Wikipedia

Standing bell

Astanding bellorresting bellis an invertedbell,supported from below with the rim uppermost. Such bells are normally bowl-shaped, and exist in a wide range of sizes, from a few centimetres to a metre in diameter. They are often played by striking, but some—known assinging bowls—may also be played by rotating asuedecovered mallet around the outside rim to produce a sustained musical note.

Rinbeing struck atKiyomizu-dera,Kyoto

Struck bowls are used in someBuddhistreligious practices to accompany periods of meditation and chanting. Struck and singing bowls are widely used for music making, meditation and relaxation, as well for personal spirituality. They have become popular withmusic therapists,sound healersandyogapractitioners.

Standing bells originated in China. An early form callednaotook the shape of a stemmed goblet, mounted with rim uppermost, and struck on the outside with a mallet. The manufacture and use of bowls specifically for 'singing' is believed to be a modern phenomenon. Bowls that were capable of singing began to be imported to theWestfrom around the early 1970s. Since then they have become a popular instrument in the US-originatingnew-agegenre often marketed as 'Tibetan music'.

Nomenclature

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Standing bells are known by a wide variety of terms in English, and are sometimes referred to as bowls, basins, cups or gongs. Specific terms includeresting bell,[1]prayer bowl,[2]Buddha bowl,[3]Himalayan bowl,[4]Tibetan bell,[4]rin gong,[2]bowl gong[3]andcup gong.[2]A bell that is capable of producing a sustained musical note may be known as asinging bowl[4][3]orTibetan singing bowl.[4]

Contemporary classical music scores use a variety of other names includingtemple bell,Buddha temple bell,Japanese temple bell,Buddhist bell,campana di temploandcup bell.[5]

In Japan, the name for a bell of the standing type varies between Buddhist sects. It may be calledrin(りん),[6]kin(Khánh),[6][1]dobachi,[1]keisu,[6]kinsu(きんす),[6]sahari[6]oruchinarashi,[6][7]among other things.[6]Large temple bells are sometimes calleddaikin(Đại khánh),[6]while small versions for a home altar are known asnamarin.[6]

The Chinese termqing(Khánh,or historicallyKhánh), which historically referred to alithophoneused in state rituals, has more recently been applied to this type of standing bell.[8]Early Chinese standing bells are callednao[9](traditional Chinese:Nao;simplified Chinese:Nao;pinyin:náo).

Origins and history

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There is evidence that the metal bell originated in China,[10]with the earliest knownShang dynasty(16th–11th centuries BCE) bells being among the oldest bronze objects found in China.[10]They possibly originated from grain scoops of standard capacity (the wordchungor 'grain measure' is used in many ancient texts to mean a bell).[11]Early bronze standing bells callednao[9]embody some of the highest technical skills of Chinese civilisation and represent the earliest known form of chiming bell.[12]Taking the shape of hollow-stemmed[13]goblets with a curved rim,naowere made in sizes varying between 8 and 50 cm (3.1 and 19.7 in). They were mounted on their stem, with rim uppermost, and struck on the outside with a mallet.[12][9]Naofrom southern China were produced as single specimens, while in the north they were produced in chimed sets of three.[12]Some were constructed such that striking at two different points would produce different ringing tones.[12]

Bronze bells of substantial size were being cast in China at least as early as the 13th–11th centuries BCE, and the spread of Buddhism in the 2nd–7th centuries CE gave new impetus to the production of large bells for use in rituals. Chinese tradition was, however, unique in that bells were made not only from bronze but also from cast-iron.[14]

Some writers have suggested that the modern singing bowl developed from bowls originally used for food;[15]but others consider that to be unlikely, pointing out that there would be no reason for food bowls to be manufactured with thick rims and with great attention paid to their acoustic properties.[16][17]

Bowl with wooden striker

Although it is sometimes stated that 'Tibetan singing bowls' date back to a pre-Buddhist,shamanicBon-Potradition, the manufacture and use of bowls specifically for the purpose of 'singing' (as opposed to standing bells/bowls that are intended to be struck) is believed to be a modern phenomenon.[17]The historical records and accounts of the music of Tibet are silent about singing bowls. Such bowls are not mentioned byPerceval Landon(a visitor in 1903–1904) in his notes onTibetan music,nor by any other visitor. Likewise, though ringing and clanging sounds were noted by missionaries interested in traditional Tibetan healing practices, they make no mention of singing bowls.[17]The objects often now referred to as 'Tibetan singing bowls', and marketed as Tibetan ritual instruments, have been called "dharma products" that in fact come from northern India or Nepal, and are neither Tibetan nor ritual in origin.[15]

Operation

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Types of operation

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Japaneserinplayed as struck idiophone
Japaneserinplayed as friction idiophone, demonstrating chatter
Tibetan singing bowl struck and friction

Musically, these objects are classified as a type ofbell(a bell is a hollow object which has maximum vibration around an open rim; agongon the other hand has maximum vibration towards the centre).[18]They are usually placed on a pillow, to allow the rim to vibrate freely, though small bells may be held gently in the hand.[2][19]

They are often played by striking,[20]in which case they sound a bell note as astruck idiophone[18](Hornbostel–Sachsclassification 111.242.11).

