Spain,[f]formally theKingdom of Spain,[a][g]is a country in southwesternEuropewith territories inNorth Africa.[11][h]It is the largest country inSouthern Europeand the fourth-most populousEuropean Unionmember state. Spanning across the majority of theIberian Peninsula,its territory also includes theCanary Islandsin the Atlantic Ocean, theBalearic Islandsin the Mediterranean Sea, and theautonomous citiesofCeutaandMelillain Africa.Peninsular Spainis bordered to the north byFrance,Andorra,and theBay of Biscay;to the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea andGibraltar;and to the west byPortugaland the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's capital andlargest cityisMadrid,and other majorurban areasincludeBarcelona,Valencia,andZaragoza.
Kingdom of Spain | |
|---|---|
| Motto:Plus ultra(Latin) (English: "Further Beyond" ) | |
| Anthem:Marcha Real(Spanish)[1] (English: "Royal March" ) | |
  Location of Spain (dark green) – inEurope(green & dark grey) | |
| Capital and largest city | Madrid 40°26′N3°42′W/ 40.433°N 3.700°W |
| Official language | Spanish[b][c] |
| Nationality(2024)[3] |
|
| Religion (2023)[4] |
|
| Demonym(s) |
|
| Government | Unitaryparliamentary constitutional monarchy |
| Felipe VI | |
| Pedro Sánchez | |
| Francina Armengol | |
| Pedro Rollán | |
| Legislature | Cortes Generales |
| Senate | |
| Congress of Deputies | |
| Formation | |
| 20 January 1479 | |
| 14 March 1516 | |
| 9 June 1715 | |
| 19 March 1812 | |
| 29 December 1978 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 505,990[5]km2(195,360 sq mi) (51st) |
• Water (%) | 0.89[6] |
| Population | |
• 2024 estimate |  48,797,875[7](31st) |
• Density | 96/km2(248.6/sq mi) (121th) |
| GDP(PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $2.665 trillion[8](15th) |
• Per capita | $55,089[8](36th) |
| GDP(nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $1.731 trillion[8](15th) |
• Per capita | $35,788[8](32nd) |
| Gini(2023) |  31.5[9]medium inequality |
| HDI(2022) | 0.911[10] very high(27th) |
| Currency | Euro[d](€) (EUR) |
| Time zone | UTC±0 to +1(WETandCET) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+1 to +2(WESTandCEST) |
| Note: most of Spain observes CET/CEST, except theCanary Islandswhich observe WET/WEST. | |
| Calling code | +34 |
| ISO 3166 code | ES |
| Internet TLD | .es[e] |
In early antiquity, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited byCelts,Iberians,and otherpre-Roman peoples.With theRoman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula,the province ofHispaniawas established. Following theRomanizationandChristianizationof Hispania, thefall of the Western Roman Empireushered in theinward migrationof tribes from Central Europe, including theVisigoths,who formed theVisigothic Kingdomcentred onToledo.In the early eighth century, most of the peninsula wasinvaded by the Umayyad Caliphate,and during early Islamic rule,Al-Andalusbecame a dominant peninsular power centred onCórdoba.Several Christian kingdoms emerged in Northern Iberia, chief among themAsturias,León,Castile,Aragon,Navarre,andPortugal;made an intermittent southward military expansion and repopulation, known as theReconquista,repelling Islamic rule in Iberia, which culminated with the Christian seizure of theNasrid Kingdom of Granadain 1492. The dynastic union of theCrown of Castileand theCrown of Aragonin 1479 under theCatholic Monarchsis often considered thede factounification of Spain as anation-state.
During theAge of Discovery,Spain pioneered theexplorationof theNew World,made thefirst circumnavigation of the globeand formed one of thelargest empires in history.[12]TheSpanish empirereached a global scale and spread across all continents, underpinning the rise of a global trading system fueled primarily byprecious metals.In the 18th century, theBourbon reformscentralized mainland Spain.[13]In the 19th century, after the Napoleonic occupation and the victoriousSpanish War of independence,the following political divisions betweenliberalsandabsolutistsled to thebreakawayof most of theAmerican colonies.These political divisions finally converged in the 20th century with theSpanish Civil War,giving rise to theFrancoist dictatorshipthat lasted until 1975. With the restoration of democracy and its entry into the European Union, the country experienced aneconomic boomthat profoundly transformed it socially and politically. Since theSiglo de Oro,Spanish art,architecture,music,poetry,painting,literature,andcuisinehave been influential worldwide, particularly inWestern Europeand theAmericas.As a reflection of its largecultural wealth,Spain is the world'ssecond-most visited country,has one of the world's largest numbers ofWorld Heritage Sites,and it is the most popular destination forEuropeanstudents.[14]Its cultural influence extends to over 600 millionHispanophones,makingSpanishthe world'ssecond-most spoken native languageand the world's most widely spokenRomance language.[15]
Spain is a secularparliamentary democracyand aconstitutional monarchy,[16]with KingFelipe VIashead of state.Adeveloped country,it is a major advanced capitalist economy,[17]with the world's fifteenth-largest by bothnominal GDPandPPP.Spain is a member of theUnited Nations,the European Union, theeurozone,North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO), a permanent guest of theG20,and is part of many other international organizations such as theCouncil of Europe(CoE), theOrganization of Ibero-American States(OEI), theUnion for the Mediterranean,theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD), theOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe(OSCE), and theWorld Trade Organization(WTO).
Etymology
The name of Spain (España) comes fromHispania,the name used by the Romans for theIberian Peninsulaand its provinces during theRoman Empire.The etymological origin of the term Hispania is uncertain, although the Phoenicians referred to the region asSpania(meaning "Land ofrabbits"), therefore, the most accepted theory is thePhoenicianone.[18]There have been a number of accounts and hypotheses about its origin:
Jesús Luis Cunchillosargued that the root of the termspanis thePhoenicianwordspy,meaning "toforge metals".Therefore,i-spn-yawould mean "the land where metals are forged".[19]It may be a derivation of the PhoenicianI-Shpania,meaning "island of rabbits", "land of rabbits" or "edge", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign ofHadrianshow a female figure with a rabbit at her feet,[20]andStrabocalled it the "land of the rabbits".[21]The word in question actually means "Hyrax",possibly due to the Phoenicians confusing the two animals.[22]
There is also the claim that "Hispania" derives from theBasquewordEzpanna,meaning "edge" or "border", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent.[23]
History
Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples
Archaeological research atAtapuercaindicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated byhominids1.3 million years ago.[24]
Modern humans first arrived in Iberia from the north on foot about 35,000 years ago.[25][failed verification]The best-known artefacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the paintings in theAltamira caveof Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500BCEbyCro-Magnon.[26][27]Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of thelast ice age.
The two largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were theIberiansand theCelts.The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula. The Celts inhabited much of the interior and Atlantic sides of the peninsula.Basquesoccupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas; Phoenician-influencedTartessiansflourished in the southwest; andLusitaniansandVettonesoccupied areas in the central west. Several cities were founded along the coast byPhoenicians,and trading outposts and colonies were established byGreeksin the East. Eventually, Phoenician-Carthaginiansexpanded inland towards the meseta; however, due to the bellicose inland tribes, the Carthaginians settled on the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula.
Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom
During theSecond Punic War,roughly between 210 and 205 BCE, the expandingRoman Republiccaptured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete theconquest of the Iberian Peninsula,they retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and theRoman road.[28]
The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were graduallyRomanised(Latinised) at different rates depending on what part of the peninsula they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman aristocratic class.[i][29]
Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold,wool,olive oil,and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. EmperorsHadrian,Trajan,Theodosius I,and the philosopherSenecawere born in Hispania.[j]Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE, and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century.[29]Most of Spain's present languages and religions, as well as the basis of its laws, originate from this period.[28]Starting in 170 CE, incursions of North-AfricanMauriin the province ofBaeticatook place.[30]
TheGermanicSuebiandVandals,together with theSarmatianAlans,entered the peninsula after 409, weakening the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction over Hispania. The Suebi established a kingdom in north-western Iberia, whereas the Vandals established themselves in the south of the peninsula by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in 429. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified; the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and assimilation into the evolving Roman culture.
TheByzantinesestablished an occidental province,Spania,in the south, with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited underVisigothic rule.
Muslim era andReconquista
From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of theUmayyad Caliphatewhich hadconquered North Africafrom theByzantine Empire,nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslims from across the Strait of Gibraltar, resulting in the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north of the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during the initial invasion. TheKingdom of Asturias-Leónconsolidated upon this territory. Other Christian kingdoms, such asNavarreandAragonin the mountainous north, eventually surged upon the consolidation of counties of the CarolingianMarca Hispanica.[31]For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian-controlled areas of the peninsula was along theEbroandDourovalleys.
Conversion toIslamproceeded at an increasing pace. Themuladíes(Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.[32][33]
A series ofVikingincursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in the 9th and 10th centuries.[34]The first recorded Viking raid on Iberia took place in 844; it ended in failure with many Vikings killed by the Galicians'ballistas;and seventy of the Vikings' longships captured on the beach and burned by the troops of KingRamiro I of Asturias.
In the 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed, fracturing into a series of petty kingdoms (Taifas),[35]often subject to the payment of a form ofprotection money(Parias) to the Northern Christian kingdoms, which otherwise undertook a southward territorial expansion. The capture of the strategic city ofToledoin 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms.[citation needed]The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of theAlmoravidsand theAlmohadsachieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled territory, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and partially reversed some Christian territorial gains.
TheKingdom of Leónwas the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188, the first form (restricted to the bishops, the magnates, and 'the elected citizens of each city') of modern parliamentary session in Europe was held inLeón(Cortes of León).[36]TheKingdom of Castile,formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited fromfeudalism.
Muslim strongholds in theGuadalquivir Valleysuch as Córdoba (1236) andSeville(1248) fell to Castile in the 13th century. TheCounty of Barcelonaand theKingdom of Aragonentered in a dynastic union and gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229,Majorcawas conquered, so wasValenciain 1238. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-AfricanMarinidsestablished some enclaves around the Strait of Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of theGranada War,theNasrid Sultanate of Granada(the remaining Muslim-ruled polity in the Iberian Peninsula after 1246) capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of theCatholic Monarchs,and it was integrated from then on in the Crown of Castile.[37]
Spanish Empire
In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I and Ferdinand II, respectively. In 1492, Jews were forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion;[38]as many as 200,000 Jews wereexpelled from Castile and Aragon.The year 1492 also marked the arrival ofChristopher Columbusin theNew World,during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas. TheTreaty of Granadaguaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims,[39]for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527 in Aragon, leading the remaining Muslim population to become nominally ChristianMoriscos.About four decades after theWar of the Alpujarras(1568–1571), over 300,000moriscoswere expelled,settling primarily in North Africa.[40]
The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and language.[41][42]
Habsburg Spainwas one of the leading world powers throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leadingmaritime power.It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles V/I(1516–1556) andPhilip II(1556–1598). This period saw theItalian Wars,theSchmalkaldic War,theDutch Revolt,theWar of the Portuguese Succession,clashes with theOttomans,intervention in theFrench Wars of Religionand theAnglo-Spanish War.[43]
Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, theSpanish Empireexpanded across vast areas in the Americas, the Indo-Pacific, Africa as well as the European continent (including holdings in the Italian Peninsula, theLow Countriesand theFranche-Comté). The so-calledAge of Discoveryfeatured explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of newtrade routesacross oceans, conquests and the beginnings of Europeancolonialism.Precious metals,spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe.[44]The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as theSpanish Golden Age.The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations. The rise ofhumanism,theCounter-Reformationand new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as theSchool of Salamanca,which developed the first modern theories of what are now known asinternational lawand human rights.
Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over theOttoman Empireat theBattle of Lepantoin 1571 and over Portugal at theBattle of Ponta Delgadain 1582, and then after the setback of theSpanish Armadain 1588, in a series of victories againstEnglandin theAnglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604.However, during the middle decades of the 17th century Spain's maritime power went into a long decline with mounting defeats against theDutch Republic(Battle of the Downs) and then England in theAnglo-Spanish War of 1654–1660;by the 1660s it was struggling to defend its overseas possessions from pirates and privateers.
TheProtestant Reformationincreased Spain's involvement in religiously charged wars, forcing ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.[45]By the middle decades of a war- andplague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of theHoly Roman Empirereverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise theseparation of Portugaland the United Provinces (Dutch Republic), and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wideThirty Years' War.[46]In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.
18th century
The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. TheWar of the Spanish Successionwas a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as a leading European power.[47]
During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, theBourbons,was installed. The Crowns of Castile and Aragon had been long united only by the Monarchy and the common institution of the Inquisition'sHoly Office.[48]A number of reform policies (the so-calledBourbon Reforms) were pursued by the Monarchy with the overarching goal of centralized authority and administrative uniformity.[49]They included the abolishment of many of the old regional privileges and laws,[50]as well as the customs barrier between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717, followed by the introduction of new property taxes in the Aragonese kingdoms.[51]
The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The predominant economic policy was an interventionist one, and the State also pursued policies aiming towards infrastructure development as well as the abolition of internal customs and the reduction of export tariffs.[52]Projects of agricultural colonisation with new settlements took place in the south of mainland Spain.[53]Enlightenmentideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy.
Liberalism and nation state
In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary newFrench Republicas a member ofthe first Coalition.The subsequentWar of the Pyreneespolarised the country in a reaction against thegallicisedelites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at thePeace of Baselin which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island ofHispaniola.In 1807, a secret treaty betweenNapoleonand the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated and a puppet kingdom satellite to the French Empire was installed withJoseph Bonaparteas king.
The2 May 1808 revoltwas one of many uprisings across the country against the French occupation.[54]These revolts marked the beginning of a devastatingwar of independenceagainst the Napoleonic regime.[55]Further military action by Spanish armies,guerrillawarfare and an Anglo-Portuguese allied army, combined withNapoleon's failure on the Russian front,led to the retreat of French imperial armies from the Iberian Peninsula in 1814, and the return ofKing Ferdinand VII.[56]
During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, theCortes of Cádiz,was assembled to coordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution.[57]It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire.[58]In 1812, aconstitutionfor universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, the Spanish king dismissed the Cortes Generales, set on ruling as anabsolute monarch.
