasaassadaijin(Tả đại thần,Minister of the Left).[75][73][76]Nobunaga was betrayed by his vassalAkechi Mitsuhide,who died in theHonnō-ji incident.It is believed that about a month before his death, Nobunaga was approached by the imperial court to accept one of the following positions:kampaku(Quan bạch,Imperial Regent),daijō-daijin,or shogun.[77][78][9][10]As a result, he was posthumously promoted todaijō-daijinin 1582.[10]

Toyotomi Hideyoshibecame the leader of the warrior class and earned the highest title of the aristocratic class, but he did not hold the title of shogun, the highest title of the warrior class.[6][7]

Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a general under Nobunaga, conqueredShikoku,Kyushu,Kantō,and theTohokuafter Nobunaga's death, completing Nobunaga's attempt to unify Japan.[79]Despite his peasant background, he rose through the ranks under Nobunaga, becomingashigaru(Đủ khinh,infantry),samurai,sengoku daimyo,and finally, after Nobunaga's death,kampakuanddaijō-daijin.It was the first time in history that a non-aristocrat by birth became akampaku.He obtained these titles, the highest ranks of the aristocracy, by being adopted into theKonoe familyand formally becoming an aristocrat. He then passed the position and title ofkampakuto his nephew,Toyotomi Hidetsugu.He remained in power astaikō(Quá hợp),the title of retiredkampaku,until his death. There are various theories as to why he refused or failed to receive the title of shogun, but the fact that he came from a peasant background seems to have had something to do with it. Hideyoshi died of illness at Fushimi Castle at the age of 63.[6][7][80]

Before his death, Hideyoshi ordered that Japan be ruled by a council of the five most powerfulsengoku daimyo,go-tairō(Năm đại lão,Council of Five Elders),and Hideyoshi's five retainers,go-bugyō(Năm thừa hành,Five Commissioners),until his only heir, the five-year-oldToyotomi Hideyori,reached the age of 16.[80]However, having only the young Hideyori as Hideyoshi's successor weakened the Toyotomi regime. Today, the loss of all of Hideyoshi's adult heirs is considered the main reason for the downfall of the Toyotomi clan.[81][82][83] Hideyoshi's younger brother,Toyotomi Hidenaga,who had supported Hideyoshi's rise to power as a leader and strategist, had already died of illness in 1591, and his nephew, Toyotomi Hidetsugu, who was Hideyoshi's only adult successor, was forced to commit seppuku in 1595 along with many other vassals on Hideyoshi's orders for suspected rebellion.[81][82][83]

In this politically unstable situation,Maeda Toshiie,one of thego-tairō,died of illness, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, one of thego-tairō'who had been second in power to Hideyoshi but had not participated in theImjin War,rose to power, and Ieyasu came into conflict withIshida Mitsunari,one of thego-bukyōand others. This conflict eventually led to theBattle of Sekigahara,in which thetō-gun(Đông quân,eastern army)led by Ieyasu defeated thesei-gun(Tây quân,western army)led by Mitsunari, and Ieyasu nearly gained control of Japan.[80]

Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868)

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Further information:Edo periodandTokugawa shogunate
Tokugawa Ieyasu,founder of theTokugawa shogunate

Ruled by 15 Tokugawa shoguns, theEdo period(1603–1868) saw dramatic economic and cultural development, fostered by a relatively peaceful society.Edo(nowTokyo) became the largest city in the world at the time,GenrokuandKasei culturesflourished, andchōnin(Đinh người,townspeople)enjoyed a variety of cultural activities such asukiyo-e,kabuki,bunraku,rakugo,kōdan,haiku,and literature.[84][85]

The Edo period began in 1603 whenTokugawa Ieyasuwas given the title ofsei-i taishōgun(Chinh di đại tướng quân,shogun)and established the Tokugawa shogunate in Edo (now Tokyo).[86]Ieyasu set a precedent in 1605 when he retired as shogun in favour of his sonTokugawa Hidetada,though he maintained power from behind the scenes asŌgosho(Đại ngự sở,cloistered shogun).[87]

