Wikipedia

Sol de Mañana

Sol de Mañanais an area withgeothermal manifestationsin southern Bolivia, includingfumaroles,hot springs and mud pools. It lies at about 4,900 metres (16,100 ft) elevation, south ofLaguna Coloradaand east ofEl Tatiogeothermal field. The field is located within theEduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserveand is an important tourism attraction on the road betweenUyuniandAntofagasta.The field has been prospected as a possible geothermal power production site, with research beginning in the 1970s and after a pause recommencing in 2010. Development is ongoing as of 2023.

Sol de Mañana
Highest point
Coordinates22°25′35″S67°45′35″W/ 22.42639°S 67.75972°W/-22.42639; -67.75972[1]
Geography
Sol de Mañana is located in Bolivia
Sol de Mañana
Sol de Mañana

Description

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Sol de Mañana lies in theSan Pablo de Lipezmunicipality (Sud Lipez Province),[2]in a remote and uninhabited region of Bolivia.[3]In an area of 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi)[4]there are steam vents,mud pools,hot springs,geysersandfumaroles.[5][4]Apart from Sol de Mañana proper there are additional geothermal manifestations dispersed a few kilometres south-southwest[6]at Apacheta[7]and 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from Sol de Mañana;[4]north-northwest at Huayllajara;[7]The first two featurehydrothermallyaltered rocks[6]and sometimes they are considered to be separate geothermal fields.[8]

Steam/water emissions can under exceptional circumstances reach heights of 200 metres (660 ft). Gas vents releasesulfur-containing gases.[9]The temperatures of the springs reach 30 °C (86 °F) and the fumaroles 70 °C (158 °F),[1]hot enough to be visible from space inASTERimages.Seismic swarmsand earthquakes have been recorded in the field.[10]Sol de Mañana lies at about 4,900 metres (16,100 ft) elevation,[11]making it among the highest geothermal fields in the world.[12]

The nearest major communities areQuetena GrandeandQuetena Chicoin Bolivia, 75 kilometres (47 mi) northeast from Sol de Mañana,[13]and the field can be accessed through unpaved roads fromUyuni,[14]340 kilometres (210 mi) away.[15]30 kilometres (19 mi)[16]across the frontier, in Chile, liesEl Tatio,the best-known geothermal manifestation in the Central Andes.[17]There are numerous volcanoes in the area, includingTocorpuriwest-southwest andPutanaandEscalantesouthwest of Sol de Mañana,[7]and thePastos GrandesandCerro Guachacalderasystems.[4]The field lies 40 kilometres (25 mi)[18]-20 kilometres (12 mi) south ofLaguna Colorada,[19]which can be reached from Sol de Mañana.[19]There are mines at Cerro Aguita Blanca, a few kilometres south of Sol de Mañana, and at Cerro Apacheta about five kilometres west-southwest;[6]the latter can be reached through another road from Sol de Mañana.[20]

Panorama of the Sol de Mañana mudpools

Geology

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Off the western coast of South America, theNazca Platesubductsbeneath the South American Plate.[21]The subduction is responsible for the volcanism of the Andes.[19]The growth of theAltiplanohigh plateaucommenced 25 million years ago before shifting eastward 12-6 million years ago.[6]

The AndeanCentral Volcanic Zoneis one of four belts of volcanoes in the Andes.[21]Volcanic activity began 23 million years ago and involved the emplacement of a series ofignimbrites,which form one of the largest ignimbrite plateaus of the world. Numerous youngerstratovolcanoesgrew on top of the ignimbrites; there are about 150 separate volcanic centres. The Altiplano volcanoes form theAltiplano-Puna volcanic complex,which is underpinned by theAltiplano-Puna Magma Body[a].[6]The dry climate leads to an exceptional preservation of the volcaniclandforms.[21]About 50 volcanoes in the Central Andes (Bolivia, northern Chile, northern Argentina) were active during theHolocene.[22]

Local

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The landscape of Sol de Mañana

Sol de Mañana is part of theLaguna Coloradageothermal area[9]/caldera complex[23](the names are sometimes used interchangeably).[11]The area featuresMiocene-Pleistocenevolcanic rocks (daciteforming ignimbrites[b],lavasandtuffs) emplaced on top ofCenozoicmarine sediments.Alluvialdeposits andmorainesoccur in the area. There are various north-south and northwest–southeast trending tectoniclineamentsin the region,[6]associated with rock deformation.[25]At Sol de Mañana there are a number offaults,[6]includingnormal faultsactive during theHolocene,[7]which constitute pathways for the ascent of hot water.[25]The most important faults at the field trend north-northwest-south-southeast.[20]Glacialerosion has taken place in the area during the past,[26]which has leftmoraineseast and north-northwest of Sol de Mañana.[20]

