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Solar deity

(Redirected fromSun god)
"Sun God" and "Sun Goddess" redirect here. For other uses, seeSun God (disambiguation).

Asolar deityorsun deityis adeitywho represents theSunor an aspect thereof. Such deities are usually associated with power and strength. Solar deities and Sun worship can be found throughout most ofrecorded historyin various forms. The Sun is sometimes referred to by itsLatinnameSolor by itsGreeknameHelios.TheEnglishwordsunderives fromProto-Germanic*sunnǭ.[1]

Examples of solar deities from different cultures (from top):Ra,Helios,TōnatiuhandAmaterasu.

Overview

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A solar representation on an anthropomorphic stele from Rocher des Doms, France,Chasséenculture, 5th-4th millennia BC.

Predynasty Egyptianbeliefs attributeAtumas the Sun god andHorusas a god of the sky and Sun. As theOld Kingdomtheocracygained influence, early beliefs were incorporated into the expanding popularity ofRaand theOsiris-Horusmythology. Atum became Ra-Atum, the rays of the setting Sun. Osiris became the divine heir to Atum's power on Earth and passed his divine authority to his son, Horus.[2]Other early Egyptian myths imply that the Sun is incorporated with the lionessSekhmetat night and is reflected in her eyes; or that the Sun is found within the cowHathorduring the night and reborn each morning as her son (bull).[3]

MesopotamianShamashplayed an important role during theBronze Age,and "my Sun" was eventually used to address royalty. Similarly, South American cultures have a tradition of Sun worship as with theIncanInti.[4]

In Germanic mythology, the solar deity isSol;inVedic,Surya;and in Greek, Helios (occasionally referred to asTitan) and (sometimes) asApollo.InProto-Indo-European mythologythe sun appears to be a multilayered figure manifested as a deity but also perceived as the eye of the sky fatherDyeus.[5]

Solar myth

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See also:Solar myths

Three theories exercised great influence on nineteenth and early twentieth century mythography. The theories were the "solar mythology" ofAlvin Boyd KuhnandMax Müller,thetree worshipofMannhardt,and thetotemismofJ. F. McLennan.[6]

Müller's "solar mythology" was born from the study ofIndo-European languages.Of them, Müller believed ArchaicSanskritwas the closest to the language spoken by theAryans.Using the Sanskrit names for deities as a base, he appliedGrimm's lawto names for similar deities from different Indo-European groups to compare theiretymologicalrelationships to one another. In the comparison, Müller saw the similarities between the names and used these etymological similarities to explain the similarities between their roles as deities. Through the study, Müller concluded that the Sun having many different names led to the creation of multiple solar deities and their mythologies that were passed down from one group to another.[7]

R. F. Littledalecriticized the Sun myth theory, pointing out that by his own principles, Max Müller was himself only a solar myth.Alfred Lyalldelivered another attack on the same theory's assumption that tribal gods and heroes, such as those ofHomer,were only reflections of the Sun myth by proving that the gods of certainRajput clanswere actual warriors who founded the clans a few centuries ago, and were the ancestors of the present chieftains.[6]

Solar vessels and chariots

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Solar boats

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Rain hisbarque
TheNebra Sky Disc,Germany,c. 1800–1600 BC

The Sun was sometimes envisioned as traveling through the sky in a boat. A prominent example is thesolar barqueused by Ra inancient Egyptian mythology.[8]TheNeolithicconcept of a "solar barge" (also "solar bark", "solar barque", "solar boat" and "sun boat", a mythological representation of the Sun riding in aboat) is found in the later myths ofancient Egypt,withRaandHorus.Several Egyptian kings were buried withshipsthat may have been intended to symbolize the solar barque,[9]including theKhufu shipthat was buried at the foot of theGreat Pyramid of Giza.[10]

Heraclesin the golden cup-boat of the sun godHelios,480 BC.