In order to establish the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate, he exchanged the fiefdoms of various daimyo to increase or decrease their areas of control. Thefudai daimyo(Phổ đại đại danh)who had sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu before the Battle of Sekigahara were reassigned to various locations between Edo, the base of the Tokugawa shogunate, andOsaka,where Toyotomi Hideyoshi'sconcubine,Yodo-dono,and his son, Toyotomi Hideyori, were located. On the other hand, he reassigned thetozama daimyo(Ngoại dạng đại danh)who had submitted to Tokugawa Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara, to remote areas separated from politically important regions. Then, in 1614 and 1615, he twice attackedOsaka Castle,forcing Yodo-dono and Toyotomi Hideyori to commit suicide and destroying theToyotomi clan(Siege of Osaka), thereby eliminating any resistance that might have stood in the way of Tokugawa rule in Japan and consolidating the power of the Tokugawa shogunate.[86]

In 1615, the Tokugawa shogunate enacted theKinchu narabini kuge shohatto(Cấm trung cũng nhà nước chư pháp luật,Laws for the Imperial and Court Officials)to control the imperial court. The first article implied that the emperor should not be involved in politics and that what he did should be academic. The following articles regulated the appointment of thesesshō(Nhiếp chính,Imperial Regent for Minor Emperors)andkampaku(Quan bạch,Imperial Regent for Adult Emperors),as well as detailed regulations on the dress of the emperor and the court nobles. It also stipulated that the shogunate could intervene in the revision of theera name,which had originally been the prerogative of the imperial court. It also stipulated that nobles could be exiled if they disobeyed the orders of the shogunate.[88]During the Edo period, effective power rested with the Tokugawa shogun, not the Emperor inKyoto,even though the former ostensibly owed his position to the latter. The shogun controlled foreign policy, the military, and feudal patronage. The role of the Emperor was ceremonial, similar to the position of theJapanese monarchyafter theSecond World War.[89]

In 1617, a month before his death, Ieyasu was appointeddaijō-daijin(Quá chính đại thần,Chancellor of the Realm).[90]

The fifth shogun,Tokugawa Tsunayoshi,enforced an animal protection law called theShōrui awaremi no rei(Sinh loại liên み の lệnh)from 1685 to 1709. According to earlier theories, this was a bad law that demanded extreme animal protection and severe punishment for violators. Today, however, the law is seen as less extreme and more protective of human life, and is credited with sweeping away the rough and tumble spirit of the people that had persisted since the Sengoku period and improving the sense of ethics among the Japanese people.[91][92]

Tokugawa Yoshimune

In the early Edo period, Japan was the world's largest producer of gold and silver, but by the second half of the 17th century, these resources had been almost completely depleted, and most of the gold and silver produced was shipped out of the country, leaving the shogunate in financial difficulties. The eighth shogun,Tokugawa Yoshimune,implemented a series of reforms known as theKyōhō Reforms.He reduced the shogunate's expenses while increasing revenue by requiring feudal lords to contribute rice to the shogunate in exchange for cutting the length ofsankin-kōtai(Tham cần công đạo)in half. He increased the revenue of the shogunate by 20% by encouraging the development of new rice fields. He also encouraged the cultivation of cash crops such assweet potatoesandsugar cane,which allowed agriculture to flourish and increased tax revenues. He issued new money with a reduced gold content to prevent price increases. He learned from theGreat Fire of Meireki,which killed 100,000 people, and built extensive roads and firebreaks around the city. He established ameyasubako(Mục an rương,complaints box)to receive petitions from the common people, which led to the formation of a firefighting organization by the townspeople and the establishment of aKoishikawa Yojosho(Koishikawa Hospital) where the common people could receive medical care.[93]

Tanuma Okitsugu, who held the position ofrōjū(Lão trung,Elder),during the reign ofTokugawa Ieharu,the 10th shogun, adopted a policy of mercantilism. Since the Kyōhō Reforms of Tokugawa Yoshimune had already made it impossible to collect more taxes from the peasants, Okitsugu began collecting taxes in exchange for granting exclusive business rights to thekabunakama(Cây trọng gian,merchant guilds).To stimulate commerce, he also attempted to unify the monetary system by minting a large number of new coins that could be conveniently used in both eastern Japan, where gold coins were widely used, and western Japan, where silver coins were widely used, and distributing them throughout Japan.[94]