The French occupation of Mainland Spain created an opportunity for overseascriolloelites who resented the privilege towardsPeninsular elitesand demandedretroversion of the sovereignty to the people.Starting in 1809 the American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to theSpanish American wars of independencethat put an end to the metropole's grip over theSpanish Main.Attempts to re-assert controlproved futile with opposition not only in the colonies but also in the Iberian peninsula and army revolts followed. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held wereCubaandPuerto Rico. The Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s,Carlism(a reactionary legitimist movement supportive of an alternative Bourbon branch), fought against the government forces supportive of QueenIsabella II's dynastic rights in theCarlist Wars.Government forces prevailed, but the conflict betweenprogressivesandmoderatesended in a weak early constitutional period. The 1868Glorious Revolutionwas followed by the 1868–1874 progressiveSexenio Democrático(including the short-livedFirst Spanish Republic), which yielded to a stable monarchic period, theRestoration(1875–1931).[59]
In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 theCuban War of Independenceand thePhilippine Revolutionbroke out and eventually the United States became involved. TheSpanish–American Warwas fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa.El Desastre(the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to theGeneration of '98. Although the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace. Spain played a minor part in thescramble for Africa.It remained neutralduring World War I.The heavy losses suffered by the colonial troops in conflicts in northern Morocco against Riffians forces brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.
Industrialisation, the development of railways and incipient capitalism developed in several areas of the country, particularly inBarcelona,as well aslabour movementand socialist and anarchist ideas. The1870 Barcelona Workers' Congressand the1888 Barcelona Universal Expositionare good examples of this. In 1879, theSpanish Socialist Workers' Partywas founded. A trade union linked to this party,Unión General de Trabajadores,was founded in 1888. In the anarcho-syndicalist trend of the labour movement in Spain,Confederación Nacional del Trabajowas founded in 1910 andFederación Anarquista Ibéricain 1927.
Catalanism and Vasquism, alongside other nationalisms and regionalisms in Spain, arose in that period: theBasque Nationalist Partyformed in 1895 andRegionalist League of Cataloniain 1901.
Political corruption and repression weakened the democratic system of the constitutional monarchy of a two-parties system.[60]The July 1909Tragic Weekevents and repression exemplified the social instability of the time.
TheLa Canadiense strikein 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to eight hours.[61]
After a period of Crown-supported dictatorship from 1923 to 1931, the first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy, took place: the12 April 1931 municipal elections.These gave a resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in rural areas. The king left the country and the proclamation of the Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government.
Aconstitutionfor the country was passed in October 1931 following theJune 1931 Constituent general election,and a series of cabinets presided byManuel Azañasupported by republican parties and thePSOEfollowed. In the election held in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936, the left. During theSecond Republicthere was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalization of the left and the right. Instances of political violence during this period included the burning of churches, the1932 failed coup d'état led by José Sanjurjo,theRevolution of 1934and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On the other hand, it is also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernize the country were initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralization andwomen's right to vote.
Civil War and Francoist dictatorship
The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the militarycarried out a coup d'étatthat triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into two zones: oneunder the authority of the Republican government,that counted on outside support from theSoviet UnionandMexico(and fromInternational Brigades), and the other controlled by the putschists (theNationalist or rebel faction), most critically supported byNazi GermanyandFascist Italy.The Republic was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy ofnon-intervention.GeneralFrancisco Francowas sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936. An uneasy relationship between the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partialsocial revolutionalso ensued.
The civil war was viciously fought and there weremany atrocities committed by all sides.Thewarclaimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country.[62][63]On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning ofWorld War II,the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands were imprisoned after the civil war inFrancoist concentration camps.
The regime remained nominally"neutral"for much of the Second World War, although it wassympathetictothe Axisand provided the NaziWehrmachtwithSpanish volunteers in the Eastern Front.The only legal party under Franco's dictatorship was theFalange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS(FET y de las JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the FascistFalange Española de las JONSand the Carlist traditionalists and to which the rest of right-wing groups supporting the rebels also added. The name of "Movimiento Nacional",sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper, largely imposed over the later's name in official documents along the 1950s.
After the war Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during theCold Warperiod, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. US Cold War strategic priorities included the dissemination of American educational ideas to foster modernization and expansion.[64]In the 1960s, Spain registered anunprecedented rate of economic growthwhich was propelled byindustrialisation,a mass internal migration from rural areas toMadrid,Barcelonaand theBasque Countryand the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterised byauthoritarianism,promotion of a unitary national identity,National Catholicism,anddiscriminatory language policies.
Restoration of democracy
In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in exile met in the congress of theEuropean Movementin Munich, where they made a resolution in favour of democracy.[65][66][67]
With Franco's death in November 1975,Juan Carlossucceeded to the position ofKing of Spainandhead of statein accordance with the Francoist law. With the approval of the newSpanish Constitution of 1978and therestoration of democracy,the Statedevolvedmuch authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based onautonomous communities.TheSpanish 1977 Amnesty Lawlet people of Franco's regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during transition to democracy like theMassacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoriaor1977 Massacre of Atocha.
In the Basque Country, moderateBasque nationalismcoexisted with aradical nationalist movementled by the armed organisationETAuntil the latter's dissolution in May 2018.[68]The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but had continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.
On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to imposea military-backed government.King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.[69]
During the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, likeLa Movida Madrileña.In May 1982 Spain joinedNATO,followed bya referendumafter a strong social opposition. That year theSpanish Socialist Workers Party(PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined theEuropean Economic Community,which later became theEuropean Union.The PSOE was replaced in government by thePartido Popular(PP) in 1996 after scandals around participation of the government ofFelipe Gonzálezin theDirty war against ETA.
On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted theeuro,and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well-publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.[70]
In 2002, thePrestige oil spilloccurred with big ecological consequences along Spain's Atlantic coastline. In 2003José María Aznarsupported US presidentGeorge W. Bushin theIraq War,and a strong movement against war rose in Spanish society. In March 2004 a localIslamistterrorist group inspired byAl-Qaedacarried out the largest terrorist attack in Western European history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others bybombing commuter trainsin Madrid.[71]Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist groupETA,evidence of Islamist involvement soon emerged. Because of the proximity of the2004 Spanish general election,the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident.[72]The PSOE won the election, led byJosé Luis Rodríguez Zapatero.[73]
In the early 2000s, the proportion ofSpain's foreign born populationincreased rapidly during its economic boom but then declined due to the financial crisis.[74]In 2005, the Spanish government legalisedsame sex marriage,becoming the third country worldwide to do so.[75]Decentralisation was supported with much resistance of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like quotas or the law against gender violence. Government talks with ETA happened, and the group announced its permanent cease of violence in 2010.[76]
The bursting of theSpanish property bubblein 2008 led to the2008–16 Spanish financial crisis.High levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and corruption inRoyal familyandPeople's Partyserved as a backdrop to the2011–12 Spanish protests.[77]Catalan independentismalso rose. In 2011,Mariano Rajoy's conservativePeople's Partywon the election with 44.6% of votes.[78]As prime minister, he implemented austerity measures for EU bailout, the EU Stability and Growth Pact.[79]On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who becameFelipe VI.[80]
In October 2017 aCatalan independence referendumwas held and theCatalan parliamentvoted to unilaterally declareindependence from Spainto form a Catalan Republic[81][82]on the day theSpanish Senatewas discussing approving direct rule over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister.[83][84]On the same day the Senate granted the power to impose direct rule and Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament and called a new election.[85]No country recognised Catalonia as a separate state.[86]
In June 2018, theCongress of Deputiespassed amotion of no-confidence against Rajoyand replaced him with the PSOE leaderPedro Sánchez.[87]In 2019, the first ever coalicion government in Spain was formed, between PSOE and Unidas Podemos. Between 2018 and 2024, Spain faced aninstitutional crisissurrounding the mandate of theGeneral Council of the Judiciary(CGPJ), until finally the mandate got renovated.[88]In January 2020, theCOVID-19virus was confirmed to havespread to Spain,causing life expectancy to drop by more than a year.[89]The European Commission economic recovery packageNext Generation EUwere created to support the EU member states to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic, and will be in use in the period 2021-2026. In March 2021, Spain became the sixth nation in the world to makeactive euthanasia legal.[90]Following thegeneral election on 23 July 2023,Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez once again formed a coalition government, this time withSumar(successors ofUnidas Podemos).[91] In 2024, the first non-independentist catalan regional president in over a decade,Salvador Illa,was elected, normalizing the constitutional and institutional relations between the national and the regional administrations. According to latest polls,[92]only 17.3% of catalans feel themselves as "only catalan". 46% of catalans would answer "as spanish as catalan", while 21.8% "more catalan than spanish".[93]Accordind to a 2024 poll of Univeristy of Barcelona, over 50% of catalans would vote against independence, while less than 40% would vote in favour.[94]
Geography
At 505,992 km2(195,365 sq mi), Spain is the world'sfifty-first largest countryandEurope's fourth largest country.It is some 47,000 km2(18,000 sq mi) smaller than France. At 3,715 m (12,188 ft), MountTeide(Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base. Spain is atranscontinental country,having territory in bothEuropeandAfrica.
Spain lies between latitudes27°and44° N,and longitudes19° Wand5° E.
On the west, Spain is bordered byPortugal;on the south, it is bordered byGibraltarandMorocco,through itsexclavesin North Africa (CeutaandMelilla,and the peninsula ofde Vélez de la Gomera). On the northeast, along thePyreneesmountain range, it is bordered byFranceandAndorra.Along the Pyrenees inGirona,a small exclave town calledLlíviais surrounded by France.
Extending to 1,214 km (754 mi), thePortugal–Spain borderis thelongest uninterrupted borderwithin theEuropean Union.[95]
Islands
Spain also includes theBalearic Islandsin theMediterranean Sea,theCanary Islandsin the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of theStrait of Gibraltar,known asplazas de soberanía( "places of sovereignty", or territories under Spanish sovereignty), such as theChafarinas IslandsandAlhucemas.The peninsula ofde Vélez de la Gomerais also regarded as aplaza de soberanía.The isle ofAlborán,located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality ofAlmería,Andalusia. The littlePheasant Islandin the RiverBidasoais a Spanish-Frenchcondominium.
There are 11 major islands in Spain, all of them having their own governing bodies (Cabildos insularesin the Canaries,Consells insularsin Baleares). These islands are specifically mentioned by the Spanish Constitution, when fi xing its Senatorial representation (Ibiza and Formentera are grouped, as they together form thePityusic islands,part of the Balearic archipelago). These islands includeTenerife,Gran Canaria,Lanzarote,Fuerteventura,La Palma,La GomeraandEl Hierroin the Canarian archipelago andMallorca,Ibiza,MenorcaandFormenterain the Balearic archipelago.
Mountains and rivers
Mainland Spain is a rathermountainouslandmass, dominated by highplateausand mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are theCordillera Cantábrica(Cantabrian Range),Sistema Ibérico(Iberian System),Sistema Central(Central System),Montes de Toledo,Sierra Morenaand theSistema Bético(Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478-metre-high (11,411-foot)Mulhacén,located inSierra Nevada,is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is theTeide,a 3,718-metre (12,198 ft) activevolcanoin the Canary Islands. TheMeseta Central(often translated as 'Inner Plateau') is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain split in two by the Sistema Central.
There are several majorrivers in Spainsuch as theTagus(Tajo),Ebro,Guadiana,Douro(Duero),Guadalquivir,Júcar,Segura,TuriaandMinho(Miño).Alluvial plainsare found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir inAndalusia.
Climate
Three main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation andorographicconditions:[96]
- TheMediterranean climateis characterised by warm/hot and dry summers and is the predominant climate in the country. It has two varieties:CsaandCsbaccording to theKöppen climate classification.
- TheCsazone is associated with areas with hot summers. It is predominant in the Southern Mediterranean (except southeastern) and Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughoutAndalusia,Extremadura and much of the centre of the country. Some areas of Csa, mainly those inland, such as some areas of Extremadura, Castilla-La-Mancha, Madrid and even parts of Andalusia, have cool winters with some continental influences, while the regions with a Mediterranean climate close to the sea have mild winters.
- TheCsbzone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends to additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. westernCastile–León,northeasternCastilla-La Manchaand northernMadrid) and into much rainier areas (notablyGalicia).
- Thesemi-arid climate(BSk,BSh) is predominant in the southeastern quarter of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain. It covers most of theRegion of Murcia,southern and central-easternValencia,eastern Andalusia, various areas of Castilla-la-Mancha, Madrid and some areas of Extremadura. Further to the north, it is predominant in the upper and mid reaches of theEbrovalley, which crosses southernNavarre,central Aragon and western Catalonia. It is also found in a small area in northern Andalusia and in a small area in central Castilla-León. Precipitation is limited with dry season extending beyond the summer and average temperature depends on altitude and latitude.
- Theoceanic climate(Cfb) is located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the Atlantic region (Basque Country,Cantabria,Asturias,and partly Galicia and Castile–León). It is also found in northern Navarre, in most highlands areas along theIberian Systemand in thePyreneanvalleys, where a humid subtropical variant (Cfa) also occurs. Winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.
Apart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like thealpine climatein areas with very high altitude, thehumid subtropical climatein areas of northeastern Spain and thecontinental climates(Dfc,Dfb/Dsc,Dsb) in thePyreneesas well as parts of theCantabrian Range,theCentral System,Sierra Nevadaand theIberian System,and a typicaldesert climate(BWk,BWh) in the zone ofAlmería,Murciaand easternCanary Islands.Low-lying areas of the Canary Islands average above 18.0 °C (64.4 °F) during their coolest month, thus having influences oftropical climate,although they cannot properly be classified as tropical climates, as according to AEMET, their aridity is high, thus belonging to an arid or semi-arid climate.[97]
Climate change
Spain is one of the countries that is most affected by the climate crisis in Europe. Spain could see 2 °C (3.6 °F) warming compared to pre-industrial levels in the next twenty years, in the worst-case scenario Spain will reach 4 °C (7.2 °F) warming by the end of the century. Due to declining rainfall Spain's droughts which are already one of the worst in Europe will be ten times worse compared to 2023. TheWHOestimated that 4,000 people died in 2022 due to heat related stress in Spain.[98]74% of the country is at risk of desertification.[99]
Spain's per capita emissions was 4.92 tonnes in 2021, around 1.5 tonnes lower than the EU average. Spain was in 2021 responsible for 0.87% of cumulative global emissions. Spain committed to reduce 23% of emissions compared to 1990 levels in 2030 and to be net zero in 2050.[100]
Fauna and flora
Thefaunapresents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa andEurasia,and the great diversity of habitats andbiotopes,the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.