Solar boats and similar vessels also appear inIndo-Europeanmythologies, such as a 'hundred-oared ship' ofSuryain theRig Veda,the golden boat ofSaulėinBaltic mythology,and the golden bowl ofHeliosinGreek mythology.[11][12]Numerous depictions of solar boats are known from theBronze Agein Europe.[13][14][15]Possible solar boat depictions have also been identified inNeolithicpetroglyphs from theMegalithic culturein western Europe,[16]and inMesolithicpetroglyphs from northern Europe.[17]

Examples of solar vessels include:

Solar chariots

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"Solar chariot", "Sun chariot", "Sun Chariot", and "Chariot of the Sun" redirect here. For the racehorse, seeSun Chariot (horse).
TheTrundholm sun chariot,Denmark,c. 1400 BC

The concept of the "solar chariot" is younger than that of the solar barge and is typicallyIndo-European,corresponding with the Indo-European expansion after the invention of the chariot in the 2nd millennium BC. [25]The reconstruction of theProto-Indo-European religionfeatures a "solarchariot"or" sun chariot "with which the Sun traverses the sky.[26]

Gold boat model mounted on chariot wheels, from the tomb of QueenAhhotep,c. 1550 BC.[27]

Chariots were introduced to Egypt in theHyksos period,and seen as solar vehicles associated with the sun god in the subsequentNew Kingdomperiod.[28]A gold solar boat model from the tomb ofQueen Ahhotep,dating from the beginning of the New Kingdom (c. 1550 BC), was mounted on four-spoked chariot wheels.[29]Similarities have been noted with theTrundholm Sun Chariotfrom Denmark, dating fromc. 1500–1400 BC, which was also mounted on four-spoked wheels.[18]

Examples of solar chariots include:

In Chinese culture, the sun chariot is associated with the passage of time. For instance, in the poemSuffering from the Shortness of Days,Li Heof theTang dynastyis hostile towards the legendarydragonsthat drew the sun chariot as a vehicle for the continuous progress of time.[33]The following is an excerpt from the poem:

I will cut off the dragon's feet, chew the dragon's flesh,
so that they can't turn back in the morning or lie down at night.
Left to themselves the old won't die; the young won't cry.[33]

Gender

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GoddessAmaterasu

Solar deities are often thought of as male (andlunar deitiesas being female) but the opposite has also been the case.[34]InGermanic mythology,the Sun is female, and the Moon is male. Other European cultures that have sun goddesses include theLithuanians(Saulė) andLatvians(Saule), theFinns(Päivätär,Beiwe) and the relatedHungarians.Sun goddesses are found around the world in Australia (Bila,Wala); inIndian tribal religions(Bisal-Mariamma,Bomong,'Ka Sgni) and Sri Lanka (Pattini); among theHittites(Wurusemu), Berbers (Tafukt), Egyptians (Hathor,Sekhmet), andCanaanites(Shapash); in the Canary Islands (Chaxiraxi,Magec); in Native America, among theCherokee(Unelanuhi), Natchez (Oüa Chill/Uwahci∙ł),Inuit(Siqiniq), andMiwok(He'-koo-lās); and in Asia among theJapanese(Amaterasu).[34]

Thecobra(of Pharaoh, son of Ra), thelioness(daughter of Ra), and thecow(daughter of Ra), are the dominant symbols of the most ancient Egyptian deities. They were female and carried their relationship to the sun atop their heads, and their cults remained active throughout the history of the culture. Later another sun god (Aten) was established in theeighteenth dynastyon top of the other solar deities, before the "aberration" was stamped out and the old pantheon re-established. When male deities became associated with the sun in that culture, they began as the offspring of a mother (except Ra, King of the Gods who gave birth to himself).[citation needed]

Africa

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Ancient Egypt

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Sun worship was prevalent inancient Egyptian religion.The earliest deities associated with the Sun are all goddesses:Wadjet,Sekhmet,Hathor,Nut,Bast,Bat,andMenhit.First Hathor, and then Isis, give birth to and nurseHorusandRa,respectively. Hathor the horned-cow is one of the 12 daughters of Ra, gifted with joy and is a wet-nurse to Horus.[35]

Ra Enthroned in the Tomb of Roy

From at least the4th Dynastyofancient Egypt,the Sun was worshiped as thedeityRa (pronounced probably as Riya, meaning simply'the sun'), and portrayed as afalcon-headed god surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent. Re supposedly gave warmth to the living body, symbolized as anankh:a "☥" shapedamuletwith a looped upper half. The ankh, it was believed, was surrendered with death, but could be preserved in the corpse with appropriate mummification andfunerary rites.The supremacy of Re in the Egyptianpantheonwas at its highest with theFifth Dynasty,when open-air solar temples became common.