Tokugawa Ienari,the 11th shogun, ruled the shogunate for 54 years, first as shogun from 1787 to 1837 and then asŌgoshofrom 1837 to 1841. His 50-year reign was the longest of any shogun. Prior to his reign, Japan had suffered major earthquakes, several volcanic eruptions, droughts, floods and urban fires, and the finances of the shogunate were strained. Therefore, during Ienari's reign, from 1787 to 1793,Matsudaira Sadanobuled theKansei Reformsto improve the finances of the shogunate. After Ienari's death, from 1841 to 1843,Mizuno Tadakuniled theTenpo Reforms,but the effects of these reforms were limited.[85]

Successive shoguns held the highest or near-highestcourt ranks,higher than most court nobles. They were madeShō ni-i(Chính nhị vị,Senior Second Rank)of court rank upon assuming office, thenJu ichi-i(従 một vị,Junior First Rank),and the highest rank ofShō ichi-i(Chính một vị,Senior First Rank)was conferred upon them upon their death. The Tokugawa shogunate established that the court ranks granted to daimyo by the imperial court were based on the recommendation of the Tokugawa shogunate, and the court ranks were used to control the daimyo.[95]

The Bakumatsu era and the end of the shogunate and the warrior class

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Further information:Bakumatsu
Tokugawa Yoshinobu,the last shogun

The beginning of theBakumatsu eraat the end of the Edo period is the subject of various theories, and can be dated to the 1820s and 1830s, when the shogunate's rule became unstable, or to theTenpō Reformsof 1841–1843, or toMatthew C. Perry's arrival in Japan in 1853 and his call for the opening of the country. On the other hand, the end point is clear, when the 15th Shogun,Tokugawa Yoshinobu,returned the authority to govern Japan toEmperor Meiji.[96]

During this period, the shogunate, the imperial court, the varioushan(Phiên,daimyo domains),and the samurai were deeply divided into two factions: the Nanki faction(Nam kỷ phái),which favored the shogunate's leadership in dealing with domestic and foreign crises, and the Hitotsubashi faction(Một kiều phái),which recommended that the shogunate form a coalition with the powerfulhan(daimyo domain) and the imperial court. The Nanki faction favoredTokugawa Iemochias the successor to the 13th shogun,Tokugawa Iesada,while the Hitotsubashi favoredTokugawa Yoshinobu.When the shogunate concluded theConvention of Kanagawain 1854 and theTreaty of Amity and Commercein 1858, the Hitotsubashi faction opposed these treaties, but the shogunate captured and executed them in theAnsei Purge.In retaliation, Hitotsubashi samurai assassinatedIi Naosuke,thetairō(Đại lão,Great Elder)in theSakuradamon Incident.To win over the Hitotsubashi faction, the shogunate advocated aKōbu gattai(Công võ hợp thể,Union of the Imperial Court and the Shogunate)and welcomedKazunomiya,the younger sister ofEmperor Komei,as the wife of the 14th shogun, Tokugawa Iemochi, but the Hitotsubashi faction condemned this political marriage.[96][97]

TheChōshū Domainwas the most radical, advocating the overthrow of the shogunate, emperor-centered politics, and the defeat of foreign powers. They expanded their political power through exchanges withSanjo Sanetomiand others in the imperial court who shared their ideology. In response, theSatsumaandAizu domainsand some aristocrats who supported theKōbu gattaiexpelled Sanjo Sanetomi and the Chōshū Domain from Kyoto in a political uprising on August 18 of the lunar calendar in 1863. In 1864, some forces of the Chōshū Domain marched toward Kyoto in theKinmon incident,but the combined forces of the shogunate, the Satsuma Domain, and the Aizu Domain defeated the Chōshū Domain. In 1864, the Shogunate sent a large force against the rebellious Chōshū Domain in theFirst Chōshū expedition.The Shogunate won the war without a fight, as the leaders of the Chōshū Domain committedseppuku.Meanwhile, the Chōshū Domain was defeated by foreign allied forces in theShimonoseki campaign,and the Satsuma Domain engaged the British forces in theBombardment of Kagoshima.Both domains realized that Japan was militarily behind the Western powers, and they promoted reforms within their domains while strengthening their will to overthrow the shogunate.[96][97]