Drill coreshave identified several rock units under Sol de Mañana, including several layers of dacitic ignimbrites with ages of about 5-1.2 million years andandesiticlavas. Hydrothermal alteration has taken place throughout the layers, forming from top to bottom layers richclays,silicaandepidote;each of these layers is several hundred metres thick.Basementrocks were not encountered. Thisstratigraphyis similar to that atEl Tatio,across the border in Chile.[27]The geothermal heat reservoir appears to be located within the ignimbrites and andesites.[28]

The heat may originate either in the Altiplano-Puna Magma Body or in thevolcanic arc.[29]It is transported upward throughconvection,forming two heat reservoirs underground that are capped by aclaylayer.[30]Precipitationwater reaches the reservoirs through deepfaults,which also allow heat circulation.[31]Drilling has shown that the reservoirs have temperatures of about 250–260 °C (482–500 °F).[19]The Sol de Mañana geothermal system may be physically connected to El Tatio,[32]with Sol de Mañana being closer to the heat source and Tatio an outflow at lower elevation.[33]

Climate and ecosystem

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There is aweather stationon Sol de Mañana.[34]Mean annual precipitation is about 75 millimetres (3.0 in) and mean temperatures are about 8.9 °C (48.0 °F).[13]The geothermal field is part of theEduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve[18]and one of the main tourism attractions on the Uyuni-Antofagastaroad.[14]

Geothermal power generation

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The1973 oil crisiscreated the impetus for increased investigation of Bolivia'sgeothermal powerresources, focusing on theAltiplanoand the surrounding Andean ranges. Prospecting by theNational Electricity Companyand the state agency for geology identifiedSajama,Salar de EmpexaandLaguna Coloradaas the most suitable areas for geothermal power generation.[9]A geothermal project began in 1978 and numerousdrilling operationswere undertaken in the following years; however development ceased in 1993 as the legal and political circumstances were unfavourable. A renewed effort began in 2010, spearheaded by theJapan International Cooperation Agency,during which additional cores were drilled, but as of 2023is still at its early stages[35]and as of 2016is only used asprocess heatfor theSan Cristobal mine.[14]An electrical power potential of about 50–100 megawatts (67,000–134,000 hp) has been estimated.[19]

Laguna Colorada/Sol de Mañana are the main focus of geothermal power prospecting in Bolivia; other sites have drawn scarce interest.[3]As of 2016Bolivia did not have any legislation specific for geothermal power generation.[36]Geothermal power development is also hindered by the remote location, which would require building largepower transmissionnetworks, and the low price of electricity in the country.[14]

Notes

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  1. ^The Altiplano-Puna Magmatic Body is an accumulation ofmagmain thecrustof theAltiplano.[6]
  2. ^Including the Tara Ignimbrite from asupereruptionofCerro Guacha.[24]

References

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  1. ^abUSGS 1992,p. 267.
  2. ^Communication Ministry 2020.
  3. ^abBona & Coviello 2016,p. 35.
  4. ^abcdDe Silva & Francis 1991,p. 170.
  5. ^Damir 2014,p. 156.
  6. ^abcdefghPereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,p. 4.
  7. ^abcdDe Silva & Francis 1991,p. 171.
  8. ^Sullcani 2015,p. 668.
  9. ^abcPereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,p. 1.
  10. ^Pritchard et al. 2014,p. 98.
  11. ^abPereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,p. 2.
  12. ^Müller et al. 2022,p. 3.
  13. ^abSuaznabar, Quiroga & Villarreal 2019,p. 2.
  14. ^abcdBona & Coviello 2016,p. 38.
  15. ^Delgadillo & Puente 1998,p. 257.
  16. ^Fernandez-Turiel et al. 2005,p. 127.
  17. ^Pereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,p. 8.
  18. ^abMinistry of Hydrocarbons and Energies 2022,p. 183.
  19. ^abcdeSullcani 2015,p. 666.
  20. ^abcSullcani 2015,p. 667.
  21. ^abcPereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,p. 3.
  22. ^Pritchard et al. 2014,p. 90.
  23. ^Fernandez-Turiel et al. 2005,p. 128.
  24. ^Ort 2009,p. 1.
  25. ^abPereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,p. 5.
  26. ^Delgadillo & Puente 1998,p. 258.
  27. ^Pereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,pp. 5–6.
  28. ^Pereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,p. 19.
  29. ^Pereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,p. 15.
  30. ^Pereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,p. 17.
  31. ^Pereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,p. 18.
  32. ^Cortecci et al. 2005,p. 568.
  33. ^De Silva & Francis 1991,p. 172.
  34. ^Lagos et al. 2023,p. 5.
  35. ^Pereyra Quiroga et al. 2023,pp. 1–2.
  36. ^Bona & Coviello 2016,p. 36.

Sources

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