In theMiddle Kingdom of Egypt,Ra lost some of hispreeminencetoOsiris,lord of the west, and judge of the dead. In theNew Empireperiod, the Sun became identified with thedung beetle,whose spherical ball of dung was identified with the Sun. In the form of the sun discAten,the Sun had a brief resurgence during theAmarna Periodwhen it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for thepharaoh,Akhenaton.[36][37]

The Sun's movement across the sky represents a struggle between the pharaoh's soul and an avatar of Osiris. Ra travels across the sky in his solar-boat; at dawn he drives away the god of chaos,Apep.[38][39]The "solarisation" of several local gods (Hnum-Re, Min-Re, Amon-Re) reached its peak in the period of the Fifth Dynasty.[40]

N27
Akhet (horizon)
inhieroglyphs
Akerguarding the horizon

Rituals to the god Amun, who became identified with the sun god Ra, were often carried out on the top of templepylons.A pylon mirrored thehieroglyphfor 'horizon' orakhet,which was a depiction of two hills "between which the sun rose and set",[41]associated with recreation and rebirth. On the first pylon of the temple of Isis atPhilae,the pharaoh is shown slaying his enemies in the presence of Isis, Horus, and Hathor.[42]

In theEighteenth Dynasty,the earliest-known monotheistic head of state,Akhenaten,changed the polytheistic religion of Egypt to a monotheistic one, Atenism. All other deities were replaced by the Aten, includingAmun-Ra,the reigning sun god of Akhenaten's own region. Unlike other deities, Aten did not have multiple forms. His only image was a disk—a symbol of the Sun.[43]

Soon after Akhenaten's death, worship of the traditional deities was reestablished by the religious leaders (Ay the High-Priest of Amen-Ra, mentor of Tutankhaten/Tutankhamen) who had adopted the Aten during the reign of Akhenaten.[44]

Kongo

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TheKongo Cosmogram

InKongo religion,Nzambi Mpunguis the Sky Father and god of the Sun, while that his female counterpart,Nzambici,is Sky Mother and the god of the Moon and Earth.[45]The Sun is very significant toBakongo people,who believe that the position of the sun marks the different seasons of a Kongo person's life as they transition between the four moments of life: conception (musoni), birth (kala), maturity (tukula), and death (luvemba). TheKongo cosmogram,a sacred symbol in Bakongo culture, depicts these moments of the sun.[45][46]

Asia and Europe

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Albanian paganism

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Main article:Dielli (Albanian paganism)
Sun (Dielli) and Fire (Zjarri) symbols inAlbanian traditional tattoopatterns (19th century).[47]The cross (alsoswastikain some tattoos) is the Albanian traditional way to represent the deified Fire – Zjarri, evidently also called with the theonymEnji.[48]
Albanian traditional carving patterns on chairs and graves, drawn byEdith Durhambefore 1928. They are representations of the Sun (Dielli) and the Moon (Hana), sometimes also rayed, symbolizing their light, which is favored within thedualistic struggle between light and darkness.

The Sun (Albanian:Diell-i) holds the primary role inAlbanian pagancustoms, beliefs, rituals, myths, and legends. Albanian major traditional festivities and calendar rites are based on the Sun, worshiped as the god oflight,skyandweather,giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye.[49]In Albanian tradition thefire–zjarri,evidently also called with the theonymEnji– worship and rituals are particularly related to the cult of the Sun. Ritual calendar fires or bonfires are traditionally kindled before sunrise in order to give strength to the Sun and toward off evil.[50]Many rituals are practiced before and duringsunrise,honoring this moment of the day as it is believed to give energy and health to the body.[51]As the wide set of cultic traditions dedicated to him indicates, the Albanian Sun-god appears to be an expression of theProto-Indo-EuropeanSky-god (Zot or Zojzin Albanian).[52]

Albanianswere firstly described in written sources as worshippers of the Sun and the Moon by German humanistSebastian Franckin 1534,[53]but the Sun and the Moon have been preserved as sacred elements of Albanian tradition since antiquity.Illyrianmaterial cultureshows that the Sun was the chief cult object of theIllyrian religion.[54]Finding correspondences with Albanian folk beliefs and practices, the Illyrian Sun-deity is figuratively represented on Iron Age plaques fromLake Shkodraas the god of theskyandlightning,also associated with thefirealtar where he throws lightning bolts.[55]The symbolization of the cult of the Sun, which is often combined with thecrescentMoon,is commonly found in a variety of contexts of Albanian folk art, includingtraditional tattooing,grave art, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings.[56]Solemn oaths (Besa), good omens, and curse formulas, involve and are addressed to, or taken by, the Sun.[57]Prayers to the Sun, ritualbonfires,andanimal sacrificeshave been common practices performed by Albanians during the ritual pilgrimages on mountain tops.[58]