The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the terrain, the climate andlatitude.Spain includes differentphytogeographicregions, each with its own floral characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, andbioticfactors. The country had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th globally out of 172 countries.[101]
Within the European territory, Spain has the largest number of plant species (7,600 vascular plants) of all European countries.[102]
In Spain there are 17.804 billion trees and an average of 284 million more grow each year.[103]
Politics
The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. In June 1976, Spain's new KingJuan CarlosdismissedCarlos Arias Navarroand appointed the reformerAdolfo Suárezas Prime Minister.[104][105]The resultinggeneral election in 1977convened theConstituent Cortes(the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978.[106]After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution. As a result, Spain successfully transitioned from aone-party personalist dictatorshipto amultipartyparliamentary democracycomposed of 17autonomous communitiesand twoautonomous cities.These regions enjoy varying degrees of autonomy thanks to the Spanish Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation.
Governance
The Crown
The independence of the Crown, its political neutrality and its wish to embrace and reconcile the different ideological standpoints enable it to contribute to the stability of our political system, facilitating a balance with the other constitutional and territorial bodies, promoting the orderly functioning of the State and providing a channel for cohesion among Spaniards.[107]
King Felipe VI,2014
TheSpanish Constitutionprovides for aseparation of powersbetween fivebranches of government,which it refers to as "basic State institutions".[k][108][109]Foremost amongst these institutions is the Crown (La Corona), the symbol of the Spanish state and its permanence.[110]Spain's "parliamentary monarchy" is aconstitutionalone whereby the reigningking or queenis theliving embodimentof the Crown and thushead of state.[l][111][110][112]Unlike in some other constitutional monarchies however, namely the likes ofBelgium,Denmark,Luxembourg,The Netherlands,Norway,or indeed theUnited Kingdom,the monarch is not the fount ofnational sovereigntyor even thenominalchief executive.[113][114][115][116][117][118]Rather, the Crown, as an institution, "...arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions..." of the Spanish state.[110]As such, the monarchresolves disputesbetween the disparate branches, mediatesconstitutional crises,and preventsabuses of power.[119][120][121][122]
In these respects, the Crown constitutes a fifthmoderating branchthat does not makepublic policyor administerpublic services,functions which rightfully rest with Spain's duly elected legislatures and governments at both the national and regional level. Instead, the Crown personifies the democratic Spanish state, sanctions legitimate authority, ensures the legality of means, and guarantees the execution of the public will.[123][124]Put another way, the monarch fosters national unity at home, represents Spaniards abroad (especially with regard tonations of their historical community), facilitates the orderly operation and continuity of theSpanish government,defendsrepresentative democracy,and upholds therule of law.[109]In other words, the Crown is the guardian of the Spanish constitution and of the rights and freedoms of all Spaniards.[125][m]This stabilising role is in keeping with the monarch'ssolemn oathuponaccession"...to faithfully carry out [my] duties, to obey the Constitution and the laws and ensure that they are obeyed, and to respect the rights of citizens and the Self-governing Communities."[127]
A number of constitutional powers, duties, rights, responsibilities, and functions are assigned to the monarch in his or her capacity as head of state. However, the Crown enjoysinviolabilityin the performance of theseprerogativesandcannot be prosecutedin the very courts which administer justice in its name.[128]For this reason, every official act done by the monarch requires thecountersignatureof theprime ministeror, when appropriate, thepresident of the Congress of Deputiesto have the force of law. The countersigning procedure orrefrendoin turn transfers political and legal liability for the royal prerogative to the attesting parties.[129]This provision does not apply to theRoyal Household,over which the monarch enjoys absolute control and supervision, or to membership in theOrder of the Golden Fleece,which is adynastic orderin the personal gift of theHouse of Bourbon-Anjou.[130]
The royal prerogatives may be classified by whether they are ministerial acts or reserve powers. Ministerial acts are those royal prerogatives that are, pursuant to theconventionestablished byJuan Carlos I,performed by the monarch after soliciting theadviceof the Government, the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, the General Council of the Judiciary, or the Constitutional Tribunal, as the case may be. On the other hand, thereserve powersof the Crown are those royal prerogatives that are exercised in the monarch's personal discretion.[125]Most of the Crown's royal prerogatives are ministerial in practice, meaning the monarch has no discretion in their execution and primarily performs them as a matter of state ceremonial.[p]Nevertheless, when performing said ministerial acts, the monarch has the right to be consulted before acting on advice, the right to encourage a particular course of action, and the right to warn the responsible constitutional authorities.
The aforesaid limitations do not apply to the Crown's reserve powers, which may be invoked by the monarch whennecessaryto maintain the continuity and stability of state institutions.[150]For example, the monarch has the right to be kept informed on affairs of state through regularaudienceswith the Government. For this purpose, the monarch may preside at any time over meetings of the Council of Ministers, but only when requested by the prime minister.[151]Moreover, the monarch may prematurely dissolve the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, or both houses of the Cortes in their entirety before the expiration of their four-year term and, in consequence thereof, concurrently call forsnap elections.The monarch exercises this prerogative on the request of the prime minister, after the matter has been discussed by the Council of Ministers. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse the request.[152]The monarch may also order national referendums on the request of the prime minister, but only with the prior authorization of the Cortes Generales. Again, the monarch may choose to accept or refuse the prime minister's request.[153]
The Crown's reserve powers further extend intoconstitutional interpretationand theadministration of justice.The monarch appoints the 20 members of theGeneral Council of the Judiciary.Of these counselors, twelve are nominated by the supreme, appellate and trial courts, four are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, and four are nominated by the Senate with the same majority. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination.[154]In a similar vein, the monarch appoints the twelve magistrates of theConstitutional Tribunal.Of these magistrates, four magistrates are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, four magistrates are nominated by the Senate with the same majority, two magistrates are nominated by the Government, and two magistrates are nominated by the General Council of the Judiciary. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination.[155]
However, it is the monarch's reserve powers concerningGovernment formationthat are perhaps the most frequently exercised. The monarch nominates a candidate forprime ministerand, as the case may be, appoints or removes him or her from office based on the prime minister's ability to maintain theconfidenceof theCongress of Deputies.[156]If the Congress of Deputies fails to give its confidence to a new Government within two months, and is thus incapable of governing as a result of parliamentary gridlock, the monarch may dissolve the Cortes Generales and call for fresh elections. The monarch makes use of these reserve powers in his own deliberative judgment after consulting the president of the Congress of Deputies.[157]
Cortes Generales
Legislative authorityvests in theCortes Generales(English:Spanish Parliament,lit. 'General Courts'), a democratically electedbicameral parliamentthat serves as the supreme representative body of the Spanish people. Aside from the Crown, it is the only basic State institution that enjoys inviolability.[158]It comprises theCongress of Deputies(Congreso de los Diputados), alower housewith 350 deputies, and theSenate(Senado), anupper housewith 259 senators.[159][160]Deputies are elected bypopular voteonclosed listsviaproportional representationto serve four-year terms.[161]On the other hand, 208 senators are directly elected by popular vote using alimited votingmethod, with the remaining 51 senators appointed by theregional legislaturesto also serve four-year terms.[162]
Government
Executive authorityrests with theGovernment(Gobierno de España), which iscollectively responsibleto the Congress of Deputies.[163][164]It consists of theprime minister,one or moredeputy prime ministers,and the variousministers of state.[165]These characters together constitute theCouncil of Ministerswhich, as Spain'scentral executive authority,conducts the business of the Government and administers thecivil service.[166]The Government remains in office so long as it can maintain theconfidenceof the Congress of Deputies.
The prime minister, ashead of government,enjoys primacy over the other ministers by virtue of his or her ability toadvisethe monarch as to their appointment and dismissal.[167]Moreover, the prime minister has plenary authority conferred by the Spanish Constitution to direct and coordinate the Government's policies and administrative actions.[168]The Spanish monarchnominatesthe prime minister after consulting representatives from the different parliamentary groups and in turn formally appoints him or her to office upon a vote of investiture in the Congress of Deputies.[169]
Administrative divisions
Autonomous communities
Spain's autonomous communities are the first level administrative divisions of the country. They were created after the current constitution came into effect (in 1978) in recognition of the right to self-government of the "nationalitiesand regions of Spain".[170]The autonomous communities were to comprise adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economic traits. This territorial organisation, based ondevolution,is known in Spain as the "State of Autonomies" (Estado de las Autonomías). The basic institutional law of each autonomous community is theStatute of Autonomy.The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical and contemporary identity, the limits of its territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution.[171]This ongoing process of devolution means that, while officially aunitary state,Spain is nevertheless one of the mostdecentralisedcountries in Europe, along withfederationslikeBelgium,Germany,andSwitzerland.[172]
Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves asnationalities,were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also identified itself as a nationality in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance with their historical and modern identities, such as the Valencian Community,[173]the Canary Islands,[174]the Balearic Islands,[175]and Aragon.[176]
The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own elected parliaments and governments as well as their own dedicatedpublic administrations.The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. For instance, only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy based on ancientforalprovisions. Nevertheless, each autonomous community is responsible for healthcare and education, among other public services.[177]Beyond these competencies, thenationalities—Andalusia,theBasque Country,Catalonia,andGalicia—were also devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, theCanary Islands,Catalonia, andNavarreeach have autonomous police corps of their own:Ertzaintza,Policía Canaria,Mossos d'Esquadra,andPolicía Foralrespectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like thePolicía Autónoma AndaluzainAndalusiaorBESCAMin Madrid.[178]
Provinces and municipalities
Autonomous communities are divided intoprovinces,which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are divided intomunicipalities.The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.[179]
The current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the1833 territorial divisionbyJavier de Burgos,and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that comprise a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In these cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.
Foreign relations
After the return of democracy following the death ofFrancoin 1975, Spain'sforeign policypriorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of theFranco yearsand expanddiplomatic relations,enter theEuropean Community,and define security relations with the West.
As a member ofNATOsince 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.[vague]
Spain has maintained its special relations withHispanic Americaand thePhilippines.Its policy emphasises the concept of anIbero-Americancommunity, essentially the renewal of the concept of"Hispanidad"or"Hispanismo",as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture. It is fundamentally "based on shared values and the recovery of democracy."[180]
The country is involved in a number ofterritorial disputes.Spain claims Gibraltar,anOverseas Territory of the United Kingdom,in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula.[181][182][183]Another dispute surrounds theSavage Islands;Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, and therefore does not accept the PortugueseExclusive Economic Zone(200 nautical miles) generated by the islands.[184][185]Spain claims sovereignty over thePerejil Island,a small, uninhabited rockyisletlocated in the South shore of theStrait of Gibraltar;it was the subject of an armed incident between Spain and Morocco in 2002. Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta andMelillaand theplazas de soberaníaislets off the northern coast of Africa. Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory ofOlivenza.[186]
Military
TheSpanish Armed Forcesare divided into three branches:Army (Ejército de Tierra);Navy (Armada);andAir and Space Force (Ejército del Aire y del Espacio).[187]
The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Theircommander-in-chiefis the King of Spain,Felipe VI.[188]The next military authorities in line are the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence. The fourth military authority of the State is theChief of the Defence Staff(JEMAD).[189]TheDefence Staff(Estado Mayor de la Defensa) assists the JEMAD as auxiliary body.
The Spanish armed forces are a professional force with a strength in 2017 of 121,900 active personnel and 4,770 reserve personnel. The country also has the 77,000 strongCivil Guardwhich comes under the control of the Ministry of defense in times of a national emergency. The Spanish defense budget is 5.71 billion euros (US$7.2 billion) a 1% increase for 2015. The increase comes because of security concerns in the country.[190]Military conscription was suppressed in 2001.[191]
According to the 2024Global Peace Index,Spain is the 23rd most peaceful country in the world.[192]
Human rights
TheSpanish Constitution of 1978"protect all Spaniards and all the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions".[193]
According toAmnesty International(AI), government investigations of alleged police abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light.[194]Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.[195][196]
Spain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for itsLGBTcommunity. Among the countries studied byPew Research Centerin 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with 88% of those surveyed saying that homosexuality should be accepted.[197]
The Cortes Generales approved theGender Equality Actin 2007 aimed at furtheringequality between gendersin Spanish political and economic life.[198]According toInter-Parliamentary Uniondata as of 1 September 2018, 137 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (39.1%), while in the Senate, there were 101 women out of 266 (39.9%), placing Spain 16th on their list of countries ranked by proportion of women in thelower(orsingle) House.[199]TheGender Empowerment Measureof Spain in the United NationsHuman Development Reportis 0.794, 12th in the world.[200]
Economy
Spain's capitalistmixed economyis the15th largestworldwide and the4th largestin theEuropean Union,as well as theeurozone's 4th largest. The centre-right government of former prime ministerJosé María Aznarworked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999.Unemploymentstood at 11.27% in July 2024.[201]Theyouth unemploymentrate (26.5% in April 2024) is extremely high compared to EU standards.[202]Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include a largeinformal economy,[203][204][205]and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, along with the United States.[206]
Since the 1990s some Spanish companies have gained multinational status, often expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America. Spain is the second biggest foreign investor there, after the United States. Spanish companies have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India.[207]Spanish companies invested in fields likerenewable energy commercialisation(Iberdrolawas the world's largest renewable energy operator[208]), technology companies likeTelefónica,Abengoa,Mondragon Corporation(which is the world's largestworker-owned cooperative),Movistar,Hisdesat,Indra,train manufacturers likeCAF,Talgo,global corporations such as the textile companyInditex,petroleum companies likeRepsolorCepsaand infrastructure, with six of the ten biggest international construction firms specialising in transport being Spanish, likeFerrovial,Acciona,ACS,OHLandFCC.[209]
Theautomotive industry in Spainis one of the largest employers in the country. In 2023, Spain produced 2.45 million cars which makes it the 8th largest automobile producer country in the world and the 2nd largest car manufacturer in Europe afterGermany,[210]a position in the ranking that it was still keeping in 2024.[211]In total, 89% of the vehicles and 60% of the auto-parts manufactured in Spain were exported worldwide in 2023. A total of 2,201,802 made in Spain vehicles were exported in 2023. In 2023, the Spanish automotive industry generated 10% of Spain'sgross domestic productand accounted for 18% of total Spanish exports (including vehicles and auto-parts). External trade surplus of vehicles reached €18.8bn in 2023. The industry generates 9% of total employment, nearly 2 million jobs are linked to this industry.[210]
Tourism
In 2023, Spain was the second most visited country in the world only behindFrance,recording 85 million tourists. The headquarters of theWorld Tourism Organizationare located in Madrid.
Spain's geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure have made the country's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006.[212][213]
Castile and Leonis the Spanish leader inrural tourismlinked to its environmental and architectural heritage.