Alternatively, some bells may be capable of 'singing bowl' operation as afriction idiophone,[20](Hornbostel–Sachsclassification 133.1). In this mode, a wooden mallet sometimes called a wand[21]orpuja[5]is rotated around the outside rim to excite continuous vibrations in the bowl by theslip-stick mechanism,[22]the principle being the same as that of water-tunedmusical glasses.[20]The volume of the continuous note depends on the speed of the mallet and the force that is applied.[22]

A spouting bowl in use

Singing bowls may be partly filled with water,[20]allowing them to be tuned. A Chinese form known as a 'spouting bowl' has handles which, when rubbed with damp hands, causes water droplets to leap up as a result ofstanding wavesknown asChladni patternson the water surface.[20]Such bowls are said to have been manufactured from as early as the 5th century BCE.[23]

Vibrational behaviour

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Water spouting in a singing bowl

The vibrational behaviour of bowls has been simulated[24]and has been widely studied both under friction-inducedpujaexcitation[25][5]and also after being struck.[5]In the former case, experiments indicate that bowls exhibit both radial and tangential motion, in concurrent stable and unstable modes.[5]The unstable mode rotates around the bowl at the same angular velocity as thepuja,resulting in beating phenomena always being heard, even with a perfectly symmetrical bowl.[5]Rattling or chattering may occur, particularly with harderpuja,lower contact forces[26]and greater angular velocity.[22]Research has also been carried out using loudspeaker-induced oscillation.[27]Studies have investigated the behaviour of bowls partly filled with water, the way in which the resonant response varies with temperature,[28]and the characteristics of drop-ejection from the liquid surface.[27]A BBC report of 2011[29]includes slow motion video from one of the studies.[27]

Usage

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Standing bells are used for religious purposes, music making and meditation,[22]as well as for relaxation and personal well-being.[24]They have become popular with music therapists and sound healers, yoga and meditation practitioners.[2]

Religious usage

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Chuông bát(standing bell) andmõ(wooden fish) at Vạn Linh Khánh Temple,Quảng Ninh,Vietnam

In the religious context, standing bells are primarily associated withBuddhistmeditation and chanting, although they are also used inTaoist practices.[30]In Chinese Buddhist temples the chanting of prayers may be punctuated by the striking of aqing,typically a hammered bronze bowl between 10 and 15 cm (3.9 and 5.9 in) in diameter. Theqingis usually paired with amuyu(wood block).[8]In Japanese temples, therinis used along with arei(a small hand bell), and two percussion instruments: anorugoru(a set of small gongs) and akei(a stone or metal plate). Therinis also used in household worship.[7][31]Buddhist ritual makes no use of the 'singing' mode of bell operation.[32]

Use in music

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A 1968 reference mentions the 'celuring-set', said at the date of writing to have been a rare instrument found only in the central Javanese principalities. This consisted of a large ornate frame, on top of which was mounted a set of bronze half-coconut-shaped bowls which were struck with a small iron bar.[33]

Singing bowls

Bowls that were capable of singing began to be imported to theWestfrom around the early 1970s. The musicians Henry Wolff andNancy Henningshave been credited with the singing bowl's introduction for musical purposes in their 1972new-agealbumTibetan Bells(although they gave no details of the bowls used in the recording).[34]This was the first in what would become a series of five related releases:Tibetan Bells II(1978),Yamantakawith Mickey Hart (1983),Tibetan Bells III(1988), andTibetan Bells IV(1991).[35]The albums are based on the concept of taking a spiritual journey, with the music as a guide.[35]

Wolff and Hennings' seminal recording was followed by the development of a unique style of American singing bowl music called 'Tibetan music'.[36]This has remained very popular in the US with many recordings being marketed asWorld musicorNew-age musicsince the introduction of those terms in the 1980s.[37]'Tibetan singing bowls' have as a result become a prominent visual and musical symbol of Tibet,[36]to the extent that the most prevalent modern representation of Tibet within the US is that of bowls played by Americans.[38]