In Albanian pagan beliefs and mythology the Sun is a personified male deity, and the Moon (Hëna) is his female counterpart.[59][60]In pagan beliefs the fire hearth (vatrae zjarrit) is the symbol offireas the offspring of the Sun.[61]In some folk tales, myths and legends the Sun and the Moon are regarded as husband and wife, also appearing as the parents ofE Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit( "the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun" ); in others the Sun and the Moon are regarded as brother and sister, but in this case they are never considered consorts.[59][60]Nëna e Diellit( "the Mother of the Sun" or "the Sun's Mother" ) also appears as a personified deity in Albanian folk beliefs and tales.[62]

Albanian beliefs, myths and legends are organized around thedualistic strugglebetweengood and evil,lightanddarkness,which cyclically produces thecosmicrenewal.[63]The most famous representation of it is the constant battle betweendrangueandkulshedra,which is seen as a mythological extension of the cult of the Sun and the Moon, widely observed in Albanian traditional art.[64]In Albanian traditions, kulshedra is also fought by the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun, who uses her light power against pride and evil,[65]or by other heroic characters marked in their bodies by the symbols of celestial objects,[66]such asZjermi(lit. "the Fire" ), who notably is born with the Sun on his forehead.[67]

Armenian mythology

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InArmenian mythologyand in the vicinity ofCarahunge,the ancient site of interest in the field ofarchaeoastronomy,people worshiped a powerful deity or intelligence called Ara, embodied as the sun (Ar[68]or Arev). The ancient Armenians called themselves "children of the sun".[69](Russian and Armenian archaeoastronomers have suggested that at Carahunge seventeen of the stones still standing were associated with observations of sunrise or sunset at the solstices and equinoxes.[70])

Baltic mythology

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Those who practiceDievturība,beliefs of traditionalLatvian culture,worship the SungoddessSaule,known in traditionalLithuanianbeliefs as Saulė. Saule is among the most importantdeitiesinBaltic mythologyand traditions.[71]

Celtic mythology

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The sun inInsular Celtic cultureis assumed to have been feminine,[72][73]and several goddesses have been proposed as possibly solar in character.[74]InContinental Celtic culture,the sun gods, likeBelenus,Grannus,andLugus,were masculine.[75][76]

InIrish,the name of the Sun,Grian,is feminine. The figure known asÁineis generally assumed to have been either synonymous with her, or her sister, assuming the role of Summer Sun while Grian was the Winter Sun.[77]Similarly,Étaínhas at times been considered to be anothertheonymassociated with the Sun; if this is the case, then the pan-CelticEponamight also have been originally solar in nature.[77]

The BritishSulishas a name cognate with that of other Indo-European solar deities such as the GreekHeliosand IndicSurya,[78][79]and bears some solar traits like the association with the eye as well as epithets associated with light. The theonymSulevia,which is more widespread and probably unrelated to Sulis,[80]is sometimes taken to have suggested a pan-Celtic role as a solar goddess.[72]

TheWelshOlwenhas at times been considered a vestige of the local sun goddess, in part due to the possible etymological association[81]with the wheel and the colors gold, white and red.[72]

Brighidhas at times been argued as having had a solar nature, fitting her role as a goddess of fire and light.[72]

Chinese mythology

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Sun and Immortal Birds Gold Ornamentbyancient Shupeople. The center is a sun pattern with twelve points around which fourbirdsfly in the same counterclockwise direction,Shang dynasty
Statue of the sun goddessXihecharioteering the sun, being pulled by adragon,inHangzhou

InChinese mythology(cosmology), there were originally ten suns in the sky, who were all brothers. They were supposed to emerge one at a time as commanded by the Jade Emperor. They were all very young and loved to fool around. Once they decided to all go into the sky to play, all at once. This made the world too hot for anything to grow. A hero namedHou Yi,honored to this day, shot down nine of them with a bow and arrow to save the people of the Earth.[82]