Energy
In 2010 Spain became thesolar powerworld leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant calledLa Florida,nearAlvarado, Badajoz.[214][215]Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy.[216][217]In 2010 its wind turbines generated 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain.[218][219][220]On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached a historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand[221]and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14nuclear reactors.[222]Other renewable energies used in Spain arehydroelectric,biomassandmarine.[223]
Non-renewable energy sources used in Spain arenuclear(8 operative reactors),gas,coal,andoil.Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.[224]
Science and technology
TheConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas(CSIC) is the leading public agency dedicated to scientific research in the country. It ranked as the 5th top governmental scientific institution worldwide (and 32nd overall) in the 2018 SCImago Institutions Rankings.[225]Spain was ranked 28th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.[226]
Higher education institutions perform about a 60% of the basic research in the country.[227]Likewise, the contribution of the private sector to R&D expenditures is much lower than in other EU and OECD countries.[228]
Transport
The Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to theBasque Country,Catalonia,Valencia,WestAndalusia,Extremadura andGalicia.Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (FerroltoVigo), Cantabrian (OviedotoSan Sebastián) andMediterranean(GironatoCádiz) coasts. Spain aims to put one millionelectric carson the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boostenergy efficiency.[229]The former Minister of IndustryMiguel Sebastiánsaid that "the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution."[230]
As of July 2024[update],the Spanish high-speed rail network is the longest HSR network in Europe with 3,966 km (2,464 mi)[231]and thesecond longest in the world,after China's. It is linkingMálaga,Seville,Madrid,Barcelona,ValenciaandValladolid,with the trains operated at commercial speeds up to 330 km/h (210 mph).[232]On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanesebullet trainand the FrenchTGV.[233]Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.5% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%).[234]
There are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is theairport of Madrid(Barajas), with 60 million passengers in 2023, being theworld's 15th busiest airport,as well as the European Union's third busiest. Theairport of Barcelona(El Prat) is also important, with 50 million passengers in 2023, being the world's 30th-busiest airport. Other main airports are located inMajorca,Málaga,Las Palmas (Gran Canaria),andAlicante.
-
![High-speed AVE Class 103 train near Vinaixa, Madrid-Barcelona line. Spain has the longest high-speed rail network in Europe.[231]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/RENFE_Class_103_Vinaixa.jpg/200px-RENFE_Class_103_Vinaixa.jpg)
High-speedAVE Class 103train nearVinaixa,Madrid-Barcelona line.Spain hasthe longest high-speed rail network in Europe.[231] -
ThePort of Valencia,one of the busiest in theGolden Banana
![High-speed AVE Class 103 train near Vinaixa, Madrid-Barcelona line. Spain has the longest high-speed rail network in Europe.[231]](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ARENFE_Class_103_Vinaixa.jpg&t=vi)
Demographics
In 2024, Spain had a population of 48,797,875 people as recorded by Spain'sInstituto Nacional de Estadística.[235]Spain's population density, at 96/km2(249.2/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain has risen2+1⁄2times since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.[236]
In 2022, the averagetotal fertility rate(TFR) across Spain was 1.16 children born per woman,[237]one of the lowest in the world, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 5.11 children born per woman in 1865.[238]Spain subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 43.1 years.[239]
NativeSpaniardsmake up 86.5% of the total population of Spain. After thebirth rateplunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward initially upon the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), andSub-Saharan Africa(4%).[240]
In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco.[241]Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from severalSub-Saharancountries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern,South Asianand Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Romanians, Britons,Germans,French and others.[242]
Urbanisation
| Rank | Name | Autonomous community | Pop. | Rank | Name | Autonomous community | Pop. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Madrid  Barcelona |
1 | Madrid | Community of Madrid | 3,332,035 | 11 | Bilbao | Basque Country | 346,096 |  Valencia  Seville |
| 2 | Barcelona | Catalonia | 1,660,122 | 12 | Córdoba | Andalusia | 323,763 | ||
| 3 | Valencia | Valencian Community | 807,693 | 13 | Valladolid | Castile and León | 297,459 | ||
| 4 | Seville | Andalusia | 684,025 | 14 | Vigo | Galicia | 293,652 | ||
| 5 | Zaragoza | Aragon | 682,513 | 15 | L'Hospitalet | Catalonia | 274,455 | ||
| 6 | Málaga | Andalusia | 586,384 | 16 | Gijón | Principality of Asturias | 258,313 | ||
| 7 | Murcia | Region of Murcia | 469,177 | 17 | Vitoria-Gasteiz | Basque Country | 255,886 | ||
| 8 | Palma | Balearic Islands | 423,350 | 18 | A Coruña | Galicia | 247,376 | ||
| 9 | Las Palmas | Canary Islands | 378,027 | 19 | Elche | Valencian Community | 238,293 | ||
| 10 | Alicante | Valencian Community | 349,282 | 20 | Granada | Andalusia | 230,595 | ||
Immigration
According to the official Spanish statistics (INE) there were 6.6 million foreign residents in Spain in 2024 (13.5%)[243]while all citizens born outside of Spain were 8.9 million in 2024, 18.31% of the total population.[244]
According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 wereMoroccan,approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 wereEcuadorian.[245]Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian,Bulgarian,and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principallySenegalesesandNigerians.[246]Since 2000, Spain has experienced highpopulation growthas a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.[247]
Within the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms afterCyprus,but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008.[248]The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million.[249]In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people.[250]There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.
Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived.[251]In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, theFinancial Timesreported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.[252]
In 2008, the government instituted a "Plan of Voluntary Return" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security.[253]The programme had little effect.[254]Although the programme failed to, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis from 2010 to 2011, resulted in tens of thousands of immigrants leaving the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain.[255]For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners.[255]
Languages
Spain is a multilingual state.[256]Spanish—featured in the 1978Spanish Constitutionascastellano('Castilian')—has effectively been the official language of the entire country since 1931.[257]As allowed in the third article of the Constitution, the other 'Spanish languages' can also become official in their respectiveautonomous communities.The territoriality created by the form of co-officiality codified in the 1978 Constitution creates an asymmetry, in which Spanish speakers' rights apply to the entire territory whereas vis-à-vis the rest of co-official languages, their speakers' rights only apply in their territories.[258]
Besides Spanish, other territorialized languages includeAragonese,Aranese,Astur-Leonese,Basque,Ceutan Arabic (Darija),Catalan,Galician,Portuguese,ValencianandTamazight,to which theRomani Calóand the sign languages may add up.[259]The number of speakers varies widely and their legal recognition is uneven, with some of the most vulnerable languages lacking any sort of effective protection.[260]Those enjoying recognition as official language in some autonomous communities include Catalan/Valencian (inCataloniaand theBalearic Islandsofficially named as Catalan and in theValencian Communityofficially named asValencian); Galician (inGalicia); Basque (in theBasque Countryand part ofNavarre); and Aranese in Catalonia.
Spanish is natively spoken by 74%, Catalan/Valencian by 17%, Galician by 7% and Basque by 2% of the Spanish population.[261]
Some of the most spoken foreign languages used by the immigrant communities includeMoroccan Arabic,RomanianandEnglish.[262]
Education
State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system is regulated by the 2006 educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental Law for the Education.[263]In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer and controversial LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly calledLey Wert(Wert Law).[264]Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).[265]
The levels of education are preschool education, primary education,[266]secondary education[267]and post-16 education.[268]In regards to the professional development education or the vocational education, there are three levels besides the university degrees: theFormación Profesional Básica(basic vocational education); theCiclo Formativo de Grado MedioorCFGM(medium level vocation education) which can be studied after studying the secondary education, and theCiclo Formativo de Grado SuperiororCFGS(higher level vocational education), which can be studied after studying the post-16 education level.[269]
TheProgramme for International Student Assessmentcoordinated by theOECDcurrently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of Spanish 15-year-olds as significantly below the OECD average of 493 in reading literacy, mathematics, and science.[270][271]
Health
The health care system of Spain (Spanish National Health System) is considered one of the best in the world, in 7th position in the ranking elaborated by theWorld Health Organization.[272]The health care is public, universal and free for any legal citizen of Spain.[273]The total health spending is 9.4% of the GDP, slightly above the average of 9.3% of theOECD.
Religion
Roman Catholicism,which has a long history in Spain, remains the dominant religion. Although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class. Catholicism is the religion most commonly taught, although the teaching of Islam,[275]Judaism,[276]and evangelical Christianity[277]is also recognised in law. According to a 2020 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research, about 61% of Spaniards self-identify asCatholics,3% other faiths, and about 35% identify withno religion.[278]Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services.[279]Recent polls and surveys suggest that around 30% of the Spanish population is irreligious.[279][280][281]
The Spanish constitution enshrinessecularismin governance, as well as freedom of religion or belief for all, saying that no religion should have a "state character", while allowing for the state to "cooperate" with religious groups.
Protestantchurches have about 1,200,000 members.[282]There are about 105,000Jehovah's Witnesses.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintshas approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations.[283]
A study made by theUnion of Islamic Communities of Spaindemonstrated that there were more than 2,100,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain as of 2019[update],accounting for 4–5% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from theMaghreb(especiallyMorocco) and other African countries. More than 879,000 (42%) of them had Spanish nationality.[284]
Judaismwas practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population.
Culture
Spain is aWestern countryand one of the majorLatin countriesof Europe, and has been noted for its international cultural influence.[285]Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to theCatholic Church,which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity.[286]Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music have been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire.
World Heritage Sites
Spain has 49World Heritage Sites.These include the landscape ofMonte Perdidoin thePyrenees,which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of theCôa ValleyandSiega Verde,which is shared with Portugal, theHeritage of Mercury,shared with Slovenia and theAncient and Primeval Beech Forests,shared with other countries of Europe.[287]In addition, Spain has also 14Intangible cultural heritage,or "Human treasures".[288]
Literature
Some early examples of vernacular Romance-based literature include short snippets ofMozarabic Romance(such as refrains) sprinkled inArabicandHebrewtexts.[289]Other examples of early Iberian Romance include theGlosas Emilianenseswritten in Latin, Basque and Romance.[290]
Early Medieval literature in Christian Iberia was written inLatin,which remained as the standard literary language up until the mid-13th century, whereas Ibero-Romance vernaculars and Basque were spoken.[291]A decisive development ensued in the 13th century inToledo,where Arabic scholarship was translated to the local vernacular,Castilian.In the scope of lyric poetry Castilian co-existed alongsideGalician-Portugueseacross the Crown of Castile up until the 16th century.[292]The Romance variety preferred in Eastern Iberia for lyrical poetry,Occitan,became increasinglyCatalanisedin the 14th and 15th centuries.[293]Major literary works from the Middle Ages include theCantar de Mio Cid,Tirant lo Blanch,The Book of Good LoveandCoplas por la muerte de su padre.Genres such asMester de JuglaríaandMester de Clerecíawere cultivated.
Promoted by the monarchs in the late Middle Ages and even codified in the late 15th century, Castilian (thought to be widespread known as 'Spanish' from the 16th century on) progressively became the language of the elites in the Iberian Peninsula, which ushered in aGolden era of Castilian literaturein the 16th and 17th centuries, also in the science domain, eclipsing Galician and Catalan.[294]Famous Early Modern works includeLa CelestinaandLazarillo de Tormes.The famousDon Quijote de La ManchabyMiguel de Cervanteswas written in this time. Other writers from the period are:Francisco de Quevedo,Lope de Vega,Calderón de la BarcaorTirso de Molina.During theEnlightenmentauthors included,Benito Jerónimo Feijóo,Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos,andLeandro Fernández de Moratín.
Steps ofSpanish Romantic literature(initially a rebellion against French classicism) have been traced back to the last quarter of the 18th century, even if the movement had its heyday between 1835 and 1850, waning thereafter.[295]In a broader definition encompassing the period from 1868 or 1874 to 1936, the so-called Silver Age of Spanish Culture ensued.[296][297]
The waning of Romantic literature was followed by the development ofSpanish Realism,which offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were', rather than romanticised or stylised presentations.[citation needed]The major realist writer wasBenito Pérez Galdós.[298]The second half of the 19th century also saw the resurgence of the literary use of local languages other than Spanish under cultural movements inspired by Romanticism such as the CatalanRenaixençaor the GalicianRexurdimento.[299]Rarely used before in a written medium, the true fostering of the literary use of the Basque language had to wait until the 1960s, even if some interest towards the language had developed in the late 19th century.[300]20th-century authors were classified in loose literary generations such as theGeneration of '98,theGeneration of '27,Generation of '36and theGeneration of '50.Premio Planeta de NovelaandMiguel de Cervantes Prizeare the two main awards in Spanish literature.
Philosophy
The construct pertaining a distinctive Spanish philosophical thought has been variously approached by academia, either by diachronically tracing its development throughout the centuries from the Roman conquest of Hispania on (with early representatives such asSeneca,Trajan,Lucan,orMartial); by pinpointing its origins to the late 19th century (associated to theGeneration of 98); or simply by outright denying its existence.[301]The crux around the existence of a Spanish philosophy pitted the likes ofMarcelino Menéndez y Pelayo(chief architect of the myth around it)[302]against Antonio Pérez.[303]Foreign imports such asKrausismproved to be extremely influential in Spain in the 19th and early 20th centuries.[304]
Art
Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European andAmericanartistic movements.Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Mediterranean heritage with Greco-Roman and some Moorish influences in Spain, especially inAndalusia,is still evident today. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Renaissance,Spanish BaroqueandNeoclassicalperiods. There are many other autochthonous styles such as thePre-Romanesque art and architecture,Herrerianarchitecture or theIsabelline Gothic.[citation needed]
During the Golden Age painters working in Spain includedEl Greco,José de Ribera,Bartolomé Esteban MurilloandFrancisco Zurbarán.Also in the Baroque period,Diego Velázquezcreated some of the most famous Spanish portraits, such asLas MeninasandLas Hilanderas.[305]
Francisco Goyapainted during a historical period that includes theSpanish Independence War,the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the rise of contemporary nations-states.[citation needed]
Joaquín Sorollais a well-known modern impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, includingPablo Picasso,Salvador Dalí,Juan GrisandJoan Miró.[citation needed]
Sculpture
The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until the last third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works of all great Spanish artists of the time.Alonso Berruguete(ValladolidSchool) is called the "Prince of Spanish sculpture". His main works were the upper stalls of the choir of theCathedral of Toledo,the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the altarpiece of the Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality. Other notable sculptors wereBartolomé Ordóñez,Diego de Siloé,Juan de JuniandDamián Forment.[citation needed]
There were two Schools: theSeville School,to whichJuan Martínez Montañésbelonged, whose most celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral of Seville, another in Vergara, and a Saint John; and theGranada School,to whichAlonso Canobelonged, to whom an Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of Rosary, are attributed.[citation needed]
Other notable Andalusian Baroque sculptors werePedro de Mena,Pedro Roldánand his daughterLuisa Roldán,Juan de MesaandPedro Duque Cornejo.In the 20th century the most important Spanish sculptors wereJulio González,Pablo Gargallo,Eduardo Chillida,andPablo Serrano.