In 1866,Sakamoto Ryōmabrokered a dramatic reconciliation between the previously hostile Chōshū and Satsuma domains, and the Chōshū and Satsuma domains formed theSatchō Alliance.In 1866, the shogunate launched theSecond Chōshū expedition,but was defeated by the Chōshū Domain, severely damaging the shogunate's prestige. The Satsuma Domain refused the shogunate's order to go to war. In 1867, the 15th shogun,Tokugawa Yoshinobu,finally returned power toEmperor Meiji,ending the Edo period and 700 years of shogunate rule over Japan.[96][97][98]

From 1868 to 1869, the imperial forces, led by the Chōshū and Satsuma domains, and the former shogunate forces, led by the Aizu Domain, fought theBoshin War,which the imperial forces won. With this war, the domestic pacification of the imperial forces was nearly complete, and with theMeiji Restoration,Japan began to rapidly modernize and emerge as an international military and economic power. The rapid modernization of Japan during theMeiji era(1868–1912) was aided by the fact that, under the rule of successive Tokugawa shoguns, many Japanese were educated interakoya(Chùa tử phòng,private elementary schools)and had a thriving publishing culture.[97][99]

TheSatsuma Rebellionof 1877 was the last battle between the imperial forces and the disenfranchised ex-samurai and the last civil war in Japan. As a result of this war, the warrior class ended its history.[100]

The Honjō Masamune was inherited by successive shoguns and it represented the Tokugawa shogunate.[101]It was crafted by swordsmithMasamune(1264–1343) and recognized as one of the finestJapanese swordsin history. After World War 2, in December 1945,Tokugawa Iemasagave the sword to a police station atMejiroand it went missing.[102][103]

Heirs of the Tokugawa shogun

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Further information:Ōoku,Gosanke,andGosankyō
Ukiyo-edepicting women in theōoku(Đại áo,great interior)enjoying thecherry blossoms

During the reign of the third shogun,Tokugawa Iemitsu,theōoku(Đại áo,great interior)atEdo Castlewas expanded at the suggestion of his nanny,Lady Kasuga,to ensure the birth of a male heir to the shogun's lineage, and became a vast shogun's harem with nearly 1,000 women working as maidservants. The women ofōokuwere highly hierarchical, with the official wife(Ngự đài sở,midaidokoro)of the shogun, who was of aristocratic lineage, ruling at the top, and the older women who had served her for a long time actually controllingōoku.The women who worked as maidservants inōokuwere daughters of thehatamoto(Kỳ bổn),a high-ranking class of samurai, and they had servants from thechōnin(Đinh người,townspeople)and peasants who worked for them. Even low-ranking servants were treated as concubines of the shogun if they bore his children. One such example was Otama, the daughter of a grocer, who gave birth to the fifth shogun,Tokugawa Ietsuna.Theōokuwas also used to ensure the Tokugawa shogun's rule over the country by arranging political marriages between the shogun's children and the children of daimyo in various regions. Theōokucontinued until 1868, when the Tokugawa shogunate was dissolved.[104][105][106]

TheOwari,Kishū (Kii),andMitoTokugawa families, called thegosanke(Ngự tam gia,the Three Houses of the Tokugawa),founded by the children of Tokugawa Ieyasu, were the second most prestigious family after the shogun's family, and if the shogun's family failed to produce an heir, a male member of one of the three families was installed as shogun. For example, the 8th shogun,Tokugawa Yoshimune,and the 14th shogun,Tokugawa Iemochi,were originally heads of the Kishū Tokugawa family.[107]

In order to keep the shogun's lineage alive, the 8th Shogun, Yoshimune, had his children establish the Tayasu, Hitotsubashi, and Shimizu Tokugawa families, which were called thegosankyō(Ngự tam khanh,Three Lords)and were treated as the second most prestigious daimyo after theGosanke.Of these, the Hitotsubashi Tokugawa family produced the 11th shogun,Tokugawa Ienari.His sonTokugawa Ieyoshibecame the 12th shogun, and Ieyoshi's sonTokugawa Iesadabecame the 13th shogun.Tokugawa Yoshinobubecame the 15th shogun after being adopted by the Hitotsubashi Tokugawa family from the Mito Tokugawa family.[107]The head ofGosankyōhad the privilege of entering theōoku,where men were forbidden.[105]