In another myth, asolar eclipsewas said to be caused by a magical dog or dragon biting off a piece of the Sun. The referenced event is said to have occurred around 2136 BC; two royal astronomers, Ho and Hi, were executed for failing to predict the eclipse. There was a tradition in China to make lots of loud celebratory sounds during a solar eclipse to scare the sacred beast away.[83]

The Deity of the Sun in Chinese mythology is Ri Gong Tai Yang Xing Jun (Tai Yang Gong/Grandfather Sun) or Star Lord of the Solar Palace, Lord of the Sun. In some mythologies, Tai Yang Xing Jun is believed to be Hou Yi.[citation needed]

Tai Yang Xing Jun is usually depicted with the Star Lord of the Lunar Palace, Lord of the Moon, Yue Gong Tai Yin Xing Jun (Tai Yin Niang Niang/Lady Tai Yin). Worship of themoon goddessChang'eand her festivals are very popular among followers ofChinese folk religionandTaoism.The goddess and her holy days are ingrained inChinese popular culture.[84]

Germanic mythology

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InGermanic mythology,the sun is personified bySol.The corresponding Old English name is Siȝel[ˈsijel],continuing Proto-Germanic *Sôwilô or *Saewelô. TheOld High GermanSun goddess isSunna.In the Norse traditions, Sól rode through the sky on her chariot every day, pulled by two horses named Arvak and Alsvid. Sól also was called Sunna and Frau Sunne.[citation needed]

First century historianTacitus,in his bookGermania,mentioned that "beyond theSuiones[tribe] "a sea was located where the sun maintained its brilliance from its rising to its sunset, and that" [the] popular belief "was that" the sound of its emergence was audible "and" the form of its horses visible ".[85][86][87]

Greco-Roman world

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Main articles:HeliosandSol (Roman mythology)

Hellenistic mythology

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InGreek mythology,Helios,aTitan,was the personification of theSun;however, with the notable exception of the island ofRhodesand nearby parts of southwesternAnatolia,[a]he was a relatively minor deity. TheAncient Greeksalso associated the Sun withApollo,the god of enlightenment. Apollo (along with Helios) was sometimes depicted as driving a fiery chariot.[88]

The Greek astronomerThales of Miletusdescribed the scientific properties of the Sun and Moon, making their godship unnecessary.[89]Anaxagoraswas arrested in 434 BC and banished from Athens for denying the existence of a solar or lunar deity.[90]The titular characterofSophocles'Electrarefers to the Sun as "All-seeing".HermeticauthorHermes Trismegistuscalls the Sun "God Visible".[91]

TheMinotaurhas been interpreted as a solar deity (asMolochorChronos),[92]including byArthur Bernard Cook,who considers bothMinosand Minotaur as aspects of the sun god of theCretans,who depicted the sun as a bull.[citation needed]

Roman mythology

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During theRoman Empire,afestivalof the birth of theUnconquered Sun(orDies Natalis Solis Invicti) was celebrated on thewinter solstice—the "rebirth" of the Sun—which occurred on 25 December of theJulian calendar.Inlate antiquity,the theological centrality of the Sun in some Imperial religious systems suggests a form of a "solarmonotheism".The religious commemorations on 25 December were replaced under Christian domination of the Empire with the birthday of Christ.[93]

Much more ancient was the cult ofSol Indiges,supposed to have been introduced among Roman deities by theSabinesat the times ofTitus Tatius.

Modern influence

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Copernicusdescribing the Sun mythologically, drawing from Greco-Roman examples:

In the middle of all sits the Sun on his throne. In this loveliest of temples, could we place the luminary in any more appropriate place so that he may light the whole simultaneously. Rightly is he called the Lamp, the Mind, the Ruler of the Universe: Hermes Trismegistus entitles him the God Visible. Sophocles' Electra names him the All-seeing. Thus does the Sun sit as upon a royal dais ruling his children the planets which circle about him.[91]

Pre-Islamic Arabia

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The concept of the sun inPre-Islamic Arabia,was abolished only underMuhammad.[94]The Arabian solar deity appears to have been a goddess,Shams/Shamsun,most likely related to theCanaaniteShapashand broader middle-easternShamash.She was the patron goddess ofHimyar,and possibly exalted by theSabaeans.[95][unreliable source?][96][97]