Cinema
After the first projection of a cinematographer in Spain by 1896, cinema developed in the following years, with Barcelona becoming the largest production hub in the country (as well as a major European hub) on the eve of the World War I.[306]The conflict offered the Spanish industry ofsilent filmsan opportunity for further growth.[307]Local studios forsound filmswere created in 1932.[308]The government imposition of dubbing of foreign films in 1941 accustomed Spanish audiences to watchingdubbed films.[309]
Spanish cinema has achieved major international success includingOscarsfor films such asPan's LabyrinthandVolver.[310]
Distinct exploitation genres that flourished in the second half of the 20th century include theFantaterror,thecinequinquiand the so-calleddestapefilms.[311]
As of 2021, the festivals ofSan SebastiánandMálagaare ranked among the top cultural initiatives in the country.[312]
Architecture
Earth andgypsumare very common materials of the traditionalvernacular architecturein Spain (particularly in the East of the country, where most of the deposits of gypsum are located).[313] Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. Fine examples ofIslamicate architecture,belonging to theWestern Islamic tradition,were built in the Middle Ages in places such asCórdoba,Seville,orGranada.Similarly to the Maghreb,stuccodecoration inAl-Andalusbecame an architectural stylemark in the high Middle Ages.[314]
Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms also developed their own styles; developing apre-Romanesquestyle when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated theRomanesqueandGothicstreams. There was then an extraordinary flourishing of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The so-calledMudéjar stylecame to designate works by Muslims, Christians and Jews in lands conquered from Muslims.[315]
The arrival ofModernismproduced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred inBarcelona,known asmodernisme,produced a number of important architects, of whichGaudíis one. TheInternational stylewas led by groups likeGATEPAC.Spain is currently experiencing a revolution incontemporary architectureandSpanish architectslikeRafael Moneo,Santiago Calatrava,Ricardo Bofillas well as many others have gained worldwide renown.[citation needed]
Music and dance
Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous withflamenco,a West Andalusian musical genre, which is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles offolk musicabound. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.
In the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such asIsaac Albéniz,Manuel de FallaandEnrique Granadosand singers and performers such asPlácido Domingo,José Carreras,Montserrat Caballé,Alicia de Larrocha,Alfredo Kraus,Pablo Casals,Ricardo Viñes,José Iturbi,Pablo de Sarasate,Jordi SavallandTeresa Berganza.In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including theOrquestra Simfònica de Barcelona,Orquesta Nacional de Españaand theOrquesta Sinfónica de Madrid.Majoropera housesinclude theTeatro Real,theGran Teatre del Liceu,Teatro Arriagaand theEl Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía.
Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivalsSónarwhich features pop and techno acts, andBenicàssimwhich tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts.[316]TheVitoria-Gasteiz jazz festivalis one of the main ones in its genre.
The most popular traditionalmusical instrument,the guitar, originated in Spain.[317]Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers orgaiteros,mainly in Asturias and Galicia.
Cuisine
Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deepMediterraneanroots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:
MediterraneanSpain – coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such aspescaíto frito(fried fish); cold soups likegazpacho;and many rice-based dishes likepaellafrom Valencia[318]andarròs negre(black rice) from Catalonia.[319]
InnerSpain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-basedCastilian soup,along with substantial stews such ascocido madrileño.Food is traditionally preserved by salting, such asSpanish ham,or immersed inolive oil,such asManchego cheese.
AtlanticSpain – the Northern coast, includingAsturian,Basque,CantabrianandGalician cuisine– vegetable and fish-based stews likecaldo gallegoandmarmitako.Also, the lightly curedlacónham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, as in the Basque-stylecod,albacoreoranchovyor the Galician octopus-basedpolbo á feiraand shellfish dishes.
Sport
While varieties offootballhave been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the early 20th century.Real Madrid CFandFC Barcelonaare two of the most successful football clubs in the world.The country's national men's football teamwon theUEFA European Championshipin 1964, 2008, 2012 and 2024 and theFIFA World Cupin2010,and is the first team ever to win three back-to-back major international tournaments.[citation needed]Spain's women's national teamwere champions of the2023 FIFA World Cup,becoming one of only five nations to win aWomen's World Cup.Barcelona Femeníhas won a record 20 domestic trophies.
Basketball,tennis,cycling,handball,futsal,motorcyclingand, lately,Formula Onealso can boast of Spanish champions. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the1992 Summer OlympicsandParalympicsthat were hosted inBarcelona,which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially forwater sports,golfandskiing.In their respective regions, the traditional games ofBasque pelotaandValencian pilotaboth are popular.[citation needed]
Public holidays and festivals
Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and local observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally.[323]Spain's National Day(Fiesta Nacional de España) is celebrated on 12 October.[324][325]
There are many festivals and festivities in Spain. One of the most famous isSan Fermín,inPamplona.While its most famous event is theencierro,or therunning of the bulls.It has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.
Other festivals includeLa Tomatinatomato festival inBuñol,Valencia,the carnivals in theCanary Islands,theFallesinValenciaor theHoly Weekin Andalusia andCastile and León.
See also
Notes
- ^abIn Spain, someother languagesenjoy co-official status in certain regions (in accordance with the latter'sStatutes of Autonomy) or have some degree of recognition. In each of these, Spain's conventional long name for international affairs in Spanish laws and the most used (Spanish:Reino de España,pronounced:Spanish pronunciation:[ˈrejnoð(e)esˈpaɲa]) is as follows:
- Aragonese:Reino d'Espanya,IPA:[ˈrejnoðesˈpaɲa]
- Asturian:Reinu d'España,IPA:[ˈrejnuðesˈpaɲa]
- Catalan:Regne d'Espanya,IPA:[ˈreŋnəðəsˈpaɲə]
- Basque:Espainiako Erresuma,IPA:[es̺paɲiakoeres̺uma]
- Galician:Reino de España,IPA:[ˈrejnʊð(ɪ)esˈpaɲɐ]
- Occitan:Reiaume d'Espanha,IPA:[reˈjawmeðesˈpaɲɔ]
- Valencian:Regne d'Espanya,IPA:[ˈreŋneðesˈpaɲa]
- ^The official language of the State is established in the Section 3 of theConstitution of Spainto be Castilian.[2]
- ^In someautonomous communities,Basque,Catalan,Galician,Valencian,andOccitan(locally known asAranese) are co-official languages.Aragonese,Asturian,andLeonesehave some degree of government recognition at the regional level.
- ^ThePesetabefore 2002
- ^The.eudomain is also used, as it is shared with otherEuropean Unionmember states. Also, the.catdomain is used inCatalonia,.galinGaliciaand.eusin theBasque-Countryautonomous regions.
- ^Spanish:España,[esˈpaɲa]
- ^The Spanish Constitution does not contain any one official name for Spain. Instead, the termsEspaña(Spain),Estado español(Spanish State) andNación española(Spanish Nation) are used throughout the document, sometimes interchangeably. In 1984, the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs established that the denominationsEspaña(Spain) andReino de España(Kingdom of Spain) are equally valid to designate Spain in international treaties. The latter term is widely used by the government in national and international affairs of all kinds, including foreign treaties as well as national official documents, and is therefore recognised as the conventional name by many international organisations.[326]
- ^Seelist of transcontinental countries.
- ^Thelatifundia(sing.,latifundium), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system.
- ^The poetsMartial,QuintilianandLucanwere also born in Hispania.
- ^Those nationwide institutions are the Crown, the Cortes Generales, the Government, the Judiciary, and the Constitutional Tribunal.
- ^MostSpanish monarchshave been kings. However, aqueen regnant– while uncommon – is possible due to Spain's adherence tomale-preference primogeniture.Leonor, Princess of Asturias,will be Spain's first queen regnant sinceIsabella II,who reigned from 1833 to 1868, should she someday succeed her fatherFelipe VIas expected.
- ^Former kingJuan Carlos I's intervention and foiling of the1981 Spanish coup attemptis but one example of the Crown exercising its influence as the moderating branch to defend democracy and uphold the rule of law.[126]
- ^The Spanish state honours system comprises theOrder of Charles III,theOrder of Isabella the Catholic,theOrder of Civil Merit,theCivil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise,theOrder of Saint Raymond of Peñafort,and theOrder of Constitutional Merit,among other orders, decorations and medals. The prime minister isex officiochancellor of the Order of Charles III. On the other hand, the ministers offoreign affairs,education,andjusticeare the corresponding chancellors for the orders of Isabella the Catholic and of Civil Merit, the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, and the orders of Saint Raymond of Peñafort and of Constitutional Merit, respectively.
- ^They being theReal Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando,theReal Academia de Ciencias Morales y Políticas,theRoyal Academy of Engineering of Spain,theReal Academia de la Historia,theRoyal Academy of Jurisprudence and Legislation,theRoyal Academy of Pharmacy,theRoyal Spanish Academy,and theSpanish Royal Academy of Sciences
- ^The ministerial acts performed by the Spanish monarch are as follows:
- Sanctionandpromulgatebills duly passed by the Cortes Generales, making themlaws.The Spanish Constitution mandates the monarch grant royal assent to each bill within fifteen days of its passage; he or she does not have a right tovetolegislation.[131][132]
- Summonthe Cortes Generales intosessionfollowing a general election,dissolvethe same upon the expiration of its four-year term, andproclaimtheelectionof the next Cortes. These functions are performed in accordance with the strictures of the Spanish Constitution.[133][134][135][136][137]
- Appoint and dismissministers of stateon the advice of the prime minister.[138]
- Appoint the president of theSupreme Courton the advice of the General Council of the Judiciary.[139]
- Appoint the president of theConstitutional Tribunalfrom among its members, on the advice of the full bench, for a term of three years.[140]
- Appoint theFiscal General,who leads theProsecution Ministry,on the advice of the Government. Before tendering advice, the Government is required to consult the General Council of the Judiciary.[141]
- Appoint thepresidentsof theautonomous communitiesas elected by their respective parliaments.[142]
- Issuedecreesapproved in the Council of Ministers, confercivil serviceandmilitary appointments,and awardhonoursanddistinctionsin the gift of the state, all done on the advice of the prime minister or another minister designated thereby.[n][143]
- Exercisesupreme command and controlover theArmed Forces,on the advice of the prime minister.[144]
- Declare warandmake peaceon the advice of the prime minister and with the prior authorization of the Cortes Generales.[145]
- Ratifytreaties,on the advice of the prime minister.[146]
- Accredit Spanishambassadorsandministersto foreign states andreceivethecredentialsofforeigndiplomatsto Spain, on the advice of the prime minister.[147]
- Exercise theright of clemency,but without the authority to grantgeneral pardons,on the advice of the prime minister.[148]
- Patronise the Royal Academies.[o][149]
References
- ^Presidency of the Government(11 October 1997)."Real Decreto 1560/1997, de 10 de octubre, por el que se regula el Himno Nacional"(PDF).Boletín Oficial del Estadonúm. 244(in Spanish).Archived(PDF)from the original on 24 September 2015.
- ^"The Spanish Constitution".Lamoncloa.gob.es. Archived fromthe originalon 25 March 2013.Retrieved26 April2013.
- ^"Estadística Continua de Población (ECP) 1 de abril de 2024. Datos provisionales".
- ^CIS."Barómetro de Enero de 2023",3,961 respondents. The question was "¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religión, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?".
- ^"Anuario estadístico de España 2008. 1ª parte: entorno físico y medio ambiente"(PDF).Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain).Archived(PDF)from the original on 24 September 2015.Retrieved14 April2015.
- ^"Surface water and surface water change".Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD).Archivedfrom the original on 24 March 2021.Retrieved11 October2020.
- ^"INEbase / Continuous Population Statistics (CPS). 1st July 2024. Provisional data".ine.es.Retrieved1 July2024.
- ^abcd"World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Spain)".imf.org.International Monetary Fund.22 October 2024.Retrieved22 October2024.
- ^"Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey".ec.europa.eu.Eurostat.Retrieved10 July2024.
- ^"Human Development Report 2023/24"(PDF).United Nations Development Programme.13 March 2024. p. 288.Retrieved13 March2024.
- ^"Spain | Facts, Culture, History, & Points of Interest".Encyclopedia Britannica.26 July 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 8 August 2014.Retrieved17 March2019.
- ^"European exploration - Age of Discovery, Voyages, Expansion".britannica.Retrieved16 May2024.
- ^Flynn, Dennis O.; Giráldez Source, Arturo (1995). "Born with a 'Silver Spoon': The Origin of World Trade in 1571".Journal of World History.6(2): 202.JSTOR20078638.
- ^Spain is crowned the champion of foreign students. This is thanks to universities such as those in Barcelona, Valencia, Madrid, Granada and Salamanca. Although nowhere near as popular as Spain, we find Germany in second place. It is a country that also has a large number of prestigious universities spread out across many cities. The fact that Germany is an economic powerhouse makes it an attractive destination for those searching for employment after studying. France, the United Kingdom and Italy appear in third, fourth and fifth position. The rest of countries rank behind at a considerable distance.What are the most popular Erasmus destinations?Archived30 June 2023 at theWayback Machine
- ^"572 millones de personas hablan español, cinco millones más que hace un año, y aumentarán a 754 millones a mediados de siglo".cervantes.es.Archived fromthe originalon 13 May 2021.
- ^Spanish Constitution 1978,Article 1.
- ^Whitehouse, Mark (6 November 2010)."Number of the Week: $10.2 Trillion in Global Borrowing".The Wall Street Journal.Archivedfrom the original on 20 September 2017.
- ^ABC (28 August 2014).""I-span-ya", el misterioso origen de la palabra España ".Archivedfrom the original on 13 November 2016.
- ^#Linch, John (director), Fernández Castro, María Cruz (del segundo tomo), Historia de España, El País, volumen II, La península Ibérica en época prerromana, p. 40. Dossier. La etimología de España; ¿tierra de conejos?,ISBN978-84-9815-764-2
- ^Burke, Ulick Ralph (1895).A History of Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic, Volume 1.London: Longmans, Green & Co. p. 12.hdl:2027/hvd.fl29jg.
- ^Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913)..Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^"Rabbits, fish and mice, but no rock hyrax".Understanding Animal Research.Archivedfrom the original on 31 October 2018.Retrieved31 October2018.