Standing bells/bowls are called for in several contemporary classical music scores, includingPhilipe Leroux'sLes Uns(2001);[5]John Cage/Lou Harrison'sDouble Music(1941);[5]Messiaen'sOiseaux exotiques(1955/6);[5]Taverner'sTotal Eclipse(1999);[5]Tan Dun Opera'sMarco Polo(1995);[5]Joyce Bee Tuan Koh'sLè(1997);[5]andRobert Paterson'sEating Variations(2006). In Japan they are also used inkabukitheatre.[6]

Longplayeris a musical composition for Tibetan bells byJem Finer.Six recorded selections from a short piece of source music play simultaneously, at different pitches and speeds, combined such that no combination is repeated until one thousand years has elapsed.[39][40]

Spirituality and healing

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Healing ritual at a beach inGoa(2019)

In theWest,singing bowls are sometimes used inalternative medicine,their modern popularity for that purpose perhaps deriving from the modal vibration studies[41]known asCymaticscarried out by thephysicianHans Jenny(1904–1972).[17]They are also used insound therapyand for personal spirituality by those who believe that the sound can work on thechakras.[42]Western recordings of so-called 'Tibetan music' frequently associate the bowls with relaxation, as well as attributing them with healing powers and the ability to create some sort of 'altered state' in the mind of the listener.[43]It has been argued that the altered state (whether meditative, spiritual, drug-related or all three) is a key association with 'Tibetan music' in the US and adds to the market value of that representation of Tibet.[43]

Manufacture and composition

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Most standing bells are manufactured substantially ofbell metal(an alloy of copper and tin), sometimes with impurities or additions, although variability can be inferred from the variety of alloy colours.[44]They are generally bowl-shaped, and exist in a wide variety of sizes, from a few centimetres to one metre in diameter.[1]

It is sometimes stated that singing bowls are 'traditionally' made of an alloy consisting of various metals, often seven, each associated with a heavenly body. Those commonly mentioned are gold, silver, mercury, copper, iron, tin and lead (or antimony).[45][17]This is said to be supported by the results of a 1996 analysis of two bowls byConcordia University,which found them to be essentially ofbell metalwith small quantities—consistent with impurities—of some of the other metals that were looked for, namely lead, zinc, iron and silver. No gold or mercury was found within the accuracy of the measuring apparatus.[46]

Singing bowls are also sometimes said to incorporatemeteoritic iron.[17][45]Some modern 'crystal' bowls are made of re-formed crushed synthetic crystal.[17]

The usual manufacturing technique for standing bells was to cast the molten metal followed by hand-hammering into the required shape.[32]Modern bells/bowls may be made in that way, but may also be shaped by machine-lathing.

The finished article is sometimes decorated with an inscription such as a message of goodwill,[1]or with decorative motifs such as rings, stars, dots or leaves. Bowls fromNepalsometimes include an inscription in theDevanagariscript.[47]