Yazidism

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InYazidism,the angelŞêşimsis venerated as theXudanor Lord of sun and light. He is also linked withfire,which is his terrestrial counterpart, andoaths,which are sworn by the doorway of his shrine. Annually, during theFeast of the Assembly,a ceremonial bull sacrifice is performed in front of his shrine atLalish.[98][99][100][101]Yazidi religious texts refer to the light of the sun as a manifestation of God's light, therefore, Yazidis direct their faces in the sun's direction while praying. There are daily Yazidi prayers that are recited during the daytime, divided into three main phases of the day, the morning prayers include "Dua Şifaqê" (the dawn prayer), "Dua Sibê" (the morning prayer), "Duaya Rojhelatî" (the sunrise prayer). For the noon there is "Dua Nîvro" (the noon prayer) and at evening there is the "Duaya Hêvarî" (the evening prayer).[101]

Americas

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Aztec mythology

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Huitzilopochtli,the Aztec god of the sun and war.

InAztec mythology,Tonatiuh(Nahuatl languages:Ollin Tonatiuh,"Movement of the Sun" ) was the sun god. TheAztecpeople considered him the leader ofTollan(heaven). He was also known as the fifth sun, because the Aztecs believed that he was the sun that took over when the fourth sun was expelled from the sky. According to theircosmology,each sun was a god with its own cosmic era. According to the Aztecs, they were still in Tonatiuh's era. According to the Azteccreation myth,the god demandedhuman sacrificeas tribute and without it would refuse to move through the sky. The Aztecs were fascinated by the Sun and carefully observed it, and had asolar calendarsimilar to that of theMaya.Many of today's remaining Aztec monuments have structures aligned with the Sun.[102]

In theAztec calendar,Tonatiuh is the lord of the thirteen days from 1 Death to 13 Flint. The preceding thirteen days are ruled over byChalchiuhtlicue,and the following thirteen byTlaloc.[citation needed]

Incan mythology

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TheEmperor Pachacútecworshiping Inti in the templeCoricancha,drawing byMartín de Murúaof 1613.

Intiis the ancientIncansun god. He is revered as the national patron of the Inca state. Although most consider Inti the sun god, he is more appropriately viewed as a cluster of solar aspects, since the Inca divided his identity according to the stages of the sun.[103]Inti is represented as a golden disk with rays and a human face.

The Inca dedicated many ceremonies to the Sun in order to ensure the Sapa Inca's welfare.[104]The Incas would set aside large quantities of natural and human resources throughout the empire for Inti. Each conquered province was supposed to dedicate a third of their lands and herds to Inti as mandated by the Inca. Each major province would also have a Sun Temple in which male and female priests would serve.[104]

World religions

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Christianity

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Horusleft and Jesus right, both presented as "solar messiahs" inZeitgeist: the Movie.

The comparison of Christ with the astronomicalSunis common in ancient Christian writings.[105]By "the sun of righteousness" inMalachi 4[106]"thefathers,fromJustindownward, and nearly all the earlier commentators understandChrist,who is supposed to be described as the rising sun ".[107]TheNew Testamentitself contains a hymn fragment inEphesians 5:"Awake, O sleeper, and arise from the dead, and Christ will shine on you."[108]Clement of Alexandriawrote of "the Sun of the Resurrection, he who was born before the dawn, whose beams give light".[109]

The pseudodocumentaryZeitgeist: The Movie(2007) asserts thatJudas Iscariotis anallegoryofScorpio(with Jesus being apersonificationof thesunpassing through the twelve constellations).[110]When the sun transits Scorpio,Judasschemes with theSanhedrintoarrest Jesusby kissing him.[111]In the metaphorical sense, as the sun exitedLibrain late autumn it enters Scorpio to be "kissed" by its stinger, which signifies the sun getting weaker as winter approaches.[112][113][114]The three days after December 21 are the darkest as the sun is low in the sky, underSagittarius's arrow, and therefore it is allegorized that, at this time, Jesus (the sun) dies for three days.[115]After December 25, the Sun moves 1 degree north, which indicate longer days orJesus's resurrection.[116]

American theosophistAlvin Boyd Kuhnhad postulated that Jesus or theAbrahamic Godis a sun god, with other figures in theOld Testamentsuch asSamson(whose name means "sun" in Hebrew),King David,Solomon,Saul(meaning soul, or sol, the sun),Abraham,Moses,GideonandJephthaalso being solar allegories. To corroborate his argument about God being a solar deity, Kuhn cites thePsalm'sverses such as, "Our God is a living fire," "Our God is a consuming fire", "The Lord God is a sun", in addition to Jesus's "Christ will shine upon thee!", "I am come to send fire on earth" and "I am the light of the world".[117]

Christianization ofNatalis Invicti

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Main article:Christmas § History of religions hypothesis
Mosaic of Christ asSolorApollo-Heliosin Mausoleum M in thepre-4th-century necropolisbeneath[118]St. Peter's in the Vatican,which some interpret as representing Christ.