- ^Anthon, Charles (1850).A System of Ancient and Mediæval Geography for the Use of Schools and Colleges.New York: Harper & Brothers. p.14.
- ^"'First west Europe tooth' found ".BBC. 30 June 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 21 October 2009.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^TypicalAurignacianitems were found in Cantabria (Morín, El Pendo,El Castillo), the Basque Country (Santimamiñe) and Catalonia. The radiocarbon datations give the following dates: 32,425 and 29,515 BP.[failed verification]
- ^Pike, A. W. G.; Hoffmann, D. L.; Garcia-Diez, M.; Pettitt, P. B.; Alcolea, J.; De Balbin, R.; Gonzalez-Sainz, C.; de las Heras, C.; Lasheras, J. A.; Montes, R.; Zilhao, J. (2012). "U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves in Spain".Science.336(6087): 1409–1413.Bibcode:2012Sci...336.1409P.doi:10.1126/science.1219957.ISSN0036-8075.PMID22700921.S2CID7807664.
- ^Bernaldo de Quirós Guidolti, Federico; Cabrera Valdés, Victoria (1994)."Cronología del arte paleolítico"(PDF).Complutum.5:265–276.ISSN1131-6993.Archivedfrom the original on 12 September 2023.Retrieved17 November2012.
- ^abPayne, Stanley G. (1973)."A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 1 Ancient Hispania".The Library of Iberian Resources Online.Archivedfrom the original on 8 October 2018.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^abRinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998)."A Country Study: Spain. Chapter 1 – Hispania".Library of Congress Country Series.Archivedfrom the original on 22 September 2008.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^Alonso Villalobos, Carlos (1984)."Contribución al estudio de las invasiones mauritanas de la Bética en el siglo II"(PDF).Actas del II Congreso Andaluz deEstudios Clásicos.Vol. II. Sociedad Española de Estudios Clásicos.Archived(PDF)from the original on 5 July 2022.Retrieved5 July2022.
- ^Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998)."A Country Study: Spain – Castile and Aragon".Library of Congress Country Series.Archivedfrom the original on 22 September 2008.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic RelationsArchived3 April 2017 at theWayback Machine,Thomas F. Glick
- ^Payne, Stanley G. (1973)."A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 2 Al-Andalus".The Library of Iberian Resources Online.Archivedfrom the original on 8 October 2018.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^Scheen, Rolf (1996)."Viking raids on the spanish peninsula".Militaria. Revista de Cultura Militar(8): 67–73.Archivedfrom the original on 13 April 2022.Retrieved13 April2022.
- ^Classen, Albrecht (31 August 2015).Handbook of Medieval Culture.Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.ISBN9783110267303.Archivedfrom the original on 12 September 2023.Retrieved10 December2018– via Google Books.
- ^VAN ZANDEN, JAN LUITEN; BURINGH, ELTJO; BOSKER, MAARTEN (29 July 2011)."The rise and decline of European parliaments, 1188-17891".The Economic History Review.65(3): 835–861.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00612.x.ISSN0013-0117.S2CID154956049.Archivedfrom the original on 12 September 2023.Retrieved24 November2022.
- ^Salicrú i Lluch, Roser (2020)."Granada and Its International Contacts".The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada between East and West.Brill.pp. 124–125.doi:10.1163/9789004443594_006.ISBN9789004443594.S2CID243153050.Archivedfrom the original on 13 April 2022.Retrieved13 April2022.
- ^"Spanish Inquisition left genetic legacy in Iberia".New Scientist.4 December 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 28 March 2014.Retrieved18 January2014.
- ^"The Treaty of Granada, 1492".Islamic Civilisation.Archivedfrom the original on 24 September 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998)."A Country Study: Spain – The Golden Age".Library of Congress Country Series.Archivedfrom the original on 9 August 2008.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^"Imperial Spain".University of Calgary. Archived fromthe originalon 29 June 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^Handbook of European History.Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial España. 1994.ISBN90-04-09760-0.Archivedfrom the original on 12 September 2023.Retrieved4 January2022.
- ^Payne, Stanley G. (1973)."A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 13 The Spanish Empire".The Library of Iberian Resources Online.Archivedfrom the original on 8 October 2018.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^Thomas, Hugh(2003).Rivers of gold: the rise of the Spanish Empire.London: George Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. passim.ISBN978-0-297-64563-4.
- ^"The Seventeenth-Century Decline".The Library of Iberian resources online.Archivedfrom the original on 21 September 2013.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^Payne, Stanley G. (1973)."A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 14 Spanish Society and Economics in the Imperial Age".The Library of Iberian Resources Online.Archivedfrom the original on 8 October 2018.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998)."A Country Study: Spain – Spain in Decline".Library of Congress Country Series.Archivedfrom the original on 9 August 2008.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^Serrano Daura, Josep (2019). "Una aproximación a la Corona de Aragón de Fernando el Católico".Revista de Dret Històric Català.18(18). Societat Catalana d'Estudis Jurídics: 75.doi:10.2436/20.3004.01.119.ISSN1578-5300.
- ^Phillips, William D.; Phillips, Carla Rahn (2010).A Concise History of Spain.Cambridge University Press.p. 175.ISBN9780521845137.
- ^Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998)."A Country Study: Spain – Bourbon Spain".Library of Congress Country Series.Archivedfrom the original on 9 August 2008.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^Casey, James (1999).Early Modern Spain: A Social History.Routledge.p. 83.ISBN9780415138130.
- ^Martínez Shaw, Carlos(2016)."El Despotismo Ilustrado en España: entre la continuidad y el cambio"(PDF).El Siglo de las Luces: III Centenario del Nacimiento de José de Hermosilla (1715-1776).Sociedad Extremeña de Historia. p. 14.ISBN978-84-608-8037-0.Archived(PDF)from the original on 19 April 2022.Retrieved13 April2022.
- ^Martínez Shaw 2016,pp. 14, 23.
- ^David A. Bell. "Napoleon's Total War".TheHistoryNet
- ^(Gates 2001, p. 20.)
- ^(Gates 2001, p. 467.)
- ^Alvar Ezquerra, Jaime (2001).Diccionario de historia de España.Ediciones Akal.p. 209.ISBN978-84-7090-366-3.Cortes of Cádiz (1812) was the first parliament of Spain with sovereign power
- ^Rodríguez.Independence of Spanish America.Cambridge University Press.Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2020.Retrieved20 June2013.
It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish world
- ^Cruz Artacho, Salvador (2003)."Caciquismo y mundo rural durante la Restauración".In Gutiérrez, Rosa Ana; Zurita, Rafael; Camurri, Renato (eds.).Elecciones y cultura política en España e Italia (1890–1923).Valencia:Universitat de València.p. 33.ISBN84-370-5672-1.Archivedfrom the original on 12 September 2023.Retrieved13 September2020.
- ^Costa, Joaquín.Oligarquía y caciquismo, Colectivismo agrario y otros escritos: (Antología).
- ^Meaker, Gerald H. (1974).The Revolutionary Left in Spain, 1914–1923.Stanford University Press.p.159ff.ISBN0-8047-0845-2.
- ^Spanish Civil War fighters look back[permanent dead link],BBC News, 23 February 2003
- ^"Relatives of Spaniards who fled Franco granted citizenship".The Daily Telegraph.London. 28 December 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 23 July 2013.Retrieved18 January2014.
- ^Óscar, Martín García (May 2023). "Soft Power, Modernization, and Security: US Educational Foreign Policy Toward Authoritarian Spain in the Cold War".History of Education Quarterly.63(2): 198–220.doi:10.1017/heq.2023.5.hdl:10251/201668.ISSN0018-2680.S2CID258190145.
- ^Villena, Miguel Ángel (9 June 2012)."El contubernio que preparó la democracia".EL PAÍS.Archivedfrom the original on 5 April 2013.
- ^"Contubernio de Múnich: 50 años".Archived fromthe originalon 21 October 2014.
- ^"El contubernio de Munich".La Vanguardia.4 June 2012.Archivedfrom the original on 26 October 2014.Retrieved17 September2014.
- ^"Speech by Mrs Nicole FONTAINE, President of the European Parliament on the occasion of the presentation of the Sakharov Prize 2000 to Basta ya!".Archivedfrom the original on 2 October 2016.
- ^"King Orders army to crush coup".The Guardian.23 February 1981.Archivedfrom the original on 5 October 2017.Retrieved19 March2020.
- ^Pfanner, Eric (11 July 2002)."Economy reaps benefits of entry to the 'club': Spain's euro bonanza".International Herald Tribune.Archivedfrom the original on 1 May 2011.Retrieved9 August2008.See also:"Spain's economy / Plain sailing no longer".The Economist.3 May 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 13 June 2008.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^"Al-Qaeda 'claims Madrid bombings'".BBC. 14 March 2004.Archivedfrom the original on 24 June 2006.Retrieved13 August2008.See also:"Madrid bombers get long sentences".BBC. 31 October 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2021.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^Bailey, Dominic (14 March 2004)."Spain votes under a shadow".BBC.Archivedfrom the original on 25 August 2004.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^"An election bombshell".The Economist.18 March 2004.Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2020.Retrieved19 March2020.
- ^Ortiz, Fiona (22 April 2013)."Spain's population falls as immigrants flee crisis".Reuters.Archivedfrom the original on 2 September 2017.Retrieved2 September2017.
- ^"Spain legalises gay marriage".The Guardian.30 June 2005.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2020.Retrieved19 March2020.
- ^Tremlett, Giles (5 September 2010)."Basque separatists Eta announce ceasefire".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2020.Retrieved19 March2020.
- ^"Spain's Indignados protest here to stay".BBC News.15 May 2012.Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2020.Retrieved19 March2020.
- ^"Rajoy ahoy".The Economist.21 November 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2020.Retrieved19 March2020.
- ^Tremlett, Giles (11 July 2012)."Mariano Rajoy announces €65bn in austerity measures for Spain".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2020.Retrieved19 March2020.
- ^"Spain king: Juan Carlos signs his abdication".BBC News.18 June 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2020.Retrieved19 March2020.
- ^Alandete, David (27 October 2017)."Análisis. Is Catalonia independent?".El País.Archivedfrom the original on 28 October 2017.
- ^Ríos, Pere; Piñol, Àngels (27 October 2017)."El Parlament de Cataluña aprueba la resolución para declarar la independencia".El País(in Spanish).Archivedfrom the original on 29 October 2017.
- ^"Catalan crisis: Regional MPs debate Spain takeover bid".BBC. 26 October 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 26 October 2017.Retrieved27 October2017.
- ^"Catalan crisis: Spain PM Rajoy demands direct rule".BBC. 27 October 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 29 October 2017.Retrieved27 October2017.
- ^"Catalonia independence: Rajoy dissolves Catalan parliament".BBC News.Barcelona, Madrid. 27 October 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 28 October 2017.Retrieved27 October2017.
- ^Sandford, Alasdair (27 October 2017)."Catalonia: what direct rule from Madrid could mean".euronews.Archivedfrom the original on 27 October 2017.Retrieved27 October2017.
- ^Minder, Raphael (June 2018)."Spain's Prime Minister, Mariano Rajoy, Is Ousted in No-Confidence Vote".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 19 June 2018.Retrieved18 June2018.
- ^"Spanish institutional crisis triggered by legal block of judicial reform".The Irish Times.Archivedfrom the original on 4 August 2023.Retrieved4 August2023.
- ^Woolf, Steven H.; Masters, Ryan K.; Aron, Laudan Y. (24 June 2021)."Effect of the covid-19 pandemic in 2020 on life expectancy across populations in the USA and other high income countries: simulations of provisional mortality data".BMJ.373:n1343.doi:10.1136/bmj.n1343.ISSN1756-1833.PMC8220857.PMID34162598.
- ^Borraz, Marta (18 March 2021)."Luz verde definitiva: la ley de eutanasia ya es una realidad en España tras superar su último trámite en el Congreso".ElDiario.es(in Spanish).Archivedfrom the original on 18 March 2021.Retrieved19 March2021.
- ^Bayer, Lili (16 November 2023)."Socialist leader Pedro Sánchez wins new term as Spanish PM following election gamble – as it happened".the Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Archivedfrom the original on 7 December 2023.Retrieved7 December2023.
- ^"La mitad de los catalanes se siente tan español como catalán, un 8,4% más desde las elecciones de 2012".May 2024.
- ^"La mitad de los catalanes se siente tan español como catalán, un 8,4% más desde las elecciones de 2012".May 2024.
- ^"El apoyo a la independencia de Catalunya baja del 40%, según una encuesta del ICPS".13 January 2023.
- ^Medina García, Eusebio (2006).«Orígenes históricos y ambigüedad de la frontera hispano-lusa (La Raya)»Archived25 May 2017 at theWayback Machine.Revista de Estudios Extremeños.Tomo LXII (II Mayo-Agosto).ISSN0210-2854,pp. 713–723.
- ^"World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated – (see p.3)"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 12 April 2019.Retrieved30 April2011.
- ^"Evolucion de los climas de Koppen en España: 1951-2020"(PDF).Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia.Archived(PDF)from the original on 13 February 2024.Retrieved8 February2024.
- ^Frost, Rosie (6 July 2023)."Spain is getting 'hotter, drier and more flammable' due to climate change, Greenpeace warns".Euronews.Archivedfrom the original on 7 July 2023.Retrieved9 July2023.
- ^"Faced with an early heat wave and a major drought, Spain questions its water management".Le Monde.fr.29 April 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 8 July 2023.Retrieved10 July2023.
- ^"Spain approves 'milestone' clean energy climate bill".aljazeera.Archivedfrom the original on 10 July 2023.Retrieved10 July2023.
- ^Grantham, H. S.; et al. (2020)."Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material".Nature Communications.11(1): 5978.Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G.doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3.ISSN2041-1723.PMC7723057.PMID33293507.
- ^"Biodiversity in Spain".Climatechangepost.Archivedfrom the original on 24 September 2022.Retrieved24 September2022.
- ^Biodiversidad, Fundación (18 February 2014)."The Foundation".Fundación Biodiversidad.Archived fromthe originalon 24 September 2022.Retrieved24 September2022.
- ^John Hooper,The New Spaniards,2001,From Dictatorship to Democracy
- ^Spain's fast-living king turns 70Archived6 January 2010 at theWayback MachineBBC News Friday, 4 January 2008 Extracted 18 June 2009
- ^Spanish Constitution 1978.
- ^"HM The King's address to the Cortes Generales on the occasion of his accession".Casa de Su Majestad El Rey. 19 June 2014.