References

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  1. ^abcdeBlades, James (1992).Percussion Instruments and their History.London; NY: Kahn & Avril (UK); Pro/AM Music Resources (US). pp.131–132.ISBN978-0-933224-61-2.
  2. ^abcdeKalani (2008).All about Hand Percussion: Everything You Need to Know to Start Playing Now!.np: Alfred publishing Co. pp. 19–20.ISBN978-0-7390-4964-8.
  3. ^abcPerry 2015,p. 40.
  4. ^abcdJansen 1992,p. XI.
  5. ^abcdefghijklInácio, Octávio; Henrique, Luís L; Antunes, José (2006). "The Dynamics of Tibetan Singing Bowls".Acta Acustica United with Acustica.92(4): 637–638.
  6. ^abcdefghijSadie 1984,p. 431.
  7. ^abMalm, William P (1959).Japanese Music & Musical Instruments.Rutland, Vermont: Charles E Tuttle. pp. 68–69.
  8. ^abSadie 1984,p. 173.
  9. ^abc Encyclopædia Britannica.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 28 September 2006. Zhong.Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2017.Retrieved3 December2017.
  10. ^abPrice, Percival (1983).Bells & Man.Oxford University Press. pp.1–2.ISBN978-0193181038.
  11. ^Needham, Joseph (1962).Science and civilisation in China.Vol. 4: Physics and Physical Technology. Cambridge [England]:Cambridge University Press.p. 200.ISBN978-0521058025.OCLC779676.
  12. ^abcd "Nao Bell".Kimbell Art Museum.Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2017.Retrieved3 December2017.
  13. ^ "About this artwork: Bell (nao), Western Zhou dynasty (1046 - 771 B.C.)".The Art Institute of Chicago.Archivedfrom the original on 12 December 2017.Retrieved11 December2017.
  14. ^Rostoker, William; Bronson, Bennet; Dvorak, James (1984). "The Cast-Iron Bells of China".Technology and Culture.25(4): 750–767.doi:10.2307/3104621.JSTOR3104621.S2CID112143315.
  15. ^abBrauen, Martin (2004).Dreamworld Tibet: Western Illusions.Translated by Willson, Martin. Bangkok: Orchid Press. pp. 202–203, 240.ISBN978-974-524-051-3.
  16. ^Perry 2015,p. 104.
  17. ^abcdefgGioia, Ted (2006).Healing Songs.Durham and London: Duke University Press. pp. 149–151.
  18. ^abSadie 1984,pp. 203–204.
  19. ^Perry 2015,p. 160.
  20. ^abcde"Grove Music Online: Singing water bowl".Oxford Music Online.Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments.Retrieved19 November2017.
  21. ^Perry 2015,chapter 8: Mallets and Wands.
  22. ^abcdCollin, Samantha R; Keefer, Chloe L & Moore, Thomas R (16–19 September 2015)."The Etiology of Chatter in the Himalayan Singing Bowl"(PDF).Proceedings of the Third Vienna Talk on Music Acoustics.Bridging the Gaps.138(3): 120–123.Bibcode:2015ASAJ..138.1888K.doi:10.1121/1.4933928.
  23. ^Jansen 1992,p. 20.
  24. ^abAarts, Ronald M;Ouweltjes, Okke; Bulut, Murtaza (1 January 2014). "An Electro-Acoustic Implementation of Tibetan Bowls: Acoustics and Perception".Noise & Vibration Worldwide.45(1): 12–23.Bibcode:2014NVW....45...12A.doi:10.1260/0957-4565.45.1.12.S2CID53583765.
  25. ^Young, Diana; Essel, Georg (22 June 2003)."HyperPuja: a Tibetan Singing Bowl controller".Proceedings of the 2003 Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression:9–14.
  26. ^Inácio, Octávio; Henrique, Luís L; Antunes, José (2006). "The Dynamics of Tibetan Singing Bowls".Acta Acustica United with Acustica.92(4): 652–653.
  27. ^abcTerwagne, Denis; Bush, John W M (1 July 2011). "Tibetan singing bowls".Nonlinearity.24(8). IOP Publishing Ltd & London Mathematical Society: R51–R66.arXiv:1106.6348.Bibcode:2011Nonli..24R..51T.doi:10.1088/0951-7715/24/8/R01.S2CID14697482.
  28. ^ Davids, Adam (24 May 2020)."Abstract: Resonance Frequency Variations of Metallic Tibetan Singing Bowl with Temperature".Retrieved24 May2020.
  29. ^ Palmer, Jason (1 July 2011)."Tibetan singing bowls give up their chaotic secrets".BBC.Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2019.Retrieved24 January2019.
  30. ^Herman, Jonathan R (2013).Taoism for Dummies.Mississauga, Ontario: John Wiley & Sons Canada. p. 240.ISBN978-1-118-42396-7.
  31. ^Price, Percival (1983)."Introduction".Bells & Man.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0193181038.
  32. ^abJansen 1992,pp. 23–25.
  33. ^Kunst, Jaap (1968).Hindu-Javanese Musical Instruments(2nd ed.). The Hague: Matinus Nijhoff. pp. 50–53.
  34. ^Perry 2015,pp. 11–12.
  35. ^abCongdon 2007,pp. 120–121.
  36. ^abCongdon 2007,pp. 197–198.
  37. ^Congdon 2007,p. 125.
  38. ^Congdon 2007,pp. 214, 215.
  39. ^Rodger, Jennifer (3 July 2000)."Jem Finer: From here to (almost) eternity".The Independent.Archivedfrom the original on 24 May 2022.Retrieved7 January2019.
  40. ^ "How does Longplayer work?".Longplayer.Archivedfrom the original on 7 January 2019.Retrieved7 January2019.
  41. ^Jenny, Hans (2001).Cymatics; A Study of Wave Phenomena and Vibration.Newmarket, New Hampshire, USA: Trans Stephenson, Macromedia.
  42. ^Perry 2015,pp. 32, 105.
  43. ^abCongdon 2007,pp. 149, 214–215.
  44. ^Perry 2015,pp. 155–156.
  45. ^abPerry 2015,pp. 150–151.
  46. ^Perry 2015,pp. 152–153, 155.
  47. ^Jansen 1992,pp. 31–33.

Bibliography

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