Wikipedia

Stereotypy

This article is about the human behaviour. For stereotypies in non-human animals, seeStereotypy (non-human).
Not to be confused withStereotypeorStereotypic movement disorder.

Astereotypy(/ˈstɛri.əˌtaɪpi,ˈstɪər-,-i.oʊ-/,[1][2]STERR-ee-ə-ty-pee,STEER-, -⁠ee-oh-) is a repetitive or ritualistic movement, posture, or utterance. Stereotypies may be simple movements such as body rocking, or complex, such as self-caressing, crossing and uncrossing of legs, and marching in place. They are found especially in people withautism spectrum disordersandvisually impaired children,and are also found inintellectual disabilities,tardive dyskinesiaandstereotypic movement disorder;however, they may also be encountered in neurotypical individuals as well.[3]Studies have shown stereotypies to be associated with some types ofschizophrenia.[4]Frontotemporal dementiais also a common neurological cause of repetitive behaviors and stereotypies.[5][6]A number of causes have been hypothesized for stereotypy, and several treatment options are available.[7]

Stereotypy is sometimes calledstimmingin autism, under the hypothesis that it self-stimulates one or more senses.[8]

Among people withfrontotemporal lobar degeneration,more than half (60%) had stereotypies. The time to onset of stereotypies in people with frontotemporal lobar degeneration may be years (average 2.1 years).[5]

Distinction from tics

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Liketics,stereotypies are patterned and periodic, and are aggravated by fatigue, stress, and anxiety. Unlike tics, stereotypies usually begin before the age of three, involve more of the body, are more rhythmic and less random, and are associated more with engrossment in another activity rather than premonitory urges. Examples of early tics are things like blinking and throat clearing, while arm flapping is a more common stereotypy. Stereotypies do not have the ever-changing, wa xing and waning nature of tics, and can remain constant for years. Tics are usually suppressible for brief periods; in contrast, children rarely consciously attempt to control a stereotypy, although they can be distracted from one.[7][9]

Proposed causes

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There are several possible explanations for stereotypy, and different stereotyped behaviors may have different explanations. A popular explanation isstimming,which hypothesizes that a particular stereotyped behavior has a function related to a sensory input. Other explanations include hypotheses that stereotypy discharges tension or expresses frustration, that it communicates a need for attention or reinforcement or sensory stimulation, or that it is learned or neuropathological or some combination of the two, or that it is normal behavior with no particular explanation needed.[8]

Associated terms

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Pundingis a term that was coined originally to describe complex prolonged, purposeless, and stereotyped behavior in chronicamphetamineusers;[10]it was later described inParkinson's disease.[11]Punding is a compulsion to perform repetitive mechanical tasks, such as sorting, collecting, or assembling and disassembling common items.[12]Punding may occur in individuals with Parkinson's disease treated with dopaminergic agents such asL-DOPA.[13][14]

Tweaking is a slang term for compulsive or repetitive behavior; it refers to someone exhibiting pronounced symptoms ofmethamphetamineor other drug use.[15][16]

In animals

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Main article:Stereotypy (non-human)

Stereotypies also occur in non-human animals. It is considered anabnormal behaviorand is sometimes seen incaptive animals,particularly those held in small enclosures with little opportunity to engage in more normal behaviors. These behaviors may be maladaptive, involving self-injury or reduced reproductive success, and in laboratory animals can confound behavioral research.[17]Examples of stereotyped behaviors include pacing, rocking, swimming in circles, excessive sleeping, self-mutilation (including feather picking and excessive grooming), and mouthing cage bars. Stereotypies are seen in many species, includingprimates,birds, andcarnivores.Up to 40% of elephants in zoos display stereotyped behaviors.[18]Stereotypies are well known instabledhorses,usually developing as a result of being confined, particularly with insufficient exercise. They are colloquially calledstable vices.They present amanagementissue, not only leading to facility damage from chewing, kicking, and repetitive motion, but also lead to health consequences for the animal if not addressed.[19]

Stereotyped behaviors are thought to be caused ultimately by artificial environments that do not allow animals to satisfy their normal behavioral needs. Rather than refer to the behavior as abnormal, it has been suggested that it be described as "behavior indicative of an abnormal environment."[20]Stereotypies are correlated with altered behavioral response selection in thebasal ganglia.[17]As stereotypies are frequently viewed as a sign of psychological distress in animals, there is also ananimal welfareissue involved.