Timelines

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Timeline of the Kamakura shogunate

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Prince MorikuniPrince HisaakiPrince KoreyasuPrince MunetakaKujō YoritsuguKujō YoritsuneMinamoto no SanetomoMinamoto no YoriieMinamoto no Yoritomo

Timeline of the Ashikaga shogunate

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Ashikaga YoshiakiAshikaga YoshihideAshikaga YoshiteruAshikaga YoshiharuAshikaga YoshitaneAshikaga YoshizumiAshikaga YoshitaneAshikaga YoshihisaAshikaga YoshimasaAshikaga YoshikatsuAshikaga YoshinoriAshikaga YoshikazuAshikaga YoshimochiAshikaga YoshimitsuAshikaga YoshiakiraAshikaga Takauji

Timeline of the Tokugawa shogunate

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Tokugawa YoshinobuTokugawa IemochiTokugawa IesadaTokugawa IeyoshiTokugawa IenariTokugawa IeharuTokugawa IeshigeTokugawa YoshimuneTokugawa IetsuguTokugawa IenobuTokugawa TsunayoshiTokugawa IetsunaTokugawa IemitsuTokugawa HidetadaTokugawa Ieyasu

Shogunate

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The shogun hearing a lawsuit at theFukiageofEdo Castle,byToyohara Chikanobu

The termbakufu(Mạc phủ,"tent government" )originally meant the dwelling and household of a shogun, but in time, became ametonymfor the system of government dominated by a feudalmilitarymonarchy,exercised in the name of the shogun or by the shogun himself.[108][109]Therefore, variousbakufuheld absolute power over the country (territory ruled at that time) with limited interruptions between 1192 and 1867, glossing over actual power, clan and title transfers.

The shogunate system was originally established under theKamakura shogunatebyMinamoto no Yoritomoafter theGenpei War,although theoretically the state, and therefore the Emperor, still heldde jureownership of all land in Japan. The system had somefeudalelements, with lesser territorial lords pledging their allegiance to greater ones.Samuraiwere rewarded for their loyalty with agricultural surplus, usually rice, or labor services frompeasants.In contrast to European feudalknights,samurai were not landowners.[110]The hierarchy that held this system of government together was reinforced by close ties of loyalty between thedaimyō,samurai, and their subordinates.

Each shogunate was dynamic, not static. Power was constantly shifting and authority was often ambiguous. The study of the ebbs and flows in this complex history continues to occupy the attention of scholars. Each shogunate encountered competition. Sources of competition included the Emperor and the court aristocracy, the remnants of the imperial governmental systems, thedaimyōs,theshōensystem, the great temples and shrines, thesōhei,theshugoandjitō,thejizamuraiand early moderndaimyō.Each shogunate reflected the necessity of new ways of balancing the changing requirements of central and regional authorities.[111]

Relationship with the emperor

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Main article:Emperor of Japan
TheImperial Seal of Japan

SinceMinamoto no Yoritomoturned the figure of the shogun into a permanent and hereditary position and until theMeiji Restoration,there were two ruling classes in Japan:

  • The emperor ortennō(Thiên hoàng,lit. "Heavenly Sovereign" ),[112]who acted as "chief priest" of the official religion of the country,Shinto.
  • The shogun, head of the army who also enjoyed civil, military, diplomatic and judicial authority.[113]Although in theory the shogun was an emperor's servant, it became the true power behind the throne.[114]

No shogun tried to usurp the throne, even when they had at their disposal the military power of the territory. There were two reasons primarily:[115]

  • Theoretically the shogun received the power of the emperor, so this was his symbol of authority.
  • There was a sentimentalist tradition created by priests and religious who traced the imperial line from the "age of the gods" into an "eternal line unbroken by the times". According to Japanese mythology, the emperor was a direct descendant ofAmaterasu,goddess of thesun.