- ^"Section 86, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^ab"Institutions of Spain".La Moncloa, the Office of the President of the Government.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^abc"Section 56 (1), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 1 (3), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^Shelley, Fred M. (2015).Governments around the World: From Democracies to Theocracies.ABC-CLIO. p. 197.ISBN978-1-4408-3813-2.Archivedfrom the original on 12 September 2023.Retrieved2 October2018.
- ^"Article 37, Constitution of the Kingdom of Belgium".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Article 3, Constitution Act of the Kingdom of Denmark".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Article 33, Constitution of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Article 42, Constitution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Article 3, Constitution of the Kingdom of Norway".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^Robert Blackburn (2022). O. Lepsius; A. Nußberger; C. Schönberger; C. Waldhoff & C. Walter (eds.)."The Constitutional Role and Working of the Monarchy in the United Kingdom".Jahrbuch des Öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart.Neue Folge.70.Mohr Siebeck (published 2 June 2022): 181–201.doi:10.1628/joer-2022-0009.S2CID257830288.Archivedfrom the original on 19 June 2023.Retrieved19 June2023.
- ^Sodré, Nelson Werneck (2004).Panorama do Segundo Império(in Portuguese) (2 ed.). Rio de Janeiro: Graphia. p. 91.
- ^Torres, João Camilo de Oliveira (2017).A democracia coroada(PDF)(in Portuguese). Brasília: Câmara dos Deputados. pp. 105–106.ISBN978-85-402-0667-0.
- ^Sousa, Galvão (1962).História do Direito Político Brasileiro(in Portuguese) (2 ed.). São Paulo: Saraiva. pp. 125–126.
- ^Faoro, Raymundo (2001).Os Donos do Poder(PDF)(in Portuguese). Globo. pp. 343–344. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 4 August 2016.
- ^McCaughey, J. Davis (1993).The Crown at State Level(Speech). Hugo Wolfsohn Memorial Lecture. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: La Trobe University.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^Arthur Bousfield & Gary Toffoli, ed. (1991).Royal Observations: Canadians and Royalty.Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Dundurn Press.
- ^abWalther L. Bernecker (January 1998)."Monarchy and Democracy: The Political Role of King Juan Carlos in the Spanish Transicion".Journal of Contemporary History.33(1): 65–84.doi:10.1177/003200949803300104.JSTOR260997.
- ^The Monitor's Editorial Board (4 June 2019)."The Spanish king who set, then saved, democracy".Christian Science Monitor.Christian Science Monitor.Retrieved17 August2024.
- ^"Section 61 (1), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 56 (3), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 64, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 65, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 62 (a), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 91, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 62 (b), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 68 (4), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 69 (6), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 116 (5), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 168, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 62 (e), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 123 (2), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 160, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 124 (4), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 152 (1), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 62 (f), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 62 (h), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 63 (3), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 63 (2), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 63 (1), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 62 (i), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 62 (j), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Functions of the Head of State".Royal Household of Spain.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 62 (g), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 115, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 92, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 122 (3), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 159 (1), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 62 (d), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 99, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 66, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^"Section 68, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^"Section 69, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^"Functions".Congress of Deputies of Spain.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^"Composition of the Senate".Senate of Spain.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^"Section 97, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^"Part V. Relations Between the Government and the Cortes Generales, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^"Section 98 (1), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^"Section 97, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved15 April2024.
- ^"Section 100, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^"Section 98 (2), Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^"Section 99, Spanish Constitution".Constitute Project.Retrieved11 April2024.
- ^Spanish Constitution 1978,Article 143.
- ^Spanish Constitution 1978,Article 147.
- ^"Catalonians vote for more autonomy".CNN. 18 June 2006.Archivedfrom the original on 4 June 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.See also:"Economic Survey: Spain 2005".Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.Archivedfrom the original on 17 April 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.and"Country Briefings: Spain".The Economist.Archivedfrom the original on 14 October 2012.Retrieved9 August2008.and"Swiss Experience With Decentralized Government"(PDF).The World Bank.Archived(PDF)from the original on 19 August 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^"Estatut"(PDF)(in Spanish). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 26 March 2009.Retrieved20 July2009.
- ^"Nuevo Estatuto de Autonomía de Canarias"..gobiernodecanarias.org. Archived fromthe originalon 20 January 2011.Retrieved30 April2011.
- ^"BOCAe32.QXD"(PDF)(in Catalan). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 11 July 2009.Retrieved20 July2009.
- ^"Estatuto de Autonomía de Aragón".Narros.congreso.es. Archived fromthe originalon 11 December 2009.Retrieved20 July2009.
- ^"Spain: Main executive and legislative bodies".European Commission.Retrieved16 April2024.
- ^"Unidad de Policía de la Comunidad Autónoma de Andalucía"(in Spanish). Cartujo.org.Archivedfrom the original on 7 November 2007.Retrieved23 October2007.
- ^Articles 140 and 141.Spanish Constitution of 1978
- ^Garcia Cantalapiedra, David, and Ramon Pacheco Pardo,Contemporary Spanish Foreign Policy(Routledge, 2014). Pg. 126
- ^"Resolution 2070: Question of Gibraltar"(PDF).United Nations. 16 December 1965. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 May 2011.Retrieved19 February2010.
- ^"Resolution 2231: Question of Gibraltar"(PDF).United Nations. 20 December 1966. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 May 2011.Retrieved19 February2010.
- ^"La cuestión de Gibraltar"(in Spanish). Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation of Spain. January 2008. Archived fromthe originalon 29 May 2009.Retrieved3 January2010.
- ^Spain's letter to the UN(PDF)(in Spanish), UN, September 2013,archived(PDF)from the original on 25 May 2017
- ^"Spain disputes Portugal islands"Archived8 September 2013 at theWayback MachineThe Portugal News.Retrieved 9 September 2013.
- ^Fernández Liesa, Carlos R. (2004)."La cuestión de Olivenza, a la luz del Derecho internacional público"(PDF).Encuentros: Revista luso-española de investigadores en Ciencias humanas y sociales. Separatas(4). Ayuntamiento de Olivenza: 234–235.ISSN1138-6622.Archived(PDF)from the original on 29 August 2014.
- ^Spanish Constitution 1978,Article 8.
- ^Spanish Constitution 1978,Article 62.
- ^"El jefe del Estado Mayor del Ejército de Tierra y 11 tenientes generales aspiran a JEMAD".La Vanguardia.6 November 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 1 February 2020.Retrieved1 February2020.
- ^"Update: Spain to increase defence spending".janes.Archivedfrom the original on 18 May 2015.Retrieved8 May2015.
- ^Julve, Rafa (9 March 2016)."Señores, se acabó la mili".El Periódico.Archivedfrom the original on 1 February 2020.Retrieved1 February2020.
- ^"2024 Global Peace Index"(PDF).
- ^Spanish Constitution 1978,preamble.
- ^Spain 2015/2016Archived8 August 2016 at theWayback MachineAmnesty International. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
- ^"Analysis of 8 years of Gender Violence Law in Spain | Gender violence and justice".justiciadegenero. 4 March 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 25 May 2017.Retrieved9 May2017.
- ^Rincón, Reyes (25 November 2015)."The successes and failures of Spain's fight against domestic abuse".EL PAÍS.Archivedfrom the original on 25 May 2017.Retrieved9 May2017.
- ^"Global Acceptance of Homosexuality".Pew Research Center.4 June 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 10 November 2014.
- ^"SPAIN: No Turning Back from Path to Gender Equality".Ipsnews.net. 15 March 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 19 April 2014.Retrieved5 May2014.
- ^"Women in National Parliaments".Ipu.org. 28 February 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 28 March 2014.Retrieved1 May2010.
- ^"Human Development Report 2007/2008"(PDF).Hdr.undp.org. p. 330. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 29 April 2011.Retrieved18 January2014.
- ^"Economically Active Population Survey. Second Quarter 2024".INE Instituto Nacional de Estadística.Retrieved27 July2024.
- ^"Expansión / Unemployment, youth total (% of total labor force ages 15-24) (national estimate) - Spain".
- ^Benton, Lauren A. (1990).Invisible Factories: The Informal Economy and Industrial Development in Spain.SUNY Press.
- ^Roberto A. Ferdman,Spain's Black Market Economy Is Worth 20% of Its GDP: One million Spanish people have jobs in the underground economyArchived11 September 2017 at theWayback Machine,The Atlantic(16 July 2013)
- ^Angel Alañón & M. Gómez-Antonio, [Estimating the size of the shadow economy in Spain: a structural model with latent variables],Applies Economics,Vol 37, Issue 9, pp. 1011–1025 (2005).
- ^"OECD report for 2006"(PDF).OECD.Archived(PDF)from the original on 19 August 2008.Retrieved9 August2008.
- ^"A good bet?".The Economist.Business. Madrid. 30 April 2009.Archivedfrom the original on 4 May 2009.Retrieved14 May2009.
- ^"Spain's Iberdrola signs investment accord with Gulf group Taqa".Forbes.25 May 2008. Archived fromthe originalon 7 June 2010.
- ^"Big in America?".The Economist.Business. Madrid. 8 April 2009.Archivedfrom the original on 12 April 2009.Retrieved14 May2009.
- ^ab"Spain is the 2nd largest automaker in Europe and the 8th largest in the world".ICEX-Invest in Spain.22 July 2024 – via investinspain.org.
- ^"Car Production by Country 2024".worldpopulationreview.Retrieved26 March2024.
- ^"Global Guru | analysis".The Global Guru. Archived fromthe originalon 6 January 2011.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^"Economic report"(PDF).Bank of Spain.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 26 July 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^"Spain Is World's Leader in Solar Energy".NPR.org.NPR. 15 July 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 19 September 2010.Retrieved4 September2010.
- ^"Spain becomes solar power world leader".Europeanfutureenergyforum. 14 July 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 24 November 2010.Retrieved4 September2010.
- ^Villalobos, Alvaro (6 May 2018)."Spain's Bilbao fights to lead European wind power sector".Phys.org(in Spanish).Archivedfrom the original on 24 December 2022.Retrieved6 July2018.
- ^AFP(6 May 2018)."Spain's Bilbao fights to lead European wind power sector".The Local(in Spanish).Archivedfrom the original on 6 July 2018.Retrieved6 July2018.
- ^"Spain becomes the first European wind energy producer after overcoming Germany for the first time".Eolic Energy News. 31 December 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 27 April 2011.Retrieved30 April2011.
- ^"Asociación Empresarial Eólica – Spanish Wind Energy Association – Energía Eólica".Aeeolica. Archived fromthe originalon 20 October 2021.Retrieved28 September2018.
- ^Méndez, Rafael (9 November 2009)."La eólica supera por primera vez la mitad de la producción eléctrica".El País(in Spanish). Ediciones El País.Archivedfrom the original on 13 May 2011.Retrieved8 August2010.
- ^"Wind power in Spain breaks new instantaneous power record".renovablesmadeinspain.es. 9 November 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 14 December 2011.Retrieved5 June2011.
- ^"14 reactores nucleares movidos por el viento".El País.9 November 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 12 September 2023.Retrieved5 June2011.
- ^"La Fuerza del Mar".revista.consumer.es.Archivedfrom the original on 26 August 2011.Retrieved5 June2011.
- ^Energy in Sweden, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, (in Swedish: Energiläget i siffror), Table for figure 49. Source: IEA/OECD[1].Archived16 October 2013 at theWayback Machine
- ^"Scimago Institution Rankings".Archivedfrom the original on 8 March 2020.Retrieved5 January2018.
- ^World Intellectual Property Organization(2024)."Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship"(PDF).wipo.int.Geneva. p. 18.doi:10.34667/tind.50062.ISBN978-92-805-3681-2.Retrieved1 October2024.
- ^Añón Higón, Dolores; Díez-Minguela, Alfonso (2021)."Do universities matter for the location of foreign R&D?".Business Research Quarterly.27(2): 1; 5.doi:10.1177/23409444211042382.hdl:10550/88686.S2CID239695136.
- ^Giachi, Sandro; Fernández-Esquinas, Manuel (2020)."Mapping heterogeneity in a research system: The emergence of a 'hybrid' organizational field between science and industry".Research Evaluation.29(4): 392–405.doi:10.1093/reseval/rvaa014.Archivedfrom the original on 11 May 2022.Retrieved11 May2022.
- ^"Algae Based Biofuels in Plain English: Why it Matters, How it Works. (algae algaebiofuels carbonsequestration valcent vertigro algaebasedbiofuels ethanol)".Triplepundit. 30 July 2008. Archived fromthe originalon 18 May 2013.Retrieved19 November2008.
- ^"Spain to Put 1 million Electric Cars on the Road".Triplepundit. 30 July 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 23 November 2008.Retrieved19 November2008.
- ^ab"Red de Alta Velocidad".ADIF.Archivedfrom the original on 20 December 2021.Retrieved7 May2023.
- ^Lara Galera, Antonio L. (2015)."El AVE Madrid-Barcelona, una obra de mérito"(PDF).Revista de Obras Públicas(3569): 57.ISSN0034-8619.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 1 February 2020.Retrieved1 February2020.
- ^"El AVE español, el más veloz del mundo y el segundo en puntualidad".El Mundo.Spain. 10 November 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 9 November 2011.Retrieved5 June2011.
- ^"Spain powers ahead with high-speed rail".railpro.co.uk. January 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 21 July 2011.Retrieved5 June2011.
- ^"Population Figures".Instituto Nacional de Estadística (National Statistics Institute).Retrieved7 August2024.
- ^Joseph Harrison, David Corkill (2004).Spain: A Modern European Economy.Ashgate Publishing. p. 23.ISBN0-7546-0145-5.
- ^"Indice coyuntural de fecundidad".Instituto Nacional de Estadística.Retrieved19 June2024.
- ^Roser, Max (2014),"Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries",Our World in Data,Gapminder Foundation,archivedfrom the original on 7 August 2018,retrieved8 May2019
- ^"World Factbook EUROPE: SPAIN",The World Factbook,12 July 2018,archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2021,retrieved23 January2021
- ^"Población extranjera por sexo, país de nacionalidad y edad".Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Archived fromthe originalon 25 March 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^"EU27 Member States granted citizenship to 696 000 persons in 2008Archived6 September 2014 at theWayback Machine"(PDF).Eurostat.6 July 2010.
- ^"Immigration statistics".BBC. 11 December 2006.Archivedfrom the original on 8 April 2013.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^"Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Estadística del Padrón Continuo".ine.es.Instituto Nacional de Estadística.Retrieved20 June2024.
- ^"Cifras de Población (CP) a 1 de abril de 2024 Estadística de Migraciones (EM). Datos provisionales".ine.es(in Spanish).Instituto Nacional de Estadística.Retrieved20 June2024.
- ^INEArchived23 July 2013 at theWayback Machine,2011.