Stereotyped behavior can sometimes be reduced or eliminated byenvironmental enrichment,including larger and more stimulating enclosures, training, and introductions of stimuli (such as objects, sounds, or scents) to the animal's environment. The enrichment must be varied to remain effective for any length of time. Housing social animals with other members of their species is also helpful. But once the behavior is established, it is sometimes impossible to eliminate due to alterations in the brain.[20]

References

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  1. ^"stereotypy".LexicoUK English Dictionary.Oxford University Press.n.d.Archived2020-03-22 at theWayback Machine.
  2. ^"stereotypy".Merriam-Webster Dictionary.Merriam-Webster.Retrieved2016-01-21.
  3. ^Jankovic J (2001). "Differential diagnosis and etiology of tics".Adv Neurol.85:15–29.PMID11530424.
  4. ^Pedro BM, Pilowsky LS, Costa DC, et al. (May 1994). "Stereotypy, schizophrenia and dopamine D2 receptor binding in the basal ganglia".Psychol Med.24(2): 423–9.doi:10.1017/s0033291700027392.PMID8084937.S2CID35711407.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  5. ^abMateen FJ, Josephs KA (June 2009). "The clinical spectrum of stereotypies in frontotemporal lobar degeneration".Movement Disorders.24(8): 1237–40.doi:10.1002/mds.22555.PMID19412926.S2CID10009657.
  6. ^Mendez MF, Shapira JS (March 2008)."The spectrum of recurrent thoughts and behaviors in frontotemporal dementia".CNS Spectr.13(3): 202–8.doi:10.1017/s1092852900028443.PMID18323753.S2CID25649243.
  7. ^abSinger HS (2009)."Motor stereotypies"(PDF).Semin Pediatr Neurol.16(2): 77–81.doi:10.1016/j.spen.2009.03.008.PMID19501335.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2014-05-13.Retrieved2013-10-07.
  8. ^abNind M, Kellett M (2002). "Responding to individuals with severe learning difficulties and stereotyped behaviour: challenges for an inclusive era".Eur J Spec Needs Educ.17(3): 265–82.doi:10.1080/08856250210162167.S2CID142836660.
  9. ^Muthugovindan D, Singer H (2009)."Motor stereotypy disorders".Current Opinion in Neurology.22(2): 131–6.doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e328326f6c8.PMID19532036.S2CID23006424.
  10. ^Weisheit RA.Methamphetamine and violence in Illinois(PDF)(Report). Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2010-08-16.Retrieved2009-12-08.
  11. ^Evans AH, Katzenschlager R, Paviour D, et al. (2004). "Punding in Parkinson's disease: its relation to the dopamine dysregulation syndrome".Mov Disord.19(4): 397–405.doi:10.1002/mds.20045.PMID15077237.S2CID23886073.
  12. ^Fernandez HH, Friedman JH (September 1999). "Punding on L-dopa".Mov. Disord.14(5): 836–8.doi:10.1002/1531-8257(199909)14:5<836::AID-MDS1018>3.0.CO;2-0.PMID10495047.S2CID7648968.
  13. ^Jankovic J (2005)."Motor fluctuations and dyskinesias in Parkinson's disease: clinical manifestations".Mov. Disord.20(Suppl 11): S11–6.doi:10.1002/mds.20458.PMID15822109.S2CID23331621.
  14. ^O'Sullivan SS, Evans AH, Lees AJ (2009). "Dopamine dysregulation syndrome: an overview of its epidemiology, mechanisms and management".CNS Drugs.23(2): 157–70.doi:10.2165/00023210-200923020-00005.PMID19173374.S2CID12570841.
  15. ^Buxton JA, Dove NA (June 2008)."The burden and management of crystal meth use".CMAJ.178(12): 1537–9.doi:10.1503/cmaj.071234.PMC2396355.PMID18519899.
  16. ^"Selected Intelligence brief: methamphetamine myths".U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration.XXXVIII(2). February 2005. Archived fromthe originalon 2010-10-17.Reprinted with permission from the NDIC Narcotics Digest Weekly 2005;4(2):1
  17. ^abGarner JP, Mason GJ (2002). "Evidence for a relationship between cage stereotypies and behavioural disinhibition in laboratory rodents".Behav Brain Res.136(1): 83–92.doi:10.1016/S0166-4328(02)00111-0.hdl:10214/4711.PMID12385793.S2CID12731260.
  18. ^Stern A (2005-02-28)."Elephant deaths at zoos reignite animal debate".Reuters.Retrieved2006-05-30.
  19. ^Christie, Julie Christie (2008)."Horse Behavior and Stable Vices"(PDF).University of Minnesota Extension.Regents of the University of Minnesota. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2011-11-02.
  20. ^abDavis E, Down N, Garner J, et al. (2004)."Stereotypical behavior: a LAREF discussion"(PDF).Lab Primate Newsl.34(4): 3–4.Retrieved2009-12-21.
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