According to one hypothesis about Christmas, the date was set to 25 December because it was the date of the festival ofSol Invictus.The idea became popular especially in the 18th[119][120]and 19th centuries.[121][122]

ThePhilocalian calendarof AD 354 marks a festival ofNatalis Inviction 25 December. There is limited evidence that the festival was celebrated at around the time before the mid-4th century.[123][124]

The earliest-known example of the idea that Christians chose to celebrate the birth ofJesuson 25 December because it was the date of an already existing festival of the Sol Invictus was expressed in an annotation to a manuscript of a work by 12th-century Syrian bishopJacob Bar-Salibi.The scribe who added it wrote: "It was a custom of the Pagans to celebrate on the same 25 December the birthday of the Sun, at which they kindled lights in token of festivity. In these solemnities and revelries the Christians also took part. Accordingly when the doctors of the Church perceived that the Christians had a leaning to this festival, they took counsel and resolved that the true Nativity should be solemnized on that day."[125][126][127]

Christian iconography

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The charioteer in themosaicof Mausoleum M has been interpreted by some as Christ by those who argue that Christians adopted the image of the Sun (Heliosor Sol Invictus) to represent Christ. In this portrayal, he is a beardless figure with a flowing cloak in a chariot drawn by four white horses, as in the mosaic in Mausoleum M discovered underSaint Peter's Basilicaand in an early-4th-century catacomb fresco.[128]Thenimbusof the figure under Saint Peter's Basilica is rayed, as in traditional pre-Christian representations.[128]Clement of Alexandriahad spoken of Christ driving his chariot across the sky.[129]This interpretation is doubted by others: "Only thecross-shapednimbus makes the Christian significance apparent ".[130]and the figure is seen by some simply as a representation of the sun with no explicit religious reference whatever,paganor Christian.[131]

Hinduism

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The Hindu solar deity Surya being driven across the sky in his chariot

Worship of Surya

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Further information:Saura (Hinduism)

The sun is prayed to bySouth Indiansduring the harvest festival.[132]

InTamil Nadu,theTamil peopleworship the sun god during theTamilmonth ofThai,after a year ofcropfarming. The month is known as the harvesting month and people pay respects to the sun on the first day of the Thai month known asThai pongal,or Pongal, which is a four-day celebration.[133]It is one of the few indigenous worships by theTamil people.[134]

In other parts of India, the festival is celebrated asMakar Sankrantiand is mostly worshiped byHindu diaspora.[135]

New religious movements

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Solar deities are revered innew religious movements.

Theosophy

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The primary local deity intheosophyis the Solar Logos, "the consciousness of the sun".[136]

Thelema

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Thelemaadapts its gods and goddesses from Ancient Egyptian religion, particularly those named in theStele of Revealing,among whom is the Sun godRa-Hoor-Khuit,a form ofHorus.Ra-Hoor-Khuit is one of the principal deities described inAleister Crowley'sLiber AL vel Legis.[137]

In Thelema, Ra-Hoor-Khuit represents the active, warlike aspect of the solar deity Horus, embodying the principles of strength and power. The Stele of Revealing, a funerary tablet from the 26th dynasty of Egypt, plays a central role in Crowley's cosmology, symbolizing the NewAeon of Horus.This Aeon is characterized by the themes ofindividualism,self-realization,and the discovery of one'sTrue Will.[138]

One of the key practices in Thelema is the daily performance ofLiber Resh vel Helios,a set of solar adorations composed by Crowley. These rituals are performed at dawn, noon, sunset, and midnight, each directed towards different aspects of the Sun—Ra,Ahathoor,Tum,andKhephra,respectively. The practice aims to align the practitioner with the natural cycles of the Sun and to integrate the physical and spiritual dimensions of existence in accordance with Thelemic principles.[139]

The adoration of Ra-Hoor-Khuit and the performance ofLiber Reshare intended to serve as daily reminders of the central Thelemic tenet, "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law."[140]By engaging in these rituals,Thelemitesseek to harmonize their personal will with the divine will, achieving greater spiritual enlightenment and alignment with the cosmic order.[138]

See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ^seeColossus of Rhodes.