- ^"Financial crisis reveals vulnerability of Spain's immigrants – Feature".The Earth Times. 18 November 2009.
- ^"Avance del Padrón Municipal a 1 de enero de 2006. Datos provisionales"(PDF).Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 26 July 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.and"Spain: Immigrants Welcome".Business Week.Archived fromthe originalon 6 October 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.and"Immigrants Fuel Europe's Civilization Clash".MSNBC. Archived fromthe originalon 13 May 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.and"Spanish youth clash with immigrant gangs".International Herald Tribune.Archivedfrom the original on 3 June 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^"Population in Europe in 2005"(PDF).Eurostat. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 August 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^Spain to increase immigration budgetArchived30 August 2008 at theWayback Machine,10 October 2007
- ^Tremlett, Giles (9 May 2005)."Spain grants amnesty to 700,000 migrants".The Guardian.London.Archivedfrom the original on 29 August 2013.Retrieved20 July2009.
- ^"Population series from 1998".INESpanish Statistical Institute. Archived fromthe originalon 2 November 2007.Retrieved14 August2008.
- ^"Europeans Favour Spain for Expat Jobs".News.bg.Archivedfrom the original on 10 October 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^Plan de Retorno VoluntarioArchived18 October 2011 at theWayback MachineGobierno de España
- ^Spain's Jobs Crisis Leaves Immigrants Out of WorkArchived10 July 2017 at theWayback Machine,The Wall Street Journal, 24 January 2009
- ^ab580.000 personas se van de EspañaArchived15 November 2011 at theWayback Machine.El País. Edición Impresa. 8 October 2011
- ^Conversi, Daniele (2002)."The Smooth Transition: Spain's 1978 Constitution and the Nationalities Question"(PDF).National Identities, Vol 4, No. 3.Carfax Publishing, Inc. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 11 May 2008.Retrieved28 January2008.
- ^Casado Velarde, Manuel (2011)."Spain, a plurilingual state: Spanish and other official languages".In Stickel, Gerhard (ed.).National, regional and minority languages in Europe.Frankfurt:Peter Lang.p. 129.ISBN978-3-631-60365-9.Archivedfrom the original on 12 September 2023.Retrieved24 July2021.
- ^Ramallo 2018,p. 465.
- ^Ramallo, Fernando (2018)."17. Linguistic diversity in Spain".In Ayres-Bennett, Wendy; Carruthers, Janice (eds.).Manual of Romance Sociolinguistics.De Gruyter.p. 462.doi:10.1515/9783110365955-018.ISBN9783110365955.S2CID158999790.
- ^Ramallo 2018,p. 463.
- ^"CIA – The World Factbook – 5pain".Cia.gov.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2021.Retrieved30 April2011.
- ^Recalde Fernández, Montserrat (2016)."A contribución da inmigración ao multilingüismo do Estado español"(PDF).In Recalde Fernández, Montserrat; Silva Domínguez, Carme (eds.).Ser inmigrante en tempos de crise: Unha ollada multidisciplinar.Servizo de Publicacións e Intercambio Científico da Universidade de Compostela. p. 175.doi:10.15304/9788416533015.ISBN9788416533015.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 25 July 2021.Retrieved12 July2021.
- ^La Ley Orgánica 2/2006Archived25 May 2011 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 23 September 2009
- ^Ley Orgánica 8/2013Archived12 February 2015 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 9 December 2013
- ^De la LGE a la LOMCE: Así son las siete leyes educativas españolas de la democraciaArchived12 February 2015 at theWayback Machine.teinteresa.es
- ^"Educación Primaria │Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional"(in Spanish). Archived fromthe originalon 5 November 2020.Retrieved26 November2020.
- ^"Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO)│Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional"(in Spanish). Archived fromthe originalon 16 November 2020.Retrieved26 November2020.
- ^"Bachillerato│Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional".Archived fromthe originalon 26 November 2020.Retrieved26 November2020.
- ^"La Formación Profesional actual en el sistema educativo – TodoFP│Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional"(in Spanish). Archived fromthe originalon 31 October 2020.Retrieved26 November2020.
- ^"Compare your country - PISA 2018".www2 pareyourcountry.org.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2021.Retrieved29 September2021.
- ^"The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA): Spain"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 29 September 2021.Retrieved29 September2021.
- ^World Health Organization, World Health Staff, (2000), Haden, Angela; Campanini, Barbara, eds., The world health report 2000 – Health systems: improving performance (PDF), Geneva: World Health Organization,ISBN92-4-156198-X
- ^"Health care in Spain: Beneficiairies".seg-social.es.Archivedfrom the original on 25 May 2017.Retrieved24 September2017.
- ^CIS."Barómetro de Enero de 2023",3,961 respondents. The question was "¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religión, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?". Page 19.
- ^Ley 26/1992Archived26 November 2016 at theWayback Machine,Documento BOE-A-1992-24855, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado
- ^Ley 25/1992Archived27 December 2016 at theWayback Machine,Documento BOE-A-1992-24854, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado
- ^Ley 24/1992Archived26 November 2016 at theWayback Machine,Documento BOE-A-1992-24853, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado
- ^Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas:Barómetro de Julio 2020, página 21.Archived20 July 2020 at theWayback Machine¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religión, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?
- ^abCentro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (Centre for Sociological Research) (October 2019)."Macrobarómetro de octubre 2019, Banco de datos"(in Spanish). p. 160.Archivedfrom the original on 14 June 2020.Retrieved17 December2019.The question was "¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religion, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?", the weight used was "PESOCCAA" which reflects the population sizes of theAutonomous communities of Spain.
- ^"WVS Database".World Values Survey.Institute for Comparative Survey Research. March 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 5 January 2016.
- ^"Gallup International Religiosity Index"(PDF).The Washington Post.WIN-Gallup International. April 2015.Archived(PDF)from the original on 1 February 2016.
- ^"Federación de Entidades Religiosas Evangélicas de España – FEREDE".Ferede.org. Archived fromthe originalon 30 September 2011.Retrieved4 September2010.
- ^"Spain – Newsroom".churchofjesuschrist.org.Archivedfrom the original on 14 June 2020.Retrieved4 September2010.
- ^"Los musulmanes en España superan por primera vez los 2 millones de personas".El Heraldo.September 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 4 October 2020.Retrieved30 September2020.
- ^"Countries With the Most Cultural Influence".U.S. News.1 January 2024.Retrieved7 August2024.
- ^Townson, N. (2007).Spain Transformed: The Franco Dictatorship, 1959-1975.Routledge. p. 7.ISBN9780230592643.
- ^"Spain".UNESCO Culture Sector.Archivedfrom the original on 26 September 2014.Retrieved14 September2014.
- ^"Spain – Intangible Cultural Heritage".UNESCO Culture Sector.Archivedfrom the original on 14 September 2014.Retrieved14 September2014.
- ^Gies, David T. (2004).The Cambridge History of Spanish Literature.Cambridge University Press.pp. 73–74.ISBN0-521-80618-6.
- ^Dapueto Reyes, María de los Ángeles (2015)."Literatura hispanorromance primigenia: la glosa conoajutorio del Codex Aemilianensis 60".Letras.2(72).Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina Santa María de los Buenos Aires:90.ISSN0326-3363.Archivedfrom the original on 6 August 2020.Retrieved23 May2020.
- ^Labanyi, Jo (2010).Spanish Literature. A Very Short Introduction.Oxford University Press.pp. 18–19.ISBN978-0-19-920805-0.
- ^Labanyi 2010,p. 24.
- ^Labanyi 2010,p. 21.
- ^Amorós Negre, Carla (2016),"The spread of Castilian/Spanish in Spain and the Americas: A relatively successful language standardisation experience",Sociolinguistica,1(30): 26–28,doi:10.1515/soci-2016-0003,ISSN0933-1883,S2CID132493573,archivedfrom the original on 31 May 2022,retrieved5 April2022
- ^González Subías, José Luis (2007)."La extensión del Romanticismo en España".Cuadernos de Ilustración y Romanticismo: Revista del Grupo de Estudios del siglo XVIII(15).Editorial UCA:226; 228–229.ISSN2173-0687.Archivedfrom the original on 12 April 2022.Retrieved5 April2022.
- ^Abad, Francisco (2007)."La 'Edad de Plata' (1868-1936) y las generaciones de la Edad de Plata: cultura y filología"(PDF).Epos. Revista de Filología(23): 244–245.Archived(PDF)from the original on 12 April 2022.Retrieved5 April2022.
- ^Orringer, Nelson R. (1998). "Redefining the Spanish Silver Age and '98 Within It".Anales de la literatura Española Contemporánea.23(1/2). Society of Spanish & Spanish-American Studies: 317.JSTOR25642011.
- ^Labanyi 2010,p. 61.
- ^Coluzzi, Paolo (2007).Minority Language Planning and Micronationalism in Italy: An Analysis of the Situation of Friulian, Cimbrian and Western Lombard with Reference to Spanish Minority Languages.Peter Lang.p. 103.ISBN9783039110414.Archivedfrom the original on 12 September 2023.Retrieved15 April2022.
- ^Coluzzi 2007,pp. 103–104.
- ^Antonova, N.V.; Myagkov, G.P; Nikolaeva, O.A (2019)."Genesis problem of philosophical thought in spanish historiography"(PDF).Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana.24(5).Universidad del Zulia:66–67.Archived(PDF)from the original on 1 April 2022.Retrieved1 April2022.
- ^Caponigri, A. Robert (1967).Contemporary Spanish Philosophy(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2 April 2022.Retrieved1 April2022.
- ^Antonova, Myagkov & Nikolaeva 2019,p. 67.
- ^Caponigri 1967,p. 169–170.
- ^Anirudh."10 Most Famous Paintings by Diego Velazquez | Learnodo Newtonic".Archivedfrom the original on 24 November 2020.Retrieved21 November2020.
- ^Montes Fernández 2011,pp. 602–603.
- ^Montes Fernández 2011,p. 603.
- ^Montes Fernández, Francisco José (2011)."Recordando la historia del cine español"(PDF).Anuario Jurídico y Económico Escurialense.XLIV.ISSN1133-3677.Archived(PDF)from the original on 17 April 2022.Retrieved1 April2022.
- ^Montes Fernández 2011,pp. 609–610.
- ^Jordan, Barry;Morgan-Tamosunas, Rikki(1998).Contemporary spanish cinema.Manchester University Press.
- ^Yuste, Javier (13 December 2019)."Viaje por la cara B del cine español".El Cultural.Archivedfrom the original on 1 April 2022.Retrieved1 April2022– viaEl Español.
- ^"El Festival de San Sebastián y el de Málaga, entre las diez iniciativas culturales más importantes de España en 2021".Audiovisual451.9 February 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2022.Retrieved1 April2022.
- ^La Spina, V (2018). "Earth and gypsum: From theory to practice in Spanish vernacular architecture". In Mileto, C.; Vegas López-Manzanares, F.; García-Soriano, L.; Cristini, V. (eds.).Vernacular and Earthen Architecture: Conservation and Sustainability.London:Taylor & Francis.pp. 153–154.ISBN978-1-138-03546-1.
- ^Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020).Architecture of the Islamic West. North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.New Haven and London:Yale University Press.p. 88.ISBN978-0-300-21870-1.
- ^Bloom 2020,p. 171.
- ^"Music Festivals, UK Festivals and London Festivals".Spoonfed.co.uk. Archived fromthe originalon 28 October 2011.Retrieved1 November2011.
- ^"The History of the Guitar in Spain".Linguatics.Archivedfrom the original on 29 April 2011.Retrieved30 April2011.
- ^abRichardson, Paul (19 August 2007)."Spain's perfect paella".The Times.London. Archived fromthe originalon 4 June 2010.Retrieved6 August2010.
- ^DiGregorio, Sarah (1 December 2009)."Spain Gain at Mercat Negre".The Village Voice.New York.Archivedfrom the original on 8 December 2009.Retrieved6 August2010.
- ^Smillie, Susan (18 January 2010)."World's most expensive ham?".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Archivedfrom the original on 31 October 2019.Retrieved31 October2019.
- ^Limón, Raúl (7 March 2016)."The world's most expensive ham is from Huelva and costs €4,100 a leg".El País.ISSN1134-6582.Archivedfrom the original on 27 November 2019.Retrieved31 October2019.
- ^"Primera División 2015/2016".worldfootball.net.Archivedfrom the original on 13 July 2016.Retrieved14 July2016.
- ^"Bank holidays in Spain".bank-holidays.Archivedfrom the original on 18 September 2008.Retrieved13 August2008.
- ^Nogués y Secall (1862),68.
- ^Paloma Aguilar, Carsten Humlebæk, "Collective Memory and National Identity in the Spanish Democracy: The Legacies of Francoism and the Civil War", History & Memory, 1 April 2002, pag. 121–164
- ^"Acuerdo entre el Reino de España y Nueva Zelanda sobre participación en determinadas elecciones de los nacionales de cada país residentes en el territorio del otro, hecho en Wellington el 23 de junio de 2009".Noticias Jurídicas.Archivedfrom the original on 31 August 2016.Retrieved14 November2010.
Works cited
- Gates, David (2001).The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War.Da Capo Press.ISBN978-0-306-81083-1.
- "The Spanish Constitution"(PDF).Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado. 1978.Retrieved10 June2022.
- Marcos, F. Javier (2006).La Sierra de Atapuerca y el Valle del Arlanzón. Patrones de asentamiento prehistóricos.Editorial Dossoles. Burgos, Spain.ISBN9788496606289.
- Marcos, F. Javier (2016).La Prehistoria Reciente del entorno de la Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, España).British Archaeological Reports (Oxford, U.K.), BAR International Series 2798.ISBN9781407315195.
Further reading
- Carr, Raymond,ed.Spain: a history.Oxford University Press, USA, 2000.
- Callaghan O.F. Joseph.A History of Medieval Spain.Cornell University Press 1983.
- Frank, Waldo D.Virgin Spain: Scenes from the Spiritual Drama of a Great PeopleNYC: Boni & Liveright, 1926.
External links
Definitionsfrom Wiktionary
Mediafrom Commons
Newsfrom Wikinews
Quotationsfrom Wikiquote
Textsfrom Wikisource
Resourcesfrom Wikiversity
Travel informationfrom Wikivoyage
- Spain.The World Factbook.Central Intelligence Agency.
- SpainfromUCB Libraries GovPubs
- Spainfrom theBBC News
- Key Development Forecasts for SpainfromInternational Futures
- Government
- Maps
Wikimedia Atlas of Spain
Geographic data related toSpainatOpenStreetMap
- Tourism