Unable to usurp the throne, the shoguns sought throughout history to keep the emperor away from the country's political activity, relegating them from the sphere of influence. One of the few powers that the imperial house could retain was that of being able to "control time" through the designation of the JapaneseNengōor Eras and the issuance of calendars.[116]

Emperors twice tried to recover the power they enjoyed before the establishment of the shogunate. In 1219 theEmperor Go-Tobaaccused the Hōjō as outlaws. Imperial troops mobilized, leading to theJōkyū War(1219–1221), which would culminate in the thirdBattle of Uji (1221).During this, the imperial troops were defeated and the emperor Go-Toba was exiled.[117]With the defeat of Go-Toba, the samurai government over the country was confirmed.[117]At the beginning of the fourteenth century theEmperor Go-Daigodecided to rebel, but the Hōjō, who were then regents, sent an army from Kamakura. The emperor fled before the troops arrived and took the imperial insignia.[118]The shogun named his own emperor, giving rise to the eraNanboku-chō period(Nam Bắc triều,lit. "Southern and Northern Courts" ).

During the 1850s and 1860s, the shogunate was severely pressured both abroad and by foreign powers. It was then that various groups angry with the shogunate for the concessions made to the various European countries found in the figure of the emperor an ally through which they could expel theTokugawa shogunatefrom power. The motto of this movement wasSonnō jōi(Tôn hoàng nhương di,"Revere the Emperor, Eject the Barbarians" )and they finally succeeded in 1868, when imperial power was restored after centuries of being in the shadow of the country's political life.[119]

Legacy

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Today, the head of theJapanese governmentis thePrime Minister.The usage of the term "shogun" has nevertheless continued incolloquialisms.A retired Prime Minister who still wields considerable power and influence behind the scenes is called a "shadow shogun"(Ám tướng quân,yami shōgun),[120]a sort of modern incarnation of thecloistered rule.Examples of "shadow shoguns" are former Prime MinisterKakuei Tanakaand the politicianIchirō Ozawa.[121]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Wells, John(3 April 2008).Longman Pronunciation Dictionary(3rd ed.). Pearson Longman.ISBN978-1-4058-8118-0.
  2. ^abcThe Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary,ISBN0-8048-0408-7
  3. ^Spafford, D. "Emperor and Shogun, Pope and King: The Development of Japan's Warrior Aristocracy." Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts, Vol. 88, No. 1/4, (2014), pp. 10-19.
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  16. ^Turnbull, 2006a:207.
  17. ^Friday, 2007:108.
  18. ^Hall, 1991:241.
  19. ^Adolphson, 2007:341.
  20. ^There is no consensus among the various sources on this list, since some authors consider Tajihi no Agatamori to be the original shogun, whereas others regard Ōtomo no Otomaro or even Sakanoue no Tamuramaro as being the first, and still others avoid the problem entirely by starting from the first Kamakura shogun only.
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  24. ^Sansom, 1931:201.
  25. ^abTakekoshi, 2004:96.
  26. ^Caiger, 1997:339.
  27. ^Shively, 1999:xviii.
  28. ^abcDe Baryet al.,2001:266.
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  31. ^Adolphsonet al,2007:334.
  32. ^Turnbull, 2005:16.
  33. ^abcDeal, 2007:100–101.
  34. ^Perkins, 1998b:292.
  35. ^abVarley, 1994:243.
  36. ^abPerkins, 1998b:295.
  37. ^abcMurdoch, 1996:791.
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Bibliography

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  • Adolphson, Mikael; Edward Kamens, Stacie Matsumoto (2007).Heian Japan: Centers and Peripheries.University of Hawaii Press.ISBN0-8248-3013-X.
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  • Grossberg, Kenneth A. (1976). "From Feudal Chieftain to Secular Monarch. The Development of Shogunal Power in Early Muromachi Japan".Monumenta Nipponica.31(1): 34.doi:10.2307/2384184.ISSN0027-0741.
  • Roth, Andrew (15 March 2007).Dilemma in Japan.Roth Press.ISBN978-1-4067-6311-9.
  • Fiévé, Nicolas; Waley, Paul (2003).Japanese Capitals in Historical Perspective: Place, Power and Memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo.Routledge.ISBN0-4154-0581-5.
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Further reading

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  • Media related toShogunsat Wikimedia Commons
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