References

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  1. ^In most romance languages the word for "sun" is masculine (e.g.le soleilin French,el solin Spanish,Il Solein Italian). In most Germanic languages it is feminine (e.g.Die Sonnein German). InProto-Indo-European,its gender was inanimate.
  2. ^Ancient Civilizations- Egypt- Land and lives of Pharaohs revealed.Global Book Publishing. 30 October 2005. p. 79.ISBN1740480562.
  3. ^"Ancient Egyptian Gods & Goddesses Facts For Kids".History for kids.18 June 2019.Retrieved20 January2021.
  4. ^Minster, Christopher (30 May 2019)."All About the Inca Sun God".ThoughtCo.
  5. ^Sick, David (2004). "Mit(h)ra(s) and the Myths of the Sun".Numen.51(4): 432–467.doi:10.1163/1568527042500140.
  6. ^abWilliam Ridgeway (1915)."Solar Myths, Tree Spirits, and Totems, The Dramas and Dramatic Dances of Non-European Races".Cambridge University Press.pp. 11–19.Retrieved19 March2015.
  7. ^Carrol, Michael P. (1985)."Some third thoughts on Max Müller and solar mythology".European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie / Europäisches Archiv für Soziologie.26(2): 263–281.JSTOR23997047.Retrieved2 October2021.
  8. ^Baines, John R. (2004). "Visual Representation". In Johnston, Sarah Iles (ed.).Religions of the ancient world: a guide.Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 600.ISBN9780674015173.Retrieved3 October2021.
  9. ^"Egypt solar boats".solarnavigator.net.
  10. ^Siliotti, Alberto; Hawass, Zahi (1997).Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt.pp. 54–55.
  11. ^West, M.L. (2007).Indo-European Poetry and Myth.Oxford University Press. pp. 208–209.ISBN9780199280759.
  12. ^Massetti, Laura (2019)."Antimachus's Enigma: On Erytheia, the Latvian Sun-goddess and a Red Fish".Journal of Indo-European Studies.47:223–240.synchronic analysis of Greek passages dealing with the journey of Helios reveals that the poetic image of the golden 'cup, vessel' hints at the solar boat.
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Works cited

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Further reading

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  • Azize, Joseph (2005).The Phoenician Solar Theology: an investigation into the Phoenician opinion of the sun found in Julian's Hymn to King Helios(1st ed.). Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press.ISBN1-59333-210-6.
  • Frazer, James G. (1926)."Chapter XII: The Worship of the Sun Among the Aryan Peoples of Antiquity".The Worship of Nature.London: Macmillan & Co.
  • Hawkes, Jacquetta (1962).Man and the Sun.Gaithersburg, MD: SolPub Co.
  • Kaul, Flemming (1998).Ships on Bronzes: a study in Bronze Age religion and iconography.Copenhagen: National Museum of Denmark, Dept. of Danish Collections.ISBN87-89384-66-0.
  • McCrickard, Janet E. (1990).Eclipse of the Sun: an investigation into Sun and Moon myths.Glastonbury, Somerset: Gothic Image.ISBN0-906362-13-X.
  • Monaghan, Patricia (1994).O Mother Sun!: A New View of the Cosmic Feminine.Freedom, CA: Crossing Press.ISBN0-89594-722-6.
  • Olcott, William Tyler (2003) [1914].Sun Lore of All Ages: A Collection of Myths and Legends Concerning the Sun and Its Worship.Adamant Media Corporation.ISBN0-543-96027-7.
  • Singh, Ranjan Kumar (2010).Surya: the God and His Abode(1st ed.). Patna, Bihar, India: Parijat.ISBN978-81-903561-7-6.
  • Zhu, Tianshu (2006)."The Sun God and the Wind Deity at Kizil".In Compareti, Matteo; Raffetta, Paola; Scarcia, Gianroberto (eds.).Ēran ud Anērān: Studies presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday.Venice: Cafoscarina.ISBN88-7543-105-